**1. Introduction**

266 Woven Fabrics

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The textile industry is one of the most important and fastest developing industries in the world. An significant problem encountered by manufacturers is that of ensuring that the fabrics produced are of suitable quality and durability. Particular attention needs to be paid to the destructive action of microorganisms present in the environment.

In favourable conditions these can rapidly destroy material, rendering it entirely unusable and causing substantial economic losses.

In 1960, in the UK, annual losses due to biological degradation of cotton fibres were put at 110 000 tonnes of cotton, which at time was 1% of output (Howard & Mc Cord). According to estimates by Hueck-van der Plas (1971), the process of biodeterioration affected 2% of annual production of natural and artificial fibres (Zyska, 1977).

At the start of the 21st century annual world consumption of unwoven fabrics (for practical and technical uses) stood at 46 million tonnes, of which synthetics and cotton accounted for 49% and 42% respectively (with an upward trend in subsequent years), wool for 5%, and other fabrics 4% (linen, sisal, silk and others, with a downward trend) (Central Statistical Office Yearbooks – *Roczniki GUS*, Poland 2008). If 2% of the global value of fibre production is assumed, the problem of microbiological decomposition may affect 920 000 tonnes of fabric annually.

Not all losses can have a price attached to them: museum fabrics are particularly rapidly damaged by microorganisms, and the artistic and cultural value of these items cannot be recreated.

Microorganisms which attack textile products not only have a destructive effect, but also pose a significant danger to human health. Particularly dangerous are the pathogenic microorganisms present on fabrics which come into direct contact with the human body, such as on dressings and surgical masks; this may lead to skin infection, and even heart disorders and pneumonia.

It is a significant challenge for manufacturers to produce fabrics with antimicrobial properties – namely bioactive fabrics, containing biocides to provide protection against pathogenic microorganisms.

Microbial Degradation of Woven Fabrics and Protection Against Biodegradation 269

cellulose substances, including 25% lignin) (Basu & Ghose, 1962; Szostak-Kot, 2005). The rate also depends on many other factors: apart from environmental factors and the type of microorganisms, there is also an effect from thickness, type of weave, degree of crystallinity (amorphous cellulose is more easily degraded) and degree of orientation (namely the angle made by the fibrils with the long axis of the fibre – highly oriented fibres are less susceptible to biodeterioration) (Pedersen et al., 1992; Salerno-Kochan & Szostak-Kotowa, 2001; Szostak-

Artificial cellulose fibres include regenerated fibres (rayon) and cellulose acetate. Rayon usually has a lower degree of crystallinity, polymerization and ordering than cotton. It is also highly hygroscopic (its capacity to absorb water in normal conditions is 9.8–13%), which is a reason for its common use in making woven and knitted fabrics and as an additive to natural and synthetic fibre products. Its rate of microbiological decomposition is comparable to that of cotton. Cellulose acetate is produced by the acetylation of cellulose with acetic anhydride, as a result of which the product has a maximal degree of acetylation, and the fibre becomes more resistant to microbiological decomposition than cellulose (Buchanan et al., 1993, Buschle-Diller et al., 1994; Salerno-Kochan & Szostak-Kotowa, 2001;

**Wool** is characterized by high strength, thermal insulation properties and hygroscopicity (it can absorb 50% moisture without feeling wet). Chemically, wool is built from three types of keratins: low-sulphur, high-sulphur and high-tyrosine. Low-sulphur keratins primarily are linked with each other and to proteins of the matrix by numerous bonds – sulphide bridges, covalent bonds and hydrogen bonds, and in the presence of water also hydrophobic bonds. Due to the presence of these bonds and the network structure of wool, it is resistant to stretching and tearing and to environmental factors, including enzymatic degradation.

The biodeterioration of woollen fabrics involves microorganisms with mainly proteolytic and keratinolytic enzymes. So far 299 species of fungus with keratinolytic properties have been described, of which 107 are pathogenic to humans (Błyskal, 2009). Decomposition of a woollen fabric proceeds by way of deamination, sulphitolysis and proteolysis (Kunert, 1992, 2000). The first stage involves the splitting of disulphide bridges, which are the source of keratin's resistant strength. This is followed by the enzymatic decomposition of proteins by proteolytic enzymes (proteases) into oligopeptides, and these are then broken down by peptidases into amino acids, which are used in metabolic processes of oxidative deamination with the release of ammonia (Gochel et al., 1992; Kunert, 1989; Szostak-Kot, 2005). Characteristic symptoms of the microbiological decomposition of wool include the variously coloured stains on the fabric surface, a distinctive smell (in anaerobic conditions

During the technological process the woollen raw material is subjected to mechanical, chemical and photochemical action, which increases the susceptibility of the fibres to biodegradation. Many problems have been reported and described resulting from the development of microorganisms on woollen textiles, for example when carpets are in storage (Gochel et al., 1992; Hoare, 1968; Simpson, 1987). In favourable conditions of temperature (37°C) and humidity of the material (25–75%), the number of fungi may

increase to as much as 109 CFU/1g of wool over 20 days (Zyska, 2001).

Kot, 2005; Tyndal, 1992).

Szostak-Kot, 2005).

H2S is produced), and loss of stretching strength.

A separate issue is the protection of finished textile materials against biodegradation through proper storage, and possibly the use of an appropriate process of disinfection which can effectively eliminate microorganisms without affecting the material's strength properties.
