**2. Collaboration**

The term collaboration is used often when one refers to quite different aspects of working together, like cooperation or even communication [33]. Focusing on national programs that

©2012 Podean and Benta, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. ©2012 Podean and Benta, licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative CommonsAttribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

#### 2 Will-be-set-by-IN-TECH 116 Risk Management – Current Issues and Challenges Risk Management in Collaborative Systems <sup>3</sup>

involve agencies, David Osher [30] identifies collaboration as being the most sophisticated level of relationship because it requires efforts to unite people and organizations in order to achieve common goals that could not be achieved by any single individual or organization acting alone.

Cooperation, coordination and collaboration are often used interchangeably, but they should be describing different stages in the transformation of the relationship between groups and

Risk Management in Collaborative Systems 117

The backbone of collaboration is not the process of relationship but the strict following of a specific result [18]. We consider that an extra element must be added to the 3C model of collaboration, namely "Creativity". In order to support creativity in collaborative systems we consider that *a)* integrated light-weight project and risk management, and *b)* flexible content

In order to discuss about collaboration, a key prerequisite must be satisfied, namely having a joint/ compatible goal or problem to solve (it is not enough that parties have their own individual goals) [15]. A vision specifies the scope and extent of these benefits but does not provide the means to attain them. Project management is a tool used to provide a team the capabilities required to produce the benefits defined by vision [24]. Vision delineates a *strategy* and project management sets the *tactics* by detailing the steps required to put it in practice.

Hilson [24] identified that a "zero risk" zone not also that it does not exist, but it is not even desirable because the available benefits are determined by the degree of risk it is confronted. Risk is defined as [35] "any uncertain event or set of circumstances that, should it occur, would have an effect on one or more objectives". Thus an uncertainty that does not effect the objectives is not a risk, but it can even be an opportunity. Risk management it is an important component in defining the relationship between risks, uncertainty and objectives

Project management is about making complexity manageable and it is important to collaboration because it provides teams an organized way of keeping in touch with their goals. As defined by The Project Management Institute (PMI) [35], project management is "the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet the

Teams can successfully implement their vision if they can bind it with the tactics.

thus contributing to the chances of success in the execution of a project.

organizations [30].

management tools have to be implemented [33].

**Figure 1.** The 4C Collaboration model [33].

project requirements".

On the other hand, in [15] collaboration is regarded from a more project management oriented point of view focusing on the elements required to achieve this level of relationship. Collaboration is identified as a process in which entities share information, resources and responsibilities to jointly plan, implement, and evaluate a program of activities to achieve a common goal. Following this author, collaboration is a process of shared creation that involves mutual engagement of participants to solve a problem together and implies sharing risks, resources, responsibilities, and rewards. Sharing risks, resources, responsibilities, and rewards can also give the group to an outside observer the image of a joint identity.

This approach implies that collaboration is more than what will later see that is identified as cooperation by adding joint identity and novelty to the goal. Michael Schrange in his Shared Minds [37] focuses especially on this novelty of the group's goal. Schrange considers collaboration as a process of shared creation: two or more individuals with complementary skills interacting to create a shared understanding that none had previously possessed or could have come to on their own.

Collaboration is often confused with cooperation. Because for many people the two terms are indistinguishable [15], in the following we will take a closer look at what collaboration is and how can it be attained. One general accepted model that describes what is collaboration and what are its main components is the 3C Collaboration Model [15]. This model states that collaboration is attainable by implementing three main processes: communication (networking), coordination and cooperation.

Communication [22] is the starting process in each collaborative process. It is a general belief that efficient or so to say "ideal" communication will provide better common understanding or agreement but when people communicate accurately they realize more precisely the differences that exist on their perspectives of the concepts in use [18]. Different types of agreement tend to mask the differences in perception that accurate communication would uncover.

The second process required by the 3C model is coordination. Coordination refers to [22] the management of people, their activities and resources. Coordination allows team members to manage conflicts and activities in order to increase the efficiency of communication and cooperation efforts. Networking or communication is used as a foundation [45] but involves also altering activities for mutual benefit and for a common goal. It also increases resource usage efficiency and the ability to meet the targets.

Cooperation refers to the interaction among group members in order to produce, manipulate, and organize information, or build and refine cooperation objects like documents, spreadsheets etc. [22] This process requires a shared workspace that should provide the required tools in order to manage these artifacts, tools like version and access control and authorization. The shared workspace is very important because it allows group members to count on group memory and it provides also some basic awareness mechanisms.

Cooperation, coordination and collaboration are often used interchangeably, but they should be describing different stages in the transformation of the relationship between groups and organizations [30].

The backbone of collaboration is not the process of relationship but the strict following of a specific result [18]. We consider that an extra element must be added to the 3C model of collaboration, namely "Creativity". In order to support creativity in collaborative systems we consider that *a)* integrated light-weight project and risk management, and *b)* flexible content management tools have to be implemented [33].

**Figure 1.** The 4C Collaboration model [33].

2 Will-be-set-by-IN-TECH

involve agencies, David Osher [30] identifies collaboration as being the most sophisticated level of relationship because it requires efforts to unite people and organizations in order to achieve common goals that could not be achieved by any single individual or organization

On the other hand, in [15] collaboration is regarded from a more project management oriented point of view focusing on the elements required to achieve this level of relationship. Collaboration is identified as a process in which entities share information, resources and responsibilities to jointly plan, implement, and evaluate a program of activities to achieve a common goal. Following this author, collaboration is a process of shared creation that involves mutual engagement of participants to solve a problem together and implies sharing risks, resources, responsibilities, and rewards. Sharing risks, resources, responsibilities, and

This approach implies that collaboration is more than what will later see that is identified as cooperation by adding joint identity and novelty to the goal. Michael Schrange in his Shared Minds [37] focuses especially on this novelty of the group's goal. Schrange considers collaboration as a process of shared creation: two or more individuals with complementary skills interacting to create a shared understanding that none had previously possessed or

Collaboration is often confused with cooperation. Because for many people the two terms are indistinguishable [15], in the following we will take a closer look at what collaboration is and how can it be attained. One general accepted model that describes what is collaboration and what are its main components is the 3C Collaboration Model [15]. This model states that collaboration is attainable by implementing three main processes: communication

Communication [22] is the starting process in each collaborative process. It is a general belief that efficient or so to say "ideal" communication will provide better common understanding or agreement but when people communicate accurately they realize more precisely the differences that exist on their perspectives of the concepts in use [18]. Different types of agreement tend to mask the differences in perception that accurate communication would

The second process required by the 3C model is coordination. Coordination refers to [22] the management of people, their activities and resources. Coordination allows team members to manage conflicts and activities in order to increase the efficiency of communication and cooperation efforts. Networking or communication is used as a foundation [45] but involves also altering activities for mutual benefit and for a common goal. It also increases resource

Cooperation refers to the interaction among group members in order to produce, manipulate, and organize information, or build and refine cooperation objects like documents, spreadsheets etc. [22] This process requires a shared workspace that should provide the required tools in order to manage these artifacts, tools like version and access control and authorization. The shared workspace is very important because it allows group members to

count on group memory and it provides also some basic awareness mechanisms.

rewards can also give the group to an outside observer the image of a joint identity.

acting alone.

uncover.

could have come to on their own.

(networking), coordination and cooperation.

usage efficiency and the ability to meet the targets.

In order to discuss about collaboration, a key prerequisite must be satisfied, namely having a joint/ compatible goal or problem to solve (it is not enough that parties have their own individual goals) [15]. A vision specifies the scope and extent of these benefits but does not provide the means to attain them. Project management is a tool used to provide a team the capabilities required to produce the benefits defined by vision [24]. Vision delineates a *strategy* and project management sets the *tactics* by detailing the steps required to put it in practice. Teams can successfully implement their vision if they can bind it with the tactics.

Hilson [24] identified that a "zero risk" zone not also that it does not exist, but it is not even desirable because the available benefits are determined by the degree of risk it is confronted. Risk is defined as [35] "any uncertain event or set of circumstances that, should it occur, would have an effect on one or more objectives". Thus an uncertainty that does not effect the objectives is not a risk, but it can even be an opportunity. Risk management it is an important component in defining the relationship between risks, uncertainty and objectives thus contributing to the chances of success in the execution of a project.

Project management is about making complexity manageable and it is important to collaboration because it provides teams an organized way of keeping in touch with their goals. As defined by The Project Management Institute (PMI) [35], project management is "the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet the project requirements".

#### 4 Will-be-set-by-IN-TECH 118 Risk Management – Current Issues and Challenges Risk Management in Collaborative Systems <sup>5</sup>

Project risk management provides approaches by which uncertainty can be understood, assessed, and managed within projects. One of the key prerequisites of success in implementing risk management is to have a proactive approach. This process must supplement project management and must follow a holistic approach. Risk management will not provide great benefits to the teams using it if their practices fall under two limitations: focus on tactics and focus on threats [24].

in terms of shared goals is essential. This must allow users to (re)adjust their goals according

Risk Management in Collaborative Systems 119

Obtaining immediate feedback is essential in having complete participation in the task at hand [17, p. 54]. In the context of a group, this refers to the extent to which members collectively reflect on the group's objectives. This process is known as reflexivity and consists of three

In order to allow creativity to develop in a group, requirements like support for reflexivity

1. reflection: consists in evaluating, filtering and selection of ideas that will be further taken

2. planning: is one the main subprocesses of project management and its main relevance for creativity is that it guides member's attention towards action and means of accomplishing their goals. Good planning reveals hidden aspects of the task at hand and is a good support

3. action or adaptation: adaptation is actually a simple process of risk management because it represents a continuous adaptation of tasks and objectives in concordance with the changes in the environment. Integrated risk management tools are a must in order to identify, mitigate and define action plans that cover decisions at both strategic and tactics level and

In order to make planning more accessible and easy to access process maps are identified as a solution [40]. The process map should be derived from the project management and risk mitigation plan. It's main purpose it to *i)* provide an clear understanding of the hole workflow involved in reaching a goal, and *ii)* to supply a open delineation of the responsibility distribution. This is particularly useful in avoiding responsibility overlapping or uncovered responsibility areas. A mechanism that can manage the sequence of tasks and their execution

Reflection [20] is based on critical thinking, which is a form of thinking that is focused, disciplined, consistent and constrained. Critical thinking can be associated with convergent thinking because it implies evaluating what divergent thinking offers, filters it using

Planning [20] creates conceptual readiness for relevant opportunities and guides group member' attention towards actions and means to achieve goals. Planning generates high reflexivity if during the process factors like potential problems, hierarchical ordering and

Action or adaptation [20] refers to the continuous renegotiation of group's reality during interaction between group members, and members and the environment. Adaptation consists in goal-directed behaviors that are relevant to achieving the desired changes in group objectives, strategies and processes identified by the group during the stage of reflection. Risk management is used to identify, mitigate and define action plans for the full range of

Serendipity represents the possibility of making unexpected and fortunate discoveries and consists in *a)* discovering new pieces of information that can lead thinking to new ideas,

for a particular process is required in order to enable the coordination process.

acceptability criteria and selects the ideas that will be also taken in consideration.

to the changes in the environment [31].

in consideration.

in motivating team members.

elements: reflection, planning and action or adaptation [20].

include not only threats but opportunities also [24].

short/ long term planning are taken in consideration.

uncertainty, including both risks and opportunities.

must be implemented [20]. Reflexivity is built on processes like:
