**1. Introduction**

In Ethiopia, milk production systems can be categorized into urban, peri-urban and rural, based on location (Reda, 2001). Located around Addis Ababa and regional towns, urban and peri-urban systems are market oriented and make use of the high demand in urban areas. The rural system is part of the subsistence farming system and includes pastoralists, agropastoralists, and mixed crop-livestock producers mainly in the highlands. As this system is not market oriented, most of the milk produced is retained for home consumption. The surplus is mainly processed using traditional technologies into more shelf stable products such as *Ergo* (Ethiopian naturally fermented milk), butter, ghee and *Ayib* (Ethiopian cottage cheese) that are marketed through the informal channel (Reda, 2001).

In Sub Saharan countries the traditional sector, which is characterized by small herd size dominated by indigenous zebu breeds of low milk production with very little or no specialized inputs, is the dominant type of production system accounting to 70 - 80% of Africa's cattle population (Ibrahim and Olaloku, 2000). In Ethiopia, around 97% of the annual milk production is accounted by the traditional milk production system (Felleke, 2003), which is likewise dominated by indigenous breeds. Most of the milk produced in the country is accordingly processed on-farm using traditional technologies that are generally not well understood. Most of the very few enterprises currently operating in and around the capital entirely depend on the traditional sector for their milk intake, while others depend on it for the majority of their intake. These underscore the importance of understanding the traditional sector in order to make improvement interventions.

Cows contribute to about 95% of the total annual milk produced by cows and camels at national level (CSA, 2010). In 2010, the cattle population was estimated at about 50.9 million (99.19% indigenous, 0.72% hybrid and 0.09% pure exotic breeds). The female cattle population accounted for about 55% of the total. The large livestock population; the favorable climate for improved, high-yielding animal breeds; and the relatively animal disease-free environment make Ethiopia to hold a substantial potential for dairy development. In 2010, a total of 2940 million liters of milk was produced from about 9.6 million cows at national level. During the same year, dairying has created an estimated

Microbial Properties of Ethiopian Marketed Milk and Milk Products and

Desenclos *et al*., 1996; Cody *et al*., 1999).

high standard premium throughout the year.

well as consumer health perspective.

**2. Study approach** 

**of milk and milk products** 

**3.1.1 Milking environment** 

**3.1 Milk production** 

Associated Critical Points of Contamination: An Epidemiological Perspective 299

to the transmission of various diseases. Prior to the discovery and widespread adoption of pasteurization for instance, raw milk and its products were responsible for serious bacterial infections such as diphtheria, scarlet fever and tuberculosis (Spreer, 1998). The consumption of unpasteurized, incorrectly pasteurized or post pasteurization contaminated milk and its derivatives have been reported to cause illnesses (Duffy, Garvey & Sheridan, 2002;

Consumers all over the world are increasingly concerned about the safety of their food in general and milk and milk products in particular. Therefore, quality should not be ignored at all stages of the dairy value chain from farm to table. As the bacterial quality of raw milk is important to product shelf-life, flavor and product yield, it is important that dairy enterprises should strive to obtain the highest quality raw material possible from their own farm as well as their suppliers. It is therefore essential to produce best quality raw milk in the dairy barn in order to manufacture milk products of not only acceptable quality but of

Putting a functional quality control system in place is an important tool to bring about improvement in the dairy sector. However, in Ethiopia there is no a properly operational formal marketing and grading system that is geared towards relating quality of products to market price. Establishing a formal marketing system that relates quality to market price has a potential to enhance commercialization of the smallholder dairy sector. Such an approach provides an incentive for producers to supply products of good quality from nutritional as

This chapter is essentially based on primary data collection using questionnaire, key informants, group discussions, personal observation and review of available literature. Data were generated from ten dairy potential areas in the Ethiopian highlands (Addis Ababa, Asella, Debre Birhan, Debre Zeit, Holetta, Sululta, Selale, Adama, Sheno, Jimma). A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect information on hygienic practices at different stages of the dairy value chain

The milk quality assessment includes preliminary quality tests (specific gravity or milk density, clot-on-boiling and alcohol tests), while the microbial analysis include Aerobic

**3. Hygienic conditions during production, processing, storage and marketing** 

In Ethiopia, there is no standard hygienic condition followed by producers during milk production. The hygienic conditions are different according to the production system, adapted practices, level of awareness, and availability of resources. In most of the cases under smallholder condition, the common hygienic measures taken during milk production especially during milking are limited to letting the calf to suckle for few minutes and/or washing the udder before milking. The quality of the water used for

from a total of 765 smallholder producers and 22 primary dairy cooperatives.

Mesophilic Bacteria, *Enterobacteriaceae*, Coliform, and Yeast and mould counts.

588,000 full-time on-farm jobs. However, Ethiopia is a net importer of dairy products with import values significantly exceeding export values. In five reference years, for instance, export values increased from about 73000 USD in 2005 to 123000 USD in 2009, while import values increased from about 5,6 million USD in 2005 to about 10,3 million USD in 2009 (a 4,7 million USD increment).

The importance of milk in the Ethiopian diet differs according to the farming system and the socio-cultural set-ups. Generally, in the lowlands especially where livestock keeping is the main occupation, milk is consumed by all groups of the society. In the highlands, the rural people are sedentary farmers raising both livestock and crops. The main part of their diet consists of cereals and legumes. Milk is used for rearing calves and children, and the surplus is soured for making different fermented milk products. The major ones include: *Ergo*, *Ayib*, butter (three types of butter can be distinguished namely *Lega, Mekakelegna* and *Besal,* which refer to fresh, semi-rancid and rancid), *Nitir kibie* (melted butter or ghee), *Arrera* (defatted sour milk, a by-product of butter-making and a raw material for *Ayib-*making) and *Aguat*  (whey). The demand for milk and milk products is a function of several factors that include: population growth, seasonality of demand and supply, low per capita consumption and high transaction costs. The per capita milk consumption (about 17kg) for Ethiopia is much lower as compared to that for Africa (about 25kg), that recommended by World Health Organization (WHO) (200 liters), the 62.5 kg recommended by FAO (1990) as a minimum level to be kept for a balanced diet and the world's per capita average of about 100 liters/year (FAO, 2010).

In Ethiopia, milk marketing system is not well developed and for the majority of smallholder producers, access to market is limited. In year 2010, for instance, only less that 7 percent of the annual milk production is estimated to be marketed at national level. In 2009, there were 180 cooperatives involved in milk production and marketing in the entire nation, accounting for only 2% of the total number of agro-based cooperatives. In most of the cases, existing dairy cooperatives are operating in areas that are accessible to transportation and market. This means that a substantial amount of milk does not reach the market and a number of producers keep on producing at a subsistence level.

Post harvest losses of up to 40% of milk and its derivatives have been reported from milking to consumption (Felleke, 2003). Such loses are mainly attributed to mishandling in the dairy value chain from farm to fork. These include: contamination during milking and further handling coupled with long storage time at high tropical ambient temperature before consumption; deliberate adulteration of milk; substandard handling, transportation and distribution systems; inefficient processing technologies; inadequate fresh milk outlet; and spillage losses during milking. According to FAO (cited by ENA, 2004), the value of annual milk and dairy product losses due mainly to mishandling across five African and the Middle East countries (Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Ethiopia and Syria) is over 90 million USD. Reducing such losses and improving quality are effective ways of making more and safer milk available that benefits both producers and consumers.

Provision of milk and milk products of good hygienic quality is desirable from consumer health point of view. This is one reason why milk testing and quality control include hygiene as well as microbial qualities in addition to testing for fat content and heat stability (Giangiacomo, 2000). The consumption of raw milk and its derivatives is common in Ethiopia (Yilma, 2003), which is not safe from consumer health point of view as it may lead to the transmission of various diseases. Prior to the discovery and widespread adoption of pasteurization for instance, raw milk and its products were responsible for serious bacterial infections such as diphtheria, scarlet fever and tuberculosis (Spreer, 1998). The consumption of unpasteurized, incorrectly pasteurized or post pasteurization contaminated milk and its derivatives have been reported to cause illnesses (Duffy, Garvey & Sheridan, 2002; Desenclos *et al*., 1996; Cody *et al*., 1999).

Consumers all over the world are increasingly concerned about the safety of their food in general and milk and milk products in particular. Therefore, quality should not be ignored at all stages of the dairy value chain from farm to table. As the bacterial quality of raw milk is important to product shelf-life, flavor and product yield, it is important that dairy enterprises should strive to obtain the highest quality raw material possible from their own farm as well as their suppliers. It is therefore essential to produce best quality raw milk in the dairy barn in order to manufacture milk products of not only acceptable quality but of high standard premium throughout the year.

Putting a functional quality control system in place is an important tool to bring about improvement in the dairy sector. However, in Ethiopia there is no a properly operational formal marketing and grading system that is geared towards relating quality of products to market price. Establishing a formal marketing system that relates quality to market price has a potential to enhance commercialization of the smallholder dairy sector. Such an approach provides an incentive for producers to supply products of good quality from nutritional as well as consumer health perspective.
