**2. Study approach**

298 Epidemiology Insights

588,000 full-time on-farm jobs. However, Ethiopia is a net importer of dairy products with import values significantly exceeding export values. In five reference years, for instance, export values increased from about 73000 USD in 2005 to 123000 USD in 2009, while import values increased from about 5,6 million USD in 2005 to about 10,3 million USD in 2009 (a 4,7

The importance of milk in the Ethiopian diet differs according to the farming system and the socio-cultural set-ups. Generally, in the lowlands especially where livestock keeping is the main occupation, milk is consumed by all groups of the society. In the highlands, the rural people are sedentary farmers raising both livestock and crops. The main part of their diet consists of cereals and legumes. Milk is used for rearing calves and children, and the surplus is soured for making different fermented milk products. The major ones include: *Ergo*, *Ayib*, butter (three types of butter can be distinguished namely *Lega, Mekakelegna* and *Besal,* which refer to fresh, semi-rancid and rancid), *Nitir kibie* (melted butter or ghee), *Arrera* (defatted sour milk, a by-product of butter-making and a raw material for *Ayib-*making) and *Aguat*  (whey). The demand for milk and milk products is a function of several factors that include: population growth, seasonality of demand and supply, low per capita consumption and high transaction costs. The per capita milk consumption (about 17kg) for Ethiopia is much lower as compared to that for Africa (about 25kg), that recommended by World Health Organization (WHO) (200 liters), the 62.5 kg recommended by FAO (1990) as a minimum level to be kept for a balanced diet and the world's per capita average of about 100

In Ethiopia, milk marketing system is not well developed and for the majority of smallholder producers, access to market is limited. In year 2010, for instance, only less that 7 percent of the annual milk production is estimated to be marketed at national level. In 2009, there were 180 cooperatives involved in milk production and marketing in the entire nation, accounting for only 2% of the total number of agro-based cooperatives. In most of the cases, existing dairy cooperatives are operating in areas that are accessible to transportation and market. This means that a substantial amount of milk does not reach the market and a

Post harvest losses of up to 40% of milk and its derivatives have been reported from milking to consumption (Felleke, 2003). Such loses are mainly attributed to mishandling in the dairy value chain from farm to fork. These include: contamination during milking and further handling coupled with long storage time at high tropical ambient temperature before consumption; deliberate adulteration of milk; substandard handling, transportation and distribution systems; inefficient processing technologies; inadequate fresh milk outlet; and spillage losses during milking. According to FAO (cited by ENA, 2004), the value of annual milk and dairy product losses due mainly to mishandling across five African and the Middle East countries (Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Ethiopia and Syria) is over 90 million USD. Reducing such losses and improving quality are effective ways of making more and

Provision of milk and milk products of good hygienic quality is desirable from consumer health point of view. This is one reason why milk testing and quality control include hygiene as well as microbial qualities in addition to testing for fat content and heat stability (Giangiacomo, 2000). The consumption of raw milk and its derivatives is common in Ethiopia (Yilma, 2003), which is not safe from consumer health point of view as it may lead

number of producers keep on producing at a subsistence level.

safer milk available that benefits both producers and consumers.

million USD increment).

liters/year (FAO, 2010).

This chapter is essentially based on primary data collection using questionnaire, key informants, group discussions, personal observation and review of available literature. Data were generated from ten dairy potential areas in the Ethiopian highlands (Addis Ababa, Asella, Debre Birhan, Debre Zeit, Holetta, Sululta, Selale, Adama, Sheno, Jimma). A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect information on hygienic practices at different stages of the dairy value chain from a total of 765 smallholder producers and 22 primary dairy cooperatives.

The milk quality assessment includes preliminary quality tests (specific gravity or milk density, clot-on-boiling and alcohol tests), while the microbial analysis include Aerobic Mesophilic Bacteria, *Enterobacteriaceae*, Coliform, and Yeast and mould counts.
