**9. References**


Preventive measures include the strict control practices of the infection in homes, particularly frequent hand washing hygiene, avoiding high-risk contact to minimize the chance of becoming colonized and isolating the animal and other pets. Gloves, masks and eye protection must be used to attend patients, as well as planning surgeries to avoid risk for infection, removing permanent urinary catheters as soon as possible and preventing

This paper summarizes a wide range of information and findings from the literature on MRSA in animals and humans in contact with them. Notwithstanding, there is enormous potential for new research aiming to conclusively address certain unknown questions such as, at which point does an infection play the role of a zoonosis or humanosis? This question has yet to be answered because several animal species are involved, with distinct characteristics of transmission and isolated clones, raising appropriate concern for MRSA in

Steadfast vigilance of MRSA in samples of animal origin in laboratory diagnoses is essential for: consistent and thorough monitoring of the evolution and dissemination of these strains; elucidating characteristics that determine a predilection for a determined host; determing transmission routes; identifying resistance and virulence genes received by these new lineages; and distinguishing molecular markers that allow for discriminating between CA-

Appropriate and effective measures of control and prevention must be better determined and applied to each situation and country, according to previously reported guidelines, aiming to minimize risks to humans, since these strains have housed new virulence and resistance genes which can be transferred to human strains. Veterinarians play an important role in public health, in controlling this pathogen through measures appropriately applied in veterinary medicine, namely, the rational use of antimicrobials and appropriate management of infected animals, together with other health professionals, for prevention of

Baptiste, K.E.; Williams, K.; Williams, N.J.; Wattret, A.; Clegg, P.D.; Dawson, S.; Corkill, J.E.;

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O'Neill, T. & Hart, C.A. (2005). Methicillin-resistant staphylococci in companion animals. *Emerging Infectious Diseases*, Vol.11, No.12, pp.1942-1944, ISSN 1080-6059 Bens, C.C.P.M.; Voss, A. & Klaassen, C.H.W. (2006). Presence of a novel DNA methylation

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complications from intravenosous and urinary catheters with appropriate asepsis.

**7. Conclusion** 

animals.

MRSA, HA-MRSA and LA-MRSA.

MRSA dissemination.

**9. References** 

**8. Acknowledgement** 

The support by FAPESP is gratefully acknowledged.


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**6** 

 *Brazil* 

**Epidemiological Aspects of Oxacillin-Resistant** 

Studying infections caused by the *Staphylococcus* spp. genus is highly important for human health given that such organisms are causal agents of superficial infections, such as abscesses and impetigo, as well as of systemic infections, namely bacteremia and osteomyelitis. This genus is divided into two large groups. The first group is characterized by the production of enzyme coagulase, and its main representative is *S. aureus*, which is frequently associated with a large variety of infections. The second group, known as coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS), is usually associated with immunocompromised patients or those who use catheters. (Kloos & Bannerman, 1995). The main CoNS species associated with infection in humans are *S. epidermidis, S. haemolyticus, S. saprophyticus, S. cohnii, S. xylosus, S. capitis, S. warneri, S. hominis, S. simulans, S. saccharolyticus, S. auricularis,* 

Several studies have reported increased prevalence of CoNS infection in hospitals, which is usually associated with resistance to the antibiotic of choice for treatment. Hence, this is a

The use of methicillin and other semi-synthetic penicillins, such as oxacillin and penicillinase-resistant methicillin, which began in 1959, represented a significant phase in anti-staphylococcal therapy. The first report on methicillin resistance was in 1961, a short time after its use was implemented (Hiramatsu et al, 2001). In Brazil, it is estimated that the frequency of oxacillin resistance is high among *S. aureus* samples, particularly in large and in university hospitals. Gales (2009) described an oxacillin resistance rate of 31% in a multicenter study involving four Brazilian hospitals. As regards CoNS, 78.7% of the samples were resistant. At the Botucatu School of Medicine University Hospital – SP, approximately 45% of the *S. aureus* samples from hemocultures were positive for the *mecA* gene (Martins et al., 2010). In a study conducted at the neonatal intensive care unit of the same hospital, a total of 18% of MRSA samples was found (Pereira et al., 2009). According to a study by Sader et al. (2004) in Latin America and Brazil, respectively, 80.4% and 84.6% of the CoNS samples from

Oxacillin resistance in CoNS samples varies significantly among the different species in the genus, a fact that reinforces the importance of their correct identification (Secchi et al., 2008).

*S. caprae, S. lugdunensis* and *S. schleiferi* (Kloos & Bannerman, 1995).

serious clinical and epidemiological problem (Jain et. al., 2008).

hemocultures were oxacillin resistant.

**1. Introduction** 

*Staphylococcus* **spp.: The Use of Molecular** 

André Martins and Maria de Lourdes Ribeiro de Souza da Cunha

*UNESP- Univ. Estadual Paulista, Biosciences Institute, Botucatu, SP* 

**Tools with Emphasis on MLST** 

