**5. Techniques of knowledge acquisition**

Knowledge acquisition relates to human sources. In a modern organization workers contact each other in many ways: e.g. personally, using fax, email. It is important to know where, at

Management of Knowledge Acquisition from Human Sources in Innovation Transfer 49

*Contact books* are a very simple way to localize knowledge sources. Such a book contains information about our employees or experts within our organization. Contacts can be categorized due to e.g. competences, departments, potential problems, etc. Those workers who need specialized knowledge from experts should have access to contact books. The advantage of contact books is obvious: saving time when looking for the desired knowledge. *Knowledge maps* called also knowledge sources maps are especially useful when we want to find location of required knowledge assets. They present graphically dependencies among intellectual actives, their sources of origin and applications. Knowledge maps have been created to answer the requests coming from users to systematize assets connected with human capital (still growing) as well as associations of tasks with the appropriate

Taking structure as a criterion we can distinguish several types of knowledge maps, e.g. topographical knowledge maps, information assets maps, geographical information maps,

*Knowledge matrix* can be very useful in presentation of intellectual assets. It can be seen as another way of knowledge assets presentation that is collected in the organization. Knowledge matrix consists of carefully selected categories. For example, it may be the pairs

*Competency matrix* is used when we want to define how particular knowledge areas influence the management of organization. The matrix possesses two dimensions. It consists

They are created when crossing two-dimensional space of knowledge assets with two axis: vertical that represents e.g. competitiveness of organization assets, and horizontal one representing the degree of knowledge usage in organization. All assets can be assigned to one of four matrix areas. Each area represents the strategy of usage of 'its' knowledge source.

knowledge sources maps. Exemplary map of knowledge sources is shown in fig. 10.

of appropriate matched types of knowledge (explicit and tacit, internal and external).

Occurrences

Fig. 9. Exemplary skill map

intellectual assets in the organization.

of four parts (fig. 11.).

Source: ibidem

Associations

whom, in which documents, data files, law regulations we should seek necessary knowledge. Knowledge acquisition can be realized by topic maps, skill maps, contact books, knowledge maps, knowledge matrix, competency matrix (Supply\_Chain Council, Supply-Chain Operations Reference-model Overview Version 5.0, 2003).

*Topic maps* are the ISO standard (ISO/IEC 13250). The basic elements in a topic map are: subject, associations and occurrences (fig. 8.)

Source: ibidem

Fig. 8. Topic map structure

Subject is a basic element in a topic map and it can be a person, document or any other thing. It can be an abstract idea or a real one.

Occurrence is an assignment between the subject and the information source, e.g. a document on a given subject, video or/and audio sequences, archives collecting documents on a given subject.

Associations among subjects can be understood as a binding element showing relations between subjects of different types. There are two subjects in any association and each subject may realize different function, e.g. association of 'is father' type can have the subject of 'human being' type and one of them is 'father' and the other - 'child'.

Topic maps are the advanced solution of structuralization, gathering and knowledge representation problem. But, they deliver limited set of instruments especially when we want to use them to present our workers knowledge or to assure them the possibility to use more advanced mechanisms of database searching, e.g. navigation mechanisms. To implement such functions, it is necessary to enlarge the technology of topic maps by creating new structures that are needed to store information about the workers, their knowledge and skills.

*Skill map* has been created by adding new, the third layer to a topic map. There are new created objects (e.g. skills, associations between them) as well as associations with their occurrences (subjects) in this layer (fig. 9.).

Source: ibidem

48 New Research on Knowledge Management Technology

whom, in which documents, data files, law regulations we should seek necessary knowledge. Knowledge acquisition can be realized by topic maps, skill maps, contact books, knowledge maps, knowledge matrix, competency matrix (Supply\_Chain Council, Supply-

*Topic maps* are the ISO standard (ISO/IEC 13250). The basic elements in a topic map are:

Associations Occurrences

Subject is a basic element in a topic map and it can be a person, document or any other

Occurrence is an assignment between the subject and the information source, e.g. a document on a given subject, video or/and audio sequences, archives collecting documents

Associations among subjects can be understood as a binding element showing relations between subjects of different types. There are two subjects in any association and each subject may realize different function, e.g. association of 'is father' type can have the subject

Topic maps are the advanced solution of structuralization, gathering and knowledge representation problem. But, they deliver limited set of instruments especially when we want to use them to present our workers knowledge or to assure them the possibility to use more advanced mechanisms of database searching, e.g. navigation mechanisms. To implement such functions, it is necessary to enlarge the technology of topic maps by creating new structures that are needed to store information about the workers, their

*Skill map* has been created by adding new, the third layer to a topic map. There are new created objects (e.g. skills, associations between them) as well as associations with their

of 'human being' type and one of them is 'father' and the other - 'child'.

Chain Operations Reference-model Overview Version 5.0, 2003).

subject, associations and occurrences (fig. 8.)

Source: ibidem

on a given subject.

knowledge and skills.

Fig. 8. Topic map structure

thing. It can be an abstract idea or a real one.

occurrences (subjects) in this layer (fig. 9.).

Fig. 9. Exemplary skill map

*Contact books* are a very simple way to localize knowledge sources. Such a book contains information about our employees or experts within our organization. Contacts can be categorized due to e.g. competences, departments, potential problems, etc. Those workers who need specialized knowledge from experts should have access to contact books. The advantage of contact books is obvious: saving time when looking for the desired knowledge. *Knowledge maps* called also knowledge sources maps are especially useful when we want to find location of required knowledge assets. They present graphically dependencies among intellectual actives, their sources of origin and applications. Knowledge maps have been created to answer the requests coming from users to systematize assets connected with human capital (still growing) as well as associations of tasks with the appropriate intellectual assets in the organization.

Taking structure as a criterion we can distinguish several types of knowledge maps, e.g. topographical knowledge maps, information assets maps, geographical information maps, knowledge sources maps. Exemplary map of knowledge sources is shown in fig. 10.

*Knowledge matrix* can be very useful in presentation of intellectual assets. It can be seen as another way of knowledge assets presentation that is collected in the organization. Knowledge matrix consists of carefully selected categories. For example, it may be the pairs of appropriate matched types of knowledge (explicit and tacit, internal and external).

*Competency matrix* is used when we want to define how particular knowledge areas influence the management of organization. The matrix possesses two dimensions. It consists of four parts (fig. 11.).

They are created when crossing two-dimensional space of knowledge assets with two axis: vertical that represents e.g. competitiveness of organization assets, and horizontal one representing the degree of knowledge usage in organization. All assets can be assigned to one of four matrix areas. Each area represents the strategy of usage of 'its' knowledge source.

Management of Knowledge Acquisition from Human Sources in Innovation Transfer 51

collected (and then processed) within the information system. One general condition has to be fulfilled: knowledge must be written in knowledge base using such formalism of its representation that can be understood by both people and computer. Ontology is one of such mechanisms and seems to be especially useful when we talk about tacit knowledge. There are some expectations put towards ontology2. These expectations can be described in

 to make easier the communication between people and organizations by common understanding of ideas, reduction of any possible misunderstandings, synonymous

to make possible the representation and usage of knowledge in any part of information

to assure the cooperation of many components, modules and systems by sharing and

 to use the system dictionaries by delivering coherent and rich user interfaces, reduction of system creation time, multilingualism maintenance, many ways of visualization,

 to modify the systems during their activity by introducing the parameterization of functionalities within ontology as well as by the usage of generative user interface.

There are some definitions of ontology known from the literature3. For example J.A.Hendler says that "an ontology is a formal definition of a body of knowledge"4. Another definition explains ontology as a theory of a particular domain or sphere of knowledge, describing the kinds of entity involved in it and the relationships that can hold among different entities"5. One more definition says "An ontology defines the terms used to describe and represent an area of knowledge. Ontologies are used by people, databases, knowledge-bases and applications that need to share domain information (a domain is just a specific subject area or area of knowledge, like medicine, tool manufacturing, real estate, automobile repair,

In our further investigations we would like to concentrate on the definition proposed by J.F.Sowa who says that "the subject of *ontology* is the study of the *categories* of things that exist or may exist in some domain. The product of such a study, called *an ontology*, is a catalog of the types of things that are assumed to exist in a domain of interest *D* from the perspective of a person who uses a language *L* for the purpose of talking about *D*. The types in the ontology represent the *predicates*, *word senses*, or *concept and relation types* of the

2 http: //www.rodan.pl/web/guest/oferta/platforma\_officeobjects/officeobjectsontology\_manager,

5 D.S.Weld (ed.): The role of Intelligent Systems in the National Information Infrastructure, The

3 See e.g. http://www.aaai.org/AITopics/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/AITopics/Ontologies, 9.07.2011 4 ibidem

http://www.aaai.org/AITopics/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/AITopics/Ontologies, 9.07.2011 6 J.Heflin (ed.): OWL Web Ontology Language Use Cases and requirements, 2004, http://www.aaai.org/AITopics/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/AITopics/Ontologies 9.07.2011

definitions of ideas and integration of many points of view,

the following way:

system,

etc.,

8.07.2011

mapping of knowledge,

**6.1 Ontology definitions** 

financial management, etc.)6.

language *L* when used to discuss topics in the domain *D*"7.

American Association for Artificial Intelligence, 1995,

7 http://www.jfsowa.com/ontology, 9.07.2011

Source: (Probst & Raub & Romhardt, 2002)

Source: ibidem

Fig. 11. Competency matrix

#### **6. Ontology impact on knowledge management**

Taking into account the definition of knowledge management and its elements (see the previous sections of this chapter), now we have to consider how knowledge is to be collected (and then processed) within the information system. One general condition has to be fulfilled: knowledge must be written in knowledge base using such formalism of its representation that can be understood by both people and computer. Ontology is one of such mechanisms and seems to be especially useful when we talk about tacit knowledge. There are some expectations put towards ontology2. These expectations can be described in the following way:


### **6.1 Ontology definitions**

50 New Research on Knowledge Management Technology

**SURROUNDINGS**

**ORGANIZATION**

Jordan Steve

Hans Muller

Jerzy Hill

Piotr Nowak  Paweł Tomaszewski

Gary

Fundamental competencies

*storing, development* 

*security, larger usage*

Unique competencies

**TEAM** 

Koniecki

Degree of knowledge usage

Taking into account the definition of knowledge management and its elements (see the previous sections of this chapter), now we have to consider how knowledge is to be

Tom Brown

Phil

Jan Karlson

Non-essentials competencies

*outsourcing* 

**6. Ontology impact on knowledge management** 

*identification and usage* 

Non-utilized competencies

Smith

Jason Willson

Jan Kowalski

Source: (Probst & Raub & Romhardt, 2002)

Fig. 10. Knowledge sources map

Competitiveness of knowledge assets

Source: ibidem

Fig. 11. Competency matrix

There are some definitions of ontology known from the literature3. For example J.A.Hendler says that "an ontology is a formal definition of a body of knowledge"4. Another definition explains ontology as a theory of a particular domain or sphere of knowledge, describing the kinds of entity involved in it and the relationships that can hold among different entities"5. One more definition says "An ontology defines the terms used to describe and represent an area of knowledge. Ontologies are used by people, databases, knowledge-bases and applications that need to share domain information (a domain is just a specific subject area or area of knowledge, like medicine, tool manufacturing, real estate, automobile repair, financial management, etc.)6.

In our further investigations we would like to concentrate on the definition proposed by J.F.Sowa who says that "the subject of *ontology* is the study of the *categories* of things that exist or may exist in some domain. The product of such a study, called *an ontology*, is a catalog of the types of things that are assumed to exist in a domain of interest *D* from the perspective of a person who uses a language *L* for the purpose of talking about *D*. The types in the ontology represent the *predicates*, *word senses*, or *concept and relation types* of the language *L* when used to discuss topics in the domain *D*"7.

http://www.aaai.org/AITopics/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/AITopics/Ontologies, 9.07.2011

http://www.aaai.org/AITopics/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/AITopics/Ontologies 9.07.2011

<sup>2</sup> http: //www.rodan.pl/web/guest/oferta/platforma\_officeobjects/officeobjectsontology\_manager, 8.07.2011

<sup>3</sup> See e.g. http://www.aaai.org/AITopics/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/AITopics/Ontologies, 9.07.2011 4 ibidem

<sup>5</sup> D.S.Weld (ed.): The role of Intelligent Systems in the National Information Infrastructure, The American Association for Artificial Intelligence, 1995,

<sup>6</sup> J.Heflin (ed.): OWL Web Ontology Language Use Cases and requirements, 2004,

<sup>7</sup> http://www.jfsowa.com/ontology, 9.07.2011

Management of Knowledge Acquisition from Human Sources in Innovation Transfer 53

the existing databases have been known for +- 30 years, but the acquisition of tacit knowledge is much younger. Human capital consists of creativity, an innovative way of reasoning, experience and knowledge of people and – as any other assets in the organization – should be managed. This chapter covers some problems of tacit knowledge management. We have chosen medicine as an exemplary discipline where transfer of knowledge is of

In the medical sector innovation transfer will open up new markets for SMEs' products. This may be a good possibility for clinics to become a part of that. Clinics have a high potential for product innovation, process and service development. There are many reasons why this potential of innovation is not sufficiently transferred to the results, such as product development by companies and better health care. The barriers concern, among others, different interests. Clinics are mainly focused on the efficient management and welfare of patients. Access of small and medium-sized enterprises (on a European scale) to the innovation potential in clinics can improve their economy. Whereas the objective of the industrial units is all about economy and economic importance. Today big business companies and corporations dominate as suppliers of ready innovative products. So far, the changes initiated by the employees of clinics and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) have no chance to transfer knowledge and ideas. But this is the flexibility of SMEs in developing lab types, prototypes and small business solutions , that can help to improve the

When we consider knowledge management in context of the innovation transfer, we should remember about new possibilities of processing that is cloud computing. It is – according to the National Institute of Standards and Technology – "a model for enabling convenient, ondemand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g. networks, servers, storage, applications and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or services provider interaction". There have been distinguished three sorts of services in cloud computing: infrastructure as a service, platform as a service and software as a service. Knowledge management within cloud

The presented studies were conducted in frame of InTraMed-C2C Project (2CE096P1 - CENTRAL EUROPE Programme 2007 – 2013) in cooperation with Wroclaw University of

Caldwell F., Harris K. (2002). *Cykl popularności metod zarządzania wiedzą w roku 2002, [in:]* 

Chauvel D., Despres C. (2002). *Intellectual Roots of Knowledge Management*, KMSS 2002,

Dalkir K. (2011). *Knowledge management theory and practice*. Second Edition. Boston, MA:

Davenport T., Prusak L. (1998). *Working Knowledge*, Harvard Business School Press, Boston

*Knowledge Management. Zarządzanie wiedzą w organizacji*, ComputerWorld Custom

special importance.

**8. Acknowledgement** 

**9. References** 

daily work of clinics and in particular its quality.

computing seems to be the field for further investigations.

Economics. The co-operation is much indeed appreciated.

Publishing, May 2002 (in Polish)

MIT Press, 2011

1998

Sophia Antipolis, September 2-6, 2002

#### **6.2 System of medical ontologies as an exemplary ontology**

The treatment of patients is the main goal in medicine. When a doctor has made (after examination) a diagnosis, the next step is to select the best form of treatment. Parallel to this, is a pathway of solving the patient's problems. Both are typical ways to get experience. There is a hypothesis that the proposed system of nodes feature different ontologies of expertise. These domains of influence have to be taken into account because of the diversity of knowledge involved in health-care.

Source: own elaboration

Fig. 12. Relations in the process of medical innovations

Evolution of medical practice (treatment) involves interactions both within and among the foregoing aspects. Thereby, in Fig. 12 nodes correspond to the subcomponents of aspects of the patient-practitioner correlation. The system includes the provision of patient services. This process is supported by training and regulations having influence on the knowledge used for examination. There are two kinds of knowledge in the medical sector. Tacit knowledge is generated e.g. within experience. The emergence of relations in the presented system reflects both the application of knowledge into specific activities as well as the exchange of information across the relations.

Differently from linear or flat models of medical innovation, the undirectionality of pathways within this scheme does not confine the potential of innovation (grey area) only to scientific breakthroughs but at calls for appreciation of multiple sources across all domains. It is worth mentioning that the importance of variety in the system of innovation draws attention to the central role of institutions. Scientific progress requires such clearly defined system of understanding to describe the space in which ontological solutions are searched.

### **7. Conclusions**

In knowledge based economy the role and importance of information and knowledge is still growing. Knowledge is becoming one of the most valuable assets in any organizations. Rapid progress in the field of scientific research – especially in medicine, new information and communication technologies, etc. enforce not only the necessity of innovation transfers but also the need of development and creation of knowledge. Knowledge discovery from the existing databases have been known for +- 30 years, but the acquisition of tacit knowledge is much younger. Human capital consists of creativity, an innovative way of reasoning, experience and knowledge of people and – as any other assets in the organization – should be managed. This chapter covers some problems of tacit knowledge management. We have chosen medicine as an exemplary discipline where transfer of knowledge is of special importance.

In the medical sector innovation transfer will open up new markets for SMEs' products. This may be a good possibility for clinics to become a part of that. Clinics have a high potential for product innovation, process and service development. There are many reasons why this potential of innovation is not sufficiently transferred to the results, such as product development by companies and better health care. The barriers concern, among others, different interests. Clinics are mainly focused on the efficient management and welfare of patients. Access of small and medium-sized enterprises (on a European scale) to the innovation potential in clinics can improve their economy. Whereas the objective of the industrial units is all about economy and economic importance. Today big business companies and corporations dominate as suppliers of ready innovative products. So far, the changes initiated by the employees of clinics and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) have no chance to transfer knowledge and ideas. But this is the flexibility of SMEs in developing lab types, prototypes and small business solutions , that can help to improve the daily work of clinics and in particular its quality.

When we consider knowledge management in context of the innovation transfer, we should remember about new possibilities of processing that is cloud computing. It is – according to the National Institute of Standards and Technology – "a model for enabling convenient, ondemand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g. networks, servers, storage, applications and services) that can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort or services provider interaction". There have been distinguished three sorts of services in cloud computing: infrastructure as a service, platform as a service and software as a service. Knowledge management within cloud computing seems to be the field for further investigations.
