**2. Basic definitions**

Knowledge management can be seen as a result of evolutionary human development. In the last quarter of the 20th century this development was observed in still growing application of information and knowledge in societies and in organizations. In the 80th of XX century, the group work systems appeared. The next steps towards knowledge management were document management as well as information management systems. Diffusion of Internet in a global scale can be treated as a mile step in KM because new forms appeared in the shape of corporate portals. At the end of the last century we could observe a new type of systems: knowledge management systems. This evolution can be presented as in fig 1.

Today information and knowledge are crucial and especially valuable due to the fact that the progress in all sectors of our life is still growing. Our society is becoming more and more information society. Sometimes we can say we live in the information and knowledge era and our economy is based on knowledge.

The role and importance of innovation and creativity in the information society is becoming more and more important. The main features of the information society are as follows:


 Creation of 'intellectual technologies' that are treated as a basis of social and political Decision making process.

<sup>1</sup> The authors participate in the IntraMED-C2C project. This project began to develop and provide the tools for increasing the access of small and medium-sized enterprises (on a European scale) to the innovation potential in clinics. This will open up new markets for their products. Workshops may be a good tool for initiating SMEs' access to clinics. Within the project, in accordance with the needs of the regions, there are arranged such pilot workshops.

Source: based on (Wierzbicki, 2004)

and small business solutions , that can help to improve the daily work of clinics and, in

The chapter consists of six parts. After a brief introduction to the subject, there are basic definitions. The following definitions are characterized: knowledge management, information society, knowledge based economy, knowledge based organization, knowledge and its classifications, intellectual capital, sources of knowledge, gaining knowledge from different sources (knowledge discovery from databases and knowledge acquisition from human sources). Part three has been devoted to modeling of knowledge management. Then we describe the acquisition of knowledge treated as a process. In this part we present a model of knowledge management system in which we distinguish: input, processing and output. Within the processing module we distinguish discovery of evident knowledge from databases and acquisition of tacit (human) knowledge. In the next part we focus on knowledge acquisition and present some techniques of obtaining the knowledge (topic maps, skill maps, knowledge maps, contact books, knowledge sources maps, knowledge matrix, competency matrix). Part five presents ontology impact on knowledge management. Consequently, it has effects on the performances and validity of the KM system. Short

Knowledge management can be seen as a result of evolutionary human development. In the last quarter of the 20th century this development was observed in still growing application of information and knowledge in societies and in organizations. In the 80th of XX century, the group work systems appeared. The next steps towards knowledge management were document management as well as information management systems. Diffusion of Internet in a global scale can be treated as a mile step in KM because new forms appeared in the shape of corporate portals. At the end of the last century we could observe a new type of systems: knowledge management systems. This evolution can be presented as in fig 1. Today information and knowledge are crucial and especially valuable due to the fact that the progress in all sectors of our life is still growing. Our society is becoming more and more information society. Sometimes we can say we live in the information and knowledge era

The role and importance of innovation and creativity in the information society is becoming more and more important. The main features of the information society are as follows:

Creation of 'intellectual technologies' that are treated as a basis of social and political

<sup>1</sup> The authors participate in the IntraMED-C2C project. This project began to develop and provide the tools for increasing the access of small and medium-sized enterprises (on a European scale) to the innovation potential in clinics. This will open up new markets for their products. Workshops may be a good tool for initiating SMEs' access to clinics. Within the project, in accordance with the needs of the

Importance of theoretical knowledge as a source of innovations,

Tendency to social control of technical development,

particular, its quality1.

summary ends the paper.

**2. Basic definitions** 

and our economy is based on knowledge.

 Domination of services in economy, Domination of specialists and scientists,

Permanent life learning,

Decision making process.

regions, there are arranged such pilot workshops.

Fig. 1. Evolution of information systems: from group-work systems to knowledge management systems

Knowledge based organization is a system basing on a permanent process of gaining knowledge from any possible sources and using it. It possesses, inbuilt into its organization structure, learning, knowledge creating and innovative processes. There is a permanent process of knowledge exchange and conversion between external structure, internal one and individual competences of workers (Sveiby, 2003).

The intensive development of information and communication technologies increases the number of accessible information and enables its fast processing. In modern management it is neither structure, rules nor the newest methods and instruments, but well educated, creative, innovative, intelligent people and teams created by them, that decide about success of the organization.

If a modern organization wants to be competitive on a global as well as local market, it should meet two general conditions. It has to possess the appropriate knowledge and be able, to know how to use this knowledge.

New economy can be called knowledge based economy, new economy, digital economy or network economy and be applied to all sectors of economy, also to the medical one. Knowledge based economy is based on six following pillars:


which are shown in fig. 2. All these elements influence each other.

When we realize that our health is one of the most important features not only for a given person but also should be seen in a larger scale, we understand how important the medical knowledge management is for a given country, region, etc. Fast exchange of medical knowledge, new medicals, creation and propagation of new knowledge, etc. is possible due to the achievements of 'informational revolution'.

Management of Knowledge Acquisition from Human Sources in Innovation Transfer 43

the value that is different from the financial one. Intellectual capital consists of patents, workers skills, technologies, information about clients and suppliers and experience

Information

*understanding of relations*

Knowledge

*understanding of* 

*patterns*

**Intellectual capital**

Human capital Structural capital Customer capital

Knowledge management covers such areas as information management, management of conscious knowledge (that has been previously codified in structural and non-structural databases and data warehouses – knowledge about processes), management of nonconscious knowledge (that workers possess in their brains), and management of intellectual capital (that means management of production processes basing on intellectual assets of the

When talking about knowledge management we should think also about such aspects as law conditions which are applied in a particular country, norms, standards, disposals, law regulations within organization as well as those coming from the outside, cultural and

Wisdom

*Unde standing of* 

*rules*

**Understanding** 

(Stewart, 1997) and it can be presented as in fig. 4.

Data

Source: (Chauvel & Despres, 2002) Fig. 3. From data to wisdom

Source: (Stewart, 1997)

Fig. 4. Forms of intellectual capital

organization) (Caldwell & Harris, 2002).

**Contextual idependency**

There are many definitions of knowledge that can be found in literature. Knowledge can be seen either in a narrower or broader meaning. According to an encyclopedia definition knowledge in its narrower meaning is understood as the whole credible information about the reality with the ability to use it. In its broader meaning knowledge is a set of information, believes, etc. that are of practical or recognizable value (Encyklopedia Powszechna, 2005). Knowledge can be described as all information and skills used by people to solve their problems which cover practical and theoretical elements as well as hints and rules how to proceed. Knowledge can be treated as the implementation of information in practice. It also can be seen as early collected and cumulated information. From the information systems point of view, knowledge consists of facts and reasoning rules. And another definition of knowledge says that data are transformed into information, then into knowledge by adding context, experience and interpretation. Knowledge is a skill to realize concrete tasks basing on information (Probst & Raub & Romhardt, 2002). Dependencies among data, information, knowledge and wisdom are shown in fig. 3.

Source: (Nycz, 2007)

Fig. 2. Basic pillars of knowledge based economy

Classifications of knowledge can be different, depending on the criterion which has been taken into account. Knowledge can be *a priori* or *a posteriori* one. Knowledge can be divided into *science* that is general knowledge and *techniques* used in achieving economical effects. We can also distinguish knowledge which is conscious and unconscious (tacit) one (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 2000). Tacit knowledge is our knowledge, experience or context, in which we see information. Knowledge can be classified into *procedural, declarative* or *mixed* one. Knowledge can be also seen as *domain knowledge* (e.g. medical, technical, financial, managerial etc.) or *meta-knowledge* (knowledge about knowledge). Knowledge can also be static, dynamic, causal, full or not full, sure or unsure, primordial or secondary, secret or open, managerial or technological.

Knowledge is connected with innovations; knowledge and innovations – with creativity of people. Knowledge as any other asset in organization has to be managed.

In knowledge based economy we treat intellectual capital as a strategic asset. It is a sum of knowledge of people in the organization and it decides about the value of the organization, the value that is different from the financial one. Intellectual capital consists of patents, workers skills, technologies, information about clients and suppliers and experience (Stewart, 1997) and it can be presented as in fig. 4.

Source: (Chauvel & Despres, 2002)

#### Fig. 3. From data to wisdom

42 New Research on Knowledge Management Technology

There are many definitions of knowledge that can be found in literature. Knowledge can be seen either in a narrower or broader meaning. According to an encyclopedia definition knowledge in its narrower meaning is understood as the whole credible information about the reality with the ability to use it. In its broader meaning knowledge is a set of information, believes, etc. that are of practical or recognizable value (Encyklopedia Powszechna, 2005). Knowledge can be described as all information and skills used by people to solve their problems which cover practical and theoretical elements as well as hints and rules how to proceed. Knowledge can be treated as the implementation of information in practice. It also can be seen as early collected and cumulated information. From the information systems point of view, knowledge consists of facts and reasoning rules. And another definition of knowledge says that data are transformed into information, then into knowledge by adding context, experience and interpretation. Knowledge is a skill to realize concrete tasks basing on information (Probst & Raub & Romhardt, 2002).

Dependencies among data, information, knowledge and wisdom are shown in fig. 3.

Classifications of knowledge can be different, depending on the criterion which has been taken into account. Knowledge can be *a priori* or *a posteriori* one. Knowledge can be divided into *science* that is general knowledge and *techniques* used in achieving economical effects. We can also distinguish knowledge which is conscious and unconscious (tacit) one (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 2000). Tacit knowledge is our knowledge, experience or context, in which we see information. Knowledge can be classified into *procedural, declarative* or *mixed* one. Knowledge can be also seen as *domain knowledge* (e.g. medical, technical, financial, managerial etc.) or *meta-knowledge* (knowledge about knowledge). Knowledge can also be static, dynamic, causal, full or not full, sure or unsure, primordial or secondary, secret or

Knowledge is connected with innovations; knowledge and innovations – with creativity of

In knowledge based economy we treat intellectual capital as a strategic asset. It is a sum of knowledge of people in the organization and it decides about the value of the organization,

people. Knowledge as any other asset in organization has to be managed.

Source: (Nycz, 2007)

Fig. 2. Basic pillars of knowledge based economy

open, managerial or technological.

Source: (Stewart, 1997)

Fig. 4. Forms of intellectual capital

Knowledge management covers such areas as information management, management of conscious knowledge (that has been previously codified in structural and non-structural databases and data warehouses – knowledge about processes), management of nonconscious knowledge (that workers possess in their brains), and management of intellectual capital (that means management of production processes basing on intellectual assets of the organization) (Caldwell & Harris, 2002).

When talking about knowledge management we should think also about such aspects as law conditions which are applied in a particular country, norms, standards, disposals, law regulations within organization as well as those coming from the outside, cultural and

Management of Knowledge Acquisition from Human Sources in Innovation Transfer 45

The key to this model is the interaction between forms of knowledge and levels of the organization. The spiral resulting from the conversion of the explicit knowledge into the hidden one on each level, is the basis for the creation and playback of knowledge in the organization. Knowledge of the Japanese model is individual, group, organizational and inter-organizational. The spiral of knowledge creation in organizations can be activated by

Spiral is driven by the intentions, aspirations and objectives of the organization – it

It must provide employees with autonomy because it is a catalyst for the emergence of

 Organization should be characterized by the creative chaos and instability. It can be used to violate workers' routines and interaction with the rapidly changing environment. It also allows more reliable and faster respond in the event of a crisis. In the organization, there should be some redundant information - going beyond the needs of operational activity, and the organization should be as internally differentiated

Members of the organization more easily adapt to their environment when they differ from

The Ba concept (model) by I.Nonaka and L.Konno can be seen as the enhancement of the Nonaka's and Takeuchi's model. It can be understood as a space where there is a dynamic exchange of knowledge and there are knowledge-conversion processes listed above. Within

interaction space - space to convert tacit knowledge into the explicit one, the key here

"original space - space to share emotions, experiences and mental models,

must be present and makes the workers until they become their targets,

Source: www.emeraldinsight.com

fulfilling the following demands:

as its surrounding.

each other.

new ideas and positive motivation,

this model four spaces have been characterized:

are dialogues and metaphors,

Fig. 5. Nonaka's and Takeuchi's knowledge management model

technological regulations. Considering these aspects, it is useful to define some layers of medical knowledge management. They can be distinguished as following: (1) law regulations, (2) knowledge assets of the organization and particular workers, (3) scientific researches carried out with cooperation with medical universities – they can be treated as processes enhancing general as well as specialized knowledge, (4) general information standards that are obligatory in a country, (5) universal systems of economic object identification, (6) infrastructure information systems in medical sector.

As we have already said, knowledge, as any other asset in organization, should be managed. There are many descriptions and definitions of KM in literature. For the purpose of this book we propose the following definition:

*Knowledge Management is such an approach that covers identification, collecting (storing), development, enlargement, co-usage of both material and non-material information assets in organization*. Our further investigations will be based on this definition.

Sources of medical knowledge can be different. They are grouped according to different criteria. When we consider how 'modern' they are, we can distinguish traditional sources (written on paper like books, articles in medical journals, scientific reports, etc.) in the shape of traditional documents (e.g. patents, certifications), and electronic sources, like traditional databases and data files, audio and video documents, hypertexts, multi-media databases, data warehouses, knowledge bases, located inside the organization as well as outside, which are accessible via Internet or other nets. These sources are depicted to the conscious knowledge which is structuralized and accessible to those who need it (in fact it is only theoretically, because not all the knowledge especially this very new, innovative one is open to everybody).

But what about the tacit knowledge? Its importance is still growing and this is the obvious truth we all know. But how to manage it? How to convince people to share their knowledge, experience, results of their experiments, etc.? We will try to answer these questions below.
