**4. Conclusion**

184 Herbicides – Properties, Synthesis and Control of Weeds

DDW 10.44 DDW 285 5 4.98 Tap water 5.41 DDW 182 15 4.51 Danube water 3.82

Table 4. The influence of water type on the degradation rate (*R*) of CLP determined after 120 min of irradiation. Operation conditions: *c*(CLP) 0 = 1.0 mM, TiO2 Wackherr = 2.0 mg mL–1, *t*

In the literature, the inhibition of photocatalytic properties in the presence of ions is often

106 M–1 s–1) (Buxton et al., 1988). Because of that we focused our attention on the influence of different concentrations of this ion on the photocatalytic degradation (Figure 12).

inhibit the degradation rate due to the high rate constant *k′* of its reaction with

Expectedly, an inhibition of CLP degradation was observed after adding HCO3

Fig. 12. Effect of the concentration of HCO3 on photodegradation of CLP in DDW.

The effect of HUM can be explained by the reaction with

Operation conditions: *c*(CLP)0 = 1.0 mM, TiO2 Wackherr = 2.0 mg mL–1, *t* = 25 oC, pH~7.0.

of the latter for the reaction with CLP. Moreover, the actually available UV radiation reduces because some organic matters (especially aromatic compounds) absorb strongly UV

OH radical by ions. Of ionic species, HCO <sup>3</sup>

can especially,

OH (8.5 ×

to DDW up

OH, which lowers the availability

**<sup>3</sup>** (mg L–1) HUM (mg L–1) *R* (M min–1)

HCO

= 25 oC, pH ~7.0.

to about 285 mg L–1.

explained by the scavenging of

The results of this study clearly indicate that under the UV irradiation TiO2 Wackherr was more efficient than Degussa P25 in both the process of removal of CLP from water and its mineralisation. The reaction followed the pseudo-first order kinetics. The optimum loading of TiO2 Wackherr was 1.0 mg mL–1 at pH 3.5. The photodegradation rate was dependent on the temperature, and the apparent activation energy was 37.9 kJ mol–1. Along with molecular oxygen, KBrO3 was the most efficient electron acceptor when concerning the degradation of the parent compound, whereas its mineralisation was most efficient in the presence of O2 only. It was found that the presence of ethanol as a scavenger of OH inhibited the CLP photodecomposition, suggesting that the reaction mechanism mainly involved free OH. The LC–DAD, and LC–ESI–MS/MS monitoring of the process showed that six intermediates were formed. The analysis of the intermediate product formed during the photocatalytic degradation could be a useful source of information about the degradation pathways. The rate of photodegradation of CLP in DDW was about two/three times higher than in tap and river waters. The photodegradation rate was dominantly influenced by the pH of the medium and the presence of HCO **<sup>3</sup>** and DOM. Our work validates the presented screening methodology of ecotoxicological risk assessment for transformation products, and can be used as a first step in toxicity assessment of degradation products and for prioritisation and planning of more detailed investigations.

Comparative Assessment of the Photocatalytic Efficiency

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#### **5. Acknowledgment**

This document has been produced with the financial assistance of the European Union (Project HU-SRB/0901/121/116 OCEEFPTRWR Optimization of Cost Effective and Environmentally Friendly Procedures for Treatment of Regional Water Resources). The contents of this document are the sole responsibility of the University of Novi Sad Faculty of Sciences and can under no circumstances be regarded as reflecting the position of the European Union and/or the Managing Authority and was supported by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Serbia (Projects: No ON172042).

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**11** 

**Row Crop Herbicide Drift Effects on Water** 

Peter Wesley Perschbacher1, Regina Edziyie1 and Gerald M. Ludwig2

Aquatic ecosystems produce substantial amounts of aquatic products; including all new sources of seafood, from aquaculture. Level land with clay soils and the availability of water supplies makes riverine alluvial plains favorable areas for row crops and aquaculture. Aquaculture ponds are susceptible to impacts from row crop production through drift of herbicides. To assess these impacts we have conducted field research in replicated mesocosms filled with water and associated naturally-occurring communities from various pond ecosystems and subjected to expected levels of drift from all major aerially-applied herbicides currently in use. Rather than an organismal approach and LC50's, data indicates community-level approaches better approximate ecosystem impacts. Herbicide drift that affects phytoplankton adversely or in a stimulatory manner will similarly impact the ecosystem, as phytoplankton produce oxygen, take up ammonia and nitrite and provide food for zooplankton. Drift levels are below toxic levels to most other aquatic organisms, including fish (Spradley, 1991). Drift amounts reaching water bodies and ponds, including fish ponds, depend on many factors, but the cumulative range is most affected by the size of the water body. Thus, other than in direct overflight, larger catfish ponds (6-8 ha) have a drift range of 1-10% and smaller more recent designs of 4 ha, 5-20%. Even smaller ponds, used for fingerling production and baitfish production (0.8-2 ha), may receive drift amounts of up to 30% of the field rate.Herbicide drift may be expected to impact small water bodies through death or reduction in the photosynthetic rats of phytoplankton, which could reduce the supply of dissolved oxygen, inhibit removal of toxic nitrogenous wastes, and reduce production of zooplankton by reducing their food supply. These conditions could also result in death, disease, or lower growth rates of managed or cultured fishes. Triazine herbicides (atrazine and simazine), as well as amides (propanil), phenylureas (diuron), triazones, uraciles and phenolics, act through inhibition of photosystem II (PSII) of photosynthesis (Cobb, 1992). They are widely used in agriculture, since they provide a low-cost basal weed control (Jay et al., 1997). Using mesocosms and naturally-occurring plankton communities in a multi-day study provides better extrapolations to real environments than laboratory studies on a single species (Juettner et al., 1995), and possibly prevent overestimate of impacts (Macinnis-Ng and Ralph, 2002). The major drift source is aerial application, with an

**1. Introduction** 

*1University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff, Center for Aquaculture/Fisheries* 

*2H.K.D. Stuttgart National Aquaculture Research Center* 

**Bodies and Aquaculture** 

*United States of America* 

