;

on a national level are described as follows:

Table 3. Summary of global sustainability index variation.

In a global sustainability context, now and near future electricity supply must be supported by an energy carrier systems mix that provide affordable, abundant, and reliable electricity while minimizing impacts on the environment. This chapter provides a road-map to develop sustainability analysis and the specific results for the energy carrier systems' context.

A wide range of indicators is used to characterize the technological, economical, environmental and social dimensions of current energy carrier conversion systems into electricity. Minimum and maximum values of selected indicators were collected from specialized and specific literature for each energy conversion system. Firstly, the same weight is given to all indicators in order to evaluate a global sustainability index from an equality point of view. Then, indicators are used separately to assess sustainability. For this evaluation, the weighting factor of a selected indicator is higher than the others. Finally, the weighting factors of indicators assumed as more relevant, are higher compared to the weighting factors of the remainder indicators.

A hierarchy ranking is outlined from the results of this multi-criteria analysis. Hydro, nuclear, wind and natural gas-fired power plants mix stand out for a sustainable future for the electricity supply. Notice that social acceptance of nuclear technology was based on data collected prior to the disaster in Fukushima power station. Nowadays, the social acceptance of this technology is probably lesser, affecting its overall level of sustainability.

In the opposite side, geothermal and ocean energy conversion systems are and will continue to be the less sustainable. This condition arises from the specific needs for the location of geothermal power plants as well as from the low values for each indicator when comparing

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An update on variation range of different sustainability indicators is provided. The implementation of a particular system type over another change continuously, due to usual technology improvements. These improvements increase the energy conversion efficiency and reduce the greenhouse gases emissions, as well as the installation and operation costs. Additionally, these improvements can lead to changes in society mentality. However, is must be taken into account that all test scenarios were developed on a worldwide basis. In a particular national context, some constrains must be evaluated for each indicator. Additionally, the values range of each indicator must be determined locally.

This work aims to contribute on the debate on current and future electricity supply from energy carrier systems, taking into account that we will need to continue to use fossil fuel to supply the worldwide increasing demand on electricity.

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**12** 

*ABB Inc. USA* 

**The Need for Efficient Power Generation** 

This chapter makes the business case for energy efficient plant auxiliary systems and discusses some trends in electricity markets and power generation technologies. The information in these colored sections is specific to power generation industries and/or

Currently growing 2.6 percent per year, world electricity demand is projected to double by 2030. The share of coal-fired generation in total generation will likely increase from 40 percent in 2006 to 44 percent in 2030. The share of coal in the global energy consumption mix is shown in the figure below. This share is now increasing because of relatively high natural gas prices and strong electricity demand in Asia, where coal is abundant. Coal has

China expanded coal use by 11 percent in 2005 and surpassed the U.S. as the number one coal user in 2009. Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel, with proven global reserves at the end of 2005 of 909 billion metric tons, equivalent to 164 years of production at current rates

In the U.S., coal-fired plants currently provide 45%, down from 51% just a few years ago, of total generating capacity (Woodruff, 2005), or about 400 GW, from about 600 power plants. Total electrical generation capacity additions are estimated to be 750 GW by 2030 (International Energy Agency, 2006). Of that new capacity, 156 GW is projected to be provided by coal plants (Ferrer, Green Strategies for Aging Coal Plants: Alternatives, Risks & Benefits, 2008). Other estimates put capacity addition to 2030 at 280 coal-fired 500MW

In North America, declining natural gas prices are again creating a trend toward more energy efficient and lower emission plant designs, a trend now expected to continue at least thru 2020. The generating costs of combined-cycle gas turbine (CCGT) plants, which use natural gas, are expected to be between 5–7 cents per kWh, while coal-fired plants are in the range 4–6 cents/kWh (International EnergyAgency, 2006). Integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) plants are not yet competitive as of 2008 (which is why government is subsidizing many such projects). Their low relative costs make coal-fired plants competitive

process plants with large on-site power and/or steam heat generation.

been the least expensive fossil fuel on an energy-per-Btu basis since 1976.

**2. Trends in power demand and supply** 

(International Energy Agency, 2006).

in the U.S. with other large central generating plants.

plants (Takahashi, 2007).

**1. Introduction** 

Richard Vesel and Robert Martinez

