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Baker´s yeast is a commercial product of molasses (the end product of sugar manufacture) which constitutes a solution of sugar, organic and inorganic material in water. Baker`s yeast industry wastewater has a high BOD and COD values which contains significant amount of nitrogen and non-biodegradable organic pollutants. In addition, the effluent has a typical dark colour and, therefore the possible decolourisation of the effluent has been investigated by the Fenton process (Pala & Erden, 2005). Fenton oxidation was applied to the biologically pre-treated baker´s yeast industry wastewater. In the optimum operating conditions, 99% colour removal and 88% COD reduction was achieved. Photo-Fenton and UV/H2O2 processes have also been studied in the removal of colour and organics from baker´s yeast

Palm oil effluent is a colloidal dispersion of biological origin which has a typical unpleasant odour. The total solids content of the effluent is 5-7% and it constitutes of dissolved, organic and inorganic solids, a reason why it is extremely difficult to treat by conventional wastewater treatment methods (Zinatizadeh et al., 2006). In the study of Babu et al. (2010) a palm oil effluent was treated by a combined electro-Fenton-biological oxidation process. After 2 h of EF and 5 d of biological treatment 86% COD removal was achieved. The treated

Dairy industry wastewater has a typical white colour and a high nutrient level as well as organic matter content. It is usually treated by biological methods such as the activated sludge process and anaerobic filters although aerobic biological processes have high energy requirements whilst anaerobic biological methods require additional treatment (Kushwaha et al., 2010). Recently, solar photocatalytic oxidation has been used after anaerobic sludge blanket reactor for the removal of COD from dairy industry wastewater (Banu et al., 2008). The combination of anaerobic process and solar photocatalytic oxidation using TiO2 as a catalyst resulted in 95% removal of COD from dairy industry wastewater. This integrated system may be a promising alternative for the treatment of dairy industry effluents. In addition, Inamdar & Singh (2008) have applied photocatalysis in the treatment of dairy

The characteristics and treatment of food industry wastewaters by different advanced oxidation processes were considered. Typically, the amount and composition of the effluent varies considerably. The high organic matter content is a basic problem in food industry wastewaters but the organic compounds are usually easily biodegradable and the effluents can be treated by conventional anaerobic or aerobic biological methods. However, as a consequence of diverse consumption, the forming effluents may contain compounds which are poisonous to micro-organisms in the biological treatment plant. The pre-treatment of the effluent by chemical oxidation, especially with AOPs, can oxidise biorefractory pollutants to a more easily biodegradable form. Thus, the combination of AOP and biological treatment

may be a possible solution for the treatment of variable food industry wastewaters.

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Amalia Conte and Matteo Alessandro Del Nobile

*University of Foggia, Agricultural Faculty, Department of Food Science,* 

In an effort to understand the physical and rheological behavior as well as the mechanical and sensory attributes of foods, processing focus and emphasis have shifted to the microstructure level. Microstructure elements such as air bubbles or cells, starch granules, protein assemblies and food biopolymer matrices contribute greatly to the identity and quality of foods (Aguilera, 2005). The microstructure of food has an influence over the key attributes of a product as evaluated by consumers. Many of these properties are synergetic, therefore having multiple interactions, and are poorly understood as a result. Advances in the last decade in microscopy techniques, along with an improvement in computing capabilities, has made it possible to understand a food's structure; its relation to physical properties (so called structure-property relationships) and how to engineer and control these properties (Aguilera, 2005). Structure-property relationships can strongly affect the physiochemical, functional, technological and even nutritional properties of foods. For example, with regards to solid food foams like bread, extruded cereals, biscuits and cakes, the consumer appreciation of these products is strongly linked to the texture. For texture, sensory properties of solid food foams are related to both mechanical properties and cellular structure. In this context, determining the relationships between a given mechanical property and the cellular structure is thus of prime importance. It has also been found that the structural organization of the components of cheese, especially the protein network, affect the texture of cheese: in particular the stress at fracture, the modulus and work at fracture could be predicted very well from the size of the protein aggregates (Wium et al., 2003). Cheeses having a regular and close protein matrix with small and uniform (in size and shape) fat globules show a more elastic behavior than cheeses with open structure and numerous and irregular cavities (Buffa et al., 2001). The mechanical properties of cocoa butter are strongly dependent from its morphology at microscopic level and, in particular, from the polymorphic transformation of the fat crystals and the coexistence of different polymorphic forms (Brunello et al., 2003). Thorvaldsson et al. (1999) studied the influence of heating rate on rheology and structure of heat-treated pasta dough. They found that the fastheated samples had pores smaller than the slowly heated one and that the pore dimension affects the energy required to cause a fracture. In particular, the energy required to determine a fracture in the samples having the smallest pores was more than for the

**1. Introduction** 

