**5. Conclusion**

X-ray microtomography has proven to be a very useful technique to image the 3-D microstructure of food products. X-ray microtomography can be complementary to other microscopic techniques used for food research. With X-ray microtomography, a full 3-D

X-ray microtomography has proven to be a very useful technique to image the 3-D microstructure of food products. X-ray microtomography can be complementary to other microscopic techniques used for food research. With X-ray microtomography, a full 3-D

Fig. 2. The average distribution for the total volume of the holes.

Fig. 3. The total number of pores.

**5. Conclusion** 

image of large samples can be obtained with a voxel resolution of about 0.5 µm and image analysis of the full 3-D microstructure, measuring the size, shape, networking/connectivity and distribution of various phases is possible. These measurements represent the full 3-D microstructure, which is not always possible by 2-D image analysis using statistical techniques.

As stated above, the fat content in meat products is a very important compound and nowadays, lots of meat products with different fat contents and different physical and chemical features (protein network, moisture content, ingredients, additives and so on) are being manufactured. Consumers of today, require some of these information e.g. total fat content, types fat, ingredients, additives etc. to be stated. Therefore total fat content of meat products (e.g. salami, steak etc) is an important quantity used in numerous studies. X-ray microtomography has proven to be a very useful and sophisticated tool for the quantification analysis of fat in meat and meat products. Combined visualisation of the microstructure using X-ray microtomography and other microscopic techniques, extraction of quantitative data obtained by image analysis, and modelling of the microstructure based on characteristics of the structuring elements should point to the optimal food product. The consumer appreciation of solid food foams like bread, extruded cereals, biscuits and cakes is strongly linked to the texture. The control of the sensory properties of such products, which is still a challenge, requires a better understanding of relationships between composition, cellular structure formation mechanisms and the nal texture. For texture, sensory properties of solid food foams are related to both mechanical properties and cellular structure. In this context, determining the relationships between a given mechanical property and the cellular structure is thus of prime importance. Since cellular cereal products can be considered, from morphological and topological points of view, like metallic or polymeric foams, it is tempting to address this problem by referring to Gibson & Ashby's model. Such scaling laws are shown to be efficient to assess the effect of the relative density on mechanical properties like Young's modulus or strength of extruded starchy materials or bread. However, for the same density, mechanical properties and sensory properties are also sensitive to microstructural dispersions.

With regards to cellular cereal products, X-ray microtomography to date has proven to be a very useful technique for the non-invasive 3-D visualization and quantitative analysis of the microstructure of cellular cereal products. Further work can be carried out to study the inner cellular structure of the cereal matrix or to assess the integrity of moisture barriers applied on cereal product. The obtained quantitative information can be used as input for simulation models for moisture diffusion. The technique has significant benefits for the design, analysis, and processing science of certain food products. Such an advance in cellular food measurement will undoubtedly open up new horizons for the development of mathematical and computational models that link product microstructure to product mechanical properties and rheology.

With regards to emulsions such as mayonnaise, the fat distribution could be observed and quantified in the microtomographic images, as well as fat droplets size. With µCT, a full 3-D image of large samples can be obtained with high resolution and image analysis of the full 3-D microstructure, measuring the size, shape, networking/connectivity and distribution of various phases is possible. These measurements represent the full 3-D microstructure, which is not always possible by 2-D image analysis using statistical techniques. The correlation of

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With regards to coffee beans, the case study demonstrated that with x-ray microtomography a full 3-D image of the bean samples could be obtained with high resolution. Image analysis of the full 3-D microstructure does allow the measuring of size, shape, total volume distribution, porosity and density. These measurements calculated from the 3-D microstructure are not always achievable from 2-D image analysis even by using statistical techniques. Therefore, as proven also in this work X-ray microtomography is a useful and sophisticated tool to provide detail information on the microstructure of porous foods such as coffee beans at different roasting degree: from green to very dark. In fact x-ray microtomography was able to quantify the structural alteration of the microstructure caused by the high internal pressure generated by the large amount of gases released as a consequence of the thermal treatment.

#### **6. References**


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**19** 

357

 *Mexico* 

**Corrosion in the Food Industry and Its Control** 

From ancient times human beings have survived on a diet consisting on a relatively few species of plants and animals, domesticated and then cultivated and grown. Three cereals, wheat, rice and corn, supply the need of human energy, protein and vitamins requirements for the network of metabolic processes to maintain normal body function and temperature. In a prehistoric era, indigenous peoples all over the world were moving in inhospitable grounds obtaining their daily sustenance by hunting and gathering fruits,

Actually, the three largest markets worldwide, according to their production extent, the number of consumers and their economic and social significance are the food, energy and water markets. Furthermore, their increasing scarcity and soaring prices lead to a global critical situation. The demand for increased food supply is related both, to population increase and personal and family income. Consequently, the food market is the largest one,

The organized food production and supply starts with the agricultural revolution, developed and implemented in the fertile valleys of the rivers Tigris-Euphrates in Mesopotamia and the Nile in ancient Egypt. Afterwards the food industry expanded, avoided widespread famine and ensured that sufficient food is supplied for all people to stay healthy. Current food research had been largely stimulated by rapidly growing world demand but technological advances in food processing, equipment and production plants have also contributed. A most significant aspect in the search of new nutritional food is the requirement for adequate protein in regions where meat and fish are not available. Additionally, advances in the food industry (FI) such as preservation, packaging and storage facilitate food delivery and minimized health hazards. Space flight conditions have stimulated the creation of space food which meets highly demanding standards for conservation and to be ready for easy digestion e.g. solid dehydrated food easily converted

Techniques for preserving food from natural deterioration following harvest or slaughter dated to prehistoric times applying drying, salting, fermentation of milk and fruits and pickling of vegetables. Modern techniques include canning, freezing, dehydration, cooking under vacuum and addition of chemicals. The principal causes of food spoilage are growth

including all the inhabitants of this planet, about seven billion, since everyone eats!

**1. Introduction** 

seeds and roots.

into liquid or paste food.

Margarita Stoytcheva, Roumen Zlatev and Monica Carrillo Beltran

Benjamín Valdez Salas, Michael Schorr Wiener,

*Universidad Autonoma de Baja California.* 

 *Instituto de Ingeniería, Mexicali, Baja California,* 

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