**5. REDD in the Congo Basin in Central Africa**

The Central Africa forests region expands across the borders of six countries – Cameron, Central African Republic, the Republic of Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon – covering an area of approximately 330 million hectares that sits largely within the geologic confines of a Basin commonly known in geographic terms as the Congo Basin. It contains the second largest area of contiguous evergreen forest in the world. The expansive forests cover of the Congo Basin presents the region with the ability to make meaningful contribution in the fight against climate change via carbon sequestration and reducing emissions from deforestation and forests degradation (REDD), as it stores an estimated 25-30 billion tons of carbon in its vegetation (Hoare, 2007). The lowland forests of the region in particular, though represents only 35% of the land area, stores more than 60% of carbon (Nasi et al., 2009, as cited in Sonwa et al., 2011). Yet the region suffers from one of the highest deforestation and forest degradation rates in the world, making it one of the biggest sources of carbon emissions (Hoare, 2007; Streck et al., 2008). Between 1990 and 2000 the region suffered a net deforestation and net degradation of 0.19 and 0.10% respectively (Congo Basin Forest Partnership [CBFP], 2007); and an annual deforestation of 0.15% during the period 2000-2005 (Hansen et al., 2008, as cited in Sonwa et al., 2011). Although the region's deforestation during the period 2005-2010 was relatively low at -0.23% per year (Food and Agricultural Organization [FAO], 2011), some studies (e.g. Zhang et al., 2002) show a projected increase of 1.3% by 2050. This will mean significant emissions from deforestation and degradation because of the region's vast area of forests.

carbon in boreal forests soils, the high level of activities (agriculture, mining, ranching, road development, etc) in tropical forests soils leads to more release of soil carbon into the

**Forest Type Area Plant Carbon Soil Carbon Total Carbon** 

In all, the IPCC estimates that deforestation contributes approximately 17% of global greenhouse gas emissions (IPCC, 2007), which is equivalent to about 5.8 Gt of CO2 per year (UN-REDD, 2010). According to the IPCC, reduced deforestation and degradation is the forest mitigation option, as it has the largest and most immediate carbon stock impact with approximately 93% of the total mitigation potential in the tropics (IPCC, 2007). This also has direct positive implications for the natural environment, notably in the area of biodiversity conservation, as well as indirect positive implications for sustainable development, notably in the area of poverty reduction in developing countries in the tropics. Therefore, the mitigation of tropical deforestation and forests degradation is crucial in the fight against climate change. It is in this regard therefore, following the IPCC decision in 2007 establishing the REDD mechanism, that the conceptual framework for managing forests in

The Central Africa forests region expands across the borders of six countries – Cameron, Central African Republic, the Republic of Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon – covering an area of approximately 330 million hectares that sits largely within the geologic confines of a Basin commonly known in geographic terms as the Congo Basin. It contains the second largest area of contiguous evergreen forest in the world. The expansive forests cover of the Congo Basin presents the region with the ability to make meaningful contribution in the fight against climate change via carbon sequestration and reducing emissions from deforestation and forests degradation (REDD), as it stores an estimated 25-30 billion tons of carbon in its vegetation (Hoare, 2007). The lowland forests of the region in particular, though represents only 35% of the land area, stores more than 60% of carbon (Nasi et al., 2009, as cited in Sonwa et al., 2011). Yet the region suffers from one of the highest deforestation and forest degradation rates in the world, making it one of the biggest sources of carbon emissions (Hoare, 2007; Streck et al., 2008). Between 1990 and 2000 the region suffered a net deforestation and net degradation of 0.19 and 0.10% respectively (Congo Basin Forest Partnership [CBFP], 2007); and an annual deforestation of 0.15% during the period 2000-2005 (Hansen et al., 2008, as cited in Sonwa et al., 2011). Although the region's deforestation during the period 2005-2010 was relatively low at -0.23% per year (Food and Agricultural Organization [FAO], 2011), some studies (e.g. Zhang et al., 2002) show a projected increase of 1.3% by 2050. This will mean significant emissions from

deforestation and degradation because of the region's vast area of forests.

Tropical 1.76 442 450 892 Temperate 1.04 208 352 561 Boreal 1.37 236 1,260 1,496

(Area in billion hectares; carbon in metric tons of CO2 per hectare)

Table 1. Average Carbon Stocks in the World's major Forests

developing countries has been in progress since 2008.

**5. REDD in the Congo Basin in Central Africa**

Source: Adapted from Gorte & Sheikh (2010)

earth's atmosphere.

It is difficult to separate deforestation from forest degradation as deforestation often paves the way for other activities that degrade the forest (Kaimowitz & Angelsen, 1999). This point is raised in the region's initial REDD proposal to the UNFCCC in 2006, in which the region's potential contribution to emissions reduction from "deforestation and degradation" is emphasized (UNFCCC/FCCC/ SBSTA/2007/MISC.14, 2007). The proposal stressed the significance of including forests degradation to the reduction mechanism, arguing that "degradation constitutes the main cause of forest cover loss, likely to affect nearly 60% of productive lands in the Congo Basin" (Alvarado & Wertz-Kanounnikoff, 2008). Also, because most of the countries in the Congo Basin already had or were in the process of developing forest degradation plans at the time the proposal was presented in 2006; they wanted to be rewarded for their early efforts (Karsenty, 2008). Even more important is that considering forests degradation as a mechanism for emissions reduction would increase overall emissions reduction than could be achieved with deforestation mechanism alone (Alvarado & Wertz-Kanounnikoff, 2008). The UNFCCC reasoned with this proposal. Recognizing that it is difficult, if not impossible, to separate forests degradation from deforestation in a potential reduction of forest emissions mechanism, the UNFCCC shifted from its original position which was advocating "RED" – reducing emissions from deforestation – to a one that included forest degradation – reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation (REDD) – and officially endorsed the mechanism in Bali, Indonesia in 2007.

In line with its proposal to the UNFCCC, the Congo Basin countries have made progress in integrating forest degradation activities into the ongoing REDD pilot projects. This is shown by the current landscape of REDD activities distinguished by three groups of activities – demonstration activities, readiness activities, and activities without explicit carbon goals *–*  (Wertz-Kanounnikoff & Kongphan-apirak, 2009). Demonstration activities are those that are designed with carbon as the 'explicit objective'. Readiness activities are designed to prepare 'an enabling framework' for adopting and implementing any REDD mechanism that the UNFCCC might finally approve for a post-2012 Kyoto commitment. This includes preparing documents such as R-PINs (Readiness Plan Idea Notes) which involves capacity building through consultation with stakeholders, developing baseline projects to facilitate measuring, monitoring, and controlling emissions in order to avoid the problem of additionality, and R-PPs (Readiness Preparation Proposals) which entails developing a national strategy framework. Activities without explicit carbon goals are those designed to promote the enhancement of ecosystems management activities such as payment for ecosystem services (PES) scheme, as well as sustainable development activities such as poverty reduction scheme. Most countries in the region are currently engaged in readiness activities with progress been made by Cameroon and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

However, the region's ability to make meaningful contribution to emissions reduction could be tampered by a number of problems including – the inability to control emissions beyond project and country boundaries as reduced emissions in the region could be linked to increased emissions in industrialized nations (leakage), the issue of determining how much deforestation has been avoided and how much deforestation is too much deforestation (base-line), the limited ability of understanding how to deal with emissions on a long-term bases and avoiding short-lived benefits (permanence), the limited ability to respond to the demand for carbon credits as determined by the opportunity cost and the cost of implementing the REDD (price) and, dealing with issues of ownership of the land and illegal logging control caused by weak economic, political and legal structures, and poor

Obstacles to a Conceptual Framework for Sustainable Forest

approach (Dooley, 2009).

 Sustainable forests management Regional and international cooperation

Drivers of deforestation

 Capacity building and Financial mechanisms.

Management Under REDD in Central Africa: A Two-Country Analysis 35

 Market-based instrument – A drawback to the REDD market-based instrument for the Congo Basin countries is the concept of a historical baseline. In spite of the plethora of empirical data documenting deforestation activities in the Congo Basin, most countries in the region still have relatively low deforestation rates (Dooley, 2009) compared to countries in other forest regions such as Asia (e.g. Indonesia) and the Amazon Basin (e.g. Brazil). It is a paradox that the comparably low deforestation rates in the Congo Basin works to the disadvantage of countries in the region, when it comes to the carbon markets baseline instrument under the REDD mechanism. This excerpt from Dooley

For forest credits to be traded in international carbon markets, the reductions in emissions must be measurable, and they must be over and above what would have happened otherwise. To measure this difference, a reference level must be established, which forms the baseline against which the impact of programs to reduce deforestation is measured. Most REDD proposals are based on the concept of a historical baseline: the reference scenario is determined on previous rates of deforestation, usually over a tenyear period, with the average forming the baseline. When emissions from deforestation (or any other activities included in a REDD agreement) fall below this rate, forest carbon credits are issued […]. However, this approach favors countries with high rates of deforestation in the past. Countries with low deforestation rates, such as the Congo Basin countries – and those which have succeeded in reducing deforestation, such as Costa Rica and India – will not be able to claim emission reduction credits under this

(2009) explains the paradox of the historical baseline concept more clearly:

The socio-economic and political category is characterized by issues relating to:

**5.1 Case analysis: Cameroon and Democratic Republic of Congo** 

The rest of this chapter will weave the aforementioned issues in an analyses of the socioeconomic, political and legal challenges of implementing the REDD mechanism in two countries in the Congo Basin – Cameroon and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).

The country Cameroon is located at 6° 0' 0" North of the Equator and 12° 0' 0" East of the Greenwich Meridian. The southern part of the country constitute part of the Congo Basin forests with an estimated 17 million hectares of tropical forests, accounting for over onetenth of the remaining tropical forests in the Congo Basin (Sunderlin et al., 2000, as cited in Bellassen & Gitz, 2008). The forests of Cameroon are home to more than 8,300 plant species, close to 300 mammal species, and 848 bird species (International Tropical Timber Organization [ITTO], 2006), and support the livelihoods of millions of Cameroonians. The Democratic Republic of Congo lies South-east of Cameroon at 4° 31' 0" South of the Equator

local people is a drawback to the REDD mechanism in the region.

(e.g. Australia, Brazil, Cameroon, Guyana, Indonesia, Mexico, Tanzania) in which data from site-specific measurements are inventoried for carbon estimation analysis, the cost associated with gathering quality data (Zahabu et al., 2005; Tewari & Phartiyal, 2006; Karky, 2008) in a forest changing scenario, together with the lack of know-how by the

industrial practices in the forestry and agricultural sectors (tenure and usage rights). These problems have become more evident in the past three years with the ongoing countryspecific pilot project experiences with the REDD mechanism and can be explained under two categories: (1) the techno-scientific and methodological category, and (2) the socioeconomic and political category.

The techno-scientific and methodological category is characterized by the following issues:


<sup>6</sup> As of 2010, only one large industrial forest plantation existed in the Congo Basin – Eucalyptus du Congo (ECO s.a.) – in Pointe Noire, Republic of Congo (Sonwa et al., 2011).

<sup>7</sup> The IPCC monitoring standard places data in three tiers in ascending order of quality (Skutsch et al., 2009): Tier 1 – highly generalized data that may not represent actual condition on the ground. Tier 2 – data derived from national-level activities that may be closer to on-the-ground conditions but may still not be accurate. Tier 3 – data derived from specific on-the-spot measurement with low error factor.

industrial practices in the forestry and agricultural sectors (tenure and usage rights). These problems have become more evident in the past three years with the ongoing countryspecific pilot project experiences with the REDD mechanism and can be explained under two categories: (1) the techno-scientific and methodological category, and (2) the socio-

The techno-scientific and methodological category is characterized by the following issues: Definitions – there are different definitions for forests and forest-related processes but currently there is no clear bottom-line definition applicable to the REDD mechanism. A crucial definitional issue is whether or not, and how to include plantations to the REDD mechanism since its already part of the climate change mitigation strategy under the clean development mechanism (CDM). But given that forest plantations have been linked to the loss of biodiversity (e.g. Butler, 2005), environmental NGOs like Greenpeace and WWF are opposed to the idea of including forest plantations in the definition. This is at odds with the already existing forests management plans in the Congo Basin which includes forest plantations, currently being pushed for acceptance by the UNFCCC. Although plantation forestry is very limited6 in this region, it has plenty of cash-crop plantations – palm, rubber, cocoa, coffee – that the region would benefit from (though at the disadvantage of the regions rich biodiversity) if forest

 Estimation and monitoring of stocks carbon cycle – As is the case with forests definitions, there is currently no scientifically accepted method for accounting for stocks and flows of carbon. However, a number of tools exist which have the potential to develop internationally recognized methodologies. The accrued knowledge of remote sensing and geographic information system are proving to be useful for this purpose. Although remote sensing is proving to be useful in this regard, its application in the Congo Basin remains largely at the regional and national scales, making it inefficient for place/site specific assessment which is crucial for any eventual future REDD mechanism in the region. The importance of this element of REDD in the Congo Basin is captured best in this statement by the Central Africa Forest Commission (COMIFAC) – "No matter which final REDD mechanism is chosen, we will need to know as accurately as possible how much carbon is stored in different standing vegetation types (especially forests) and soils; released through AFOLU (agriculture, forestry and other land use) activities" (State of the Forest 2008, 2009, as cited in Central Africa Forests Commission

 Data availability – The estimation and monitoring of carbon stocks in the Congo Basin depends on quality data availability. The necessity for quality data has been emphasized by the IPCC data classification system7. This is very challenging for countries in the Congo Basin as they are required to use the best quality data "in order to make credible international claims for reduced degradation and forest carbon enhancement" (Skutsch et al., 2009). Although few pilot projects are currently going on

6 As of 2010, only one large industrial forest plantation existed in the Congo Basin – Eucalyptus du

7 The IPCC monitoring standard places data in three tiers in ascending order of quality (Skutsch et al., 2009): Tier 1 – highly generalized data that may not represent actual condition on the ground. Tier 2 – data derived from national-level activities that may be closer to on-the-ground conditions but may still not be accurate. Tier 3 – data derived from specific on-the-spot measurement with low error factor.

Congo (ECO s.a.) – in Pointe Noire, Republic of Congo (Sonwa et al., 2011).

economic and political category.

[COMIFAC], 2010).

plantations are included in the definition.

(e.g. Australia, Brazil, Cameroon, Guyana, Indonesia, Mexico, Tanzania) in which data from site-specific measurements are inventoried for carbon estimation analysis, the cost associated with gathering quality data (Zahabu et al., 2005; Tewari & Phartiyal, 2006; Karky, 2008) in a forest changing scenario, together with the lack of know-how by the local people is a drawback to the REDD mechanism in the region.

 Market-based instrument – A drawback to the REDD market-based instrument for the Congo Basin countries is the concept of a historical baseline. In spite of the plethora of empirical data documenting deforestation activities in the Congo Basin, most countries in the region still have relatively low deforestation rates (Dooley, 2009) compared to countries in other forest regions such as Asia (e.g. Indonesia) and the Amazon Basin (e.g. Brazil). It is a paradox that the comparably low deforestation rates in the Congo Basin works to the disadvantage of countries in the region, when it comes to the carbon markets baseline instrument under the REDD mechanism. This excerpt from Dooley (2009) explains the paradox of the historical baseline concept more clearly:

For forest credits to be traded in international carbon markets, the reductions in emissions must be measurable, and they must be over and above what would have happened otherwise. To measure this difference, a reference level must be established, which forms the baseline against which the impact of programs to reduce deforestation is measured. Most REDD proposals are based on the concept of a historical baseline: the reference scenario is determined on previous rates of deforestation, usually over a tenyear period, with the average forming the baseline. When emissions from deforestation (or any other activities included in a REDD agreement) fall below this rate, forest carbon credits are issued […]. However, this approach favors countries with high rates of deforestation in the past. Countries with low deforestation rates, such as the Congo Basin countries – and those which have succeeded in reducing deforestation, such as Costa Rica and India – will not be able to claim emission reduction credits under this approach (Dooley, 2009).

The socio-economic and political category is characterized by issues relating to:


The rest of this chapter will weave the aforementioned issues in an analyses of the socioeconomic, political and legal challenges of implementing the REDD mechanism in two countries in the Congo Basin – Cameroon and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).
