**4. Indigenous communities in Bangladesh**

In Bangladesh, there are about 45 ethnic communities (Costa & Dutta, 2007; GOB, 2008a) with distinct language, culture, heritage and abide by own administrating statutes (Mohsin, 1997). Population statistics on the indigenous people in Bangladesh suffers from reliability and validity. According to 1991 population Census (BBS, 1991), indigenous population was about 1.2 mill (1.13% of the total population) of which the CHTs population was 0.56 mill (Table 2). However, subsequent reports show that indigenous population of the CHTs are about 1.3 mill (CHTDF, 2009), 2 mill (GOB, 2008a) or 2.5 mill (Asian Indigenous and Tribal People Networks [AITPN], 2008). Population Census 1991 reported 12 indigenous groups living in the CHTs. However, the correct number is 11 that have been clarified later by Mohsin (2003) and CHTDF (2009). These indigenous races are *Bawm/Bom, Chak, Chakma, Khumi/Khami, Khyang, Lushai, Marma, Mro/Mru, Murang, Pankhu/Pankho, Tanchangya* and *Tripura. Mro/Mru* and *Murang* categorized into two difference race in the 1991 census which was probably a mistake.

Among the indigenous population of the CHTs *Chakma, Marma* and *Tripura* share about 90%. Dominant indigenous race of the CHTs is *Chakma* with a total population ranging from 252,858 (BBS, 1991) to 382,000 (Joshua Project, 2011). *Marma* race of the CHTs consists of a total population of 157,301 (BBS, 1991) to 210,000 (Gain, 2000). *Tanchangya* is another indigenous race of the CHTs constituting a population size of 21,000 and ranking the 5th among the ethnic communities in Bangladesh (GOB, 2008b). Among the other indigenous races, *Khasi* with variable population statistics [e.g. 12,280 (BBS, 1991) and 81,000 (Joshua Project, 2011)] live within the reserved forests of Sylhet region located in the north - eastern part of Bangladesh. A considerable number of indigenous communities including *Garo, Hazong* and *Koch* live within the fringe of the plain land *Sal* (*Shorea robusta*) forests where *Garo* is the dominant race with a total population of about 64,280 (BBS, 1991).

All the dominant indigenous groups (i.e. *Chakma, Marma and Tripura*) of the region follow the first way of life (Adnan, 2004) that means they have adopted modern life style like the mainstream society in Bangladesh. Majority of the people (i.e. *Chakma, Marma, Tanchangya*

and *Mro/Mru*) are Buddhist by religion. *Tripura* follow Hinduism. *Lushai, Pankho, Bawm* and some of the *Mro/Mru* adopted Christianity. Indigenous people of the CHTs have closer ethno - cultural affinities with other Sino -Tibetan people inhibiting in Myanmar and the Indian States of Tripura and Mizoram.

The tribal economy is basically subsistence in nature primarily based on primitive agriculture. As a result the productivity is low. They cultivate their land under input starved conditions due to lack of financial and technical resources. Historically, the indigenous people are dependent on the forests for their livelihood. Indigenous people of the CHTs


Source: BBS, 1991

188 Sustainable Forest Management – Case Studies

The distribution of natural forests in Bangladesh is eccentric i.e. the forests are located mostly in the peripheral zones of Bangladesh (Fig. 2). Out of the sixty four districts, there is no forest in twenty eight districts of Bangladesh. Major forest types within Bangladesh include i) tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen hill forests, ii) tropical littoral and mangrove forests, iii) inland moist deciduous Sal forests and iv) freshwater swamp forests (Champion & Seth, 1968). Despite having a century old regulatory forest management, the condition of the forest and forest resources in Bangladesh have been greatly depleted. Almost 50% of the area of Bangladesh has some kind of tree cover. Only 2.3% of the area has a very high tree cover ( >70%) and roughly 20% has low tree cover ( <5%) ( GOB, 2009 ). The

Project was to educate, engage and encourage active participation in the management of forest resources, thus creating relevant stakeholders. While traditional forest management resulted in the net loss of forest resource cover, participatory social forestry on the other hand, has the potential in the horizontal expansion of forest cover benefiting thousands of poor people (Salam & Noguchi, 2005; Khan et al., 2004; Muhammed et al., 2008; Muhammed & Koike, 2009). However, the indigenous people in general have been seriously overlooked

In Bangladesh, there are about 45 ethnic communities (Costa & Dutta, 2007; GOB, 2008a) with distinct language, culture, heritage and abide by own administrating statutes (Mohsin, 1997). Population statistics on the indigenous people in Bangladesh suffers from reliability and validity. According to 1991 population Census (BBS, 1991), indigenous population was about 1.2 mill (1.13% of the total population) of which the CHTs population was 0.56 mill (Table 2). However, subsequent reports show that indigenous population of the CHTs are about 1.3 mill (CHTDF, 2009), 2 mill (GOB, 2008a) or 2.5 mill (Asian Indigenous and Tribal People Networks [AITPN], 2008). Population Census 1991 reported 12 indigenous groups living in the CHTs. However, the correct number is 11 that have been clarified later by Mohsin (2003) and CHTDF (2009). These indigenous races are *Bawm/Bom, Chak, Chakma, Khumi/Khami, Khyang, Lushai, Marma, Mro/Mru, Murang, Pankhu/Pankho, Tanchangya* and *Tripura. Mro/Mru* and *Murang* categorized into two difference race in the 1991 census which

Among the indigenous population of the CHTs *Chakma, Marma* and *Tripura* share about 90%. Dominant indigenous race of the CHTs is *Chakma* with a total population ranging from 252,858 (BBS, 1991) to 382,000 (Joshua Project, 2011). *Marma* race of the CHTs consists of a total population of 157,301 (BBS, 1991) to 210,000 (Gain, 2000). *Tanchangya* is another indigenous race of the CHTs constituting a population size of 21,000 and ranking the 5th among the ethnic communities in Bangladesh (GOB, 2008b). Among the other indigenous races, *Khasi* with variable population statistics [e.g. 12,280 (BBS, 1991) and 81,000 (Joshua Project, 2011)] live within the reserved forests of Sylhet region located in the north - eastern part of Bangladesh. A considerable number of indigenous communities including *Garo, Hazong* and *Koch* live within the fringe of the plain land *Sal* (*Shorea robusta*) forests where

All the dominant indigenous groups (i.e. *Chakma, Marma and Tripura*) of the region follow the first way of life (Adnan, 2004) that means they have adopted modern life style like the mainstream society in Bangladesh. Majority of the people (i.e. *Chakma, Marma, Tanchangya*

*Garo* is the dominant race with a total population of about 64,280 (BBS, 1991).

goal of social forestry

was probably a mistake.

during the implementation of this program.

**4. Indigenous communities in Bangladesh** 

Table 2. Indigenous population in Bangladesh and in the study areas

Conflict and Corollaries on Forest and Indigenous People: Experience from Bangladesh 191

The CHTs remained as a part of Pakistan in 1947, although the CHTs being a non-Muslim populated area were supposed to be a part of India on the basis of the provision of the partition. Despite 98.5% of the CHTs population being Jummas (non-Muslims), the Pakistani leadership ceded the CHTs to the East Pakistan violating the principles of partition (The 2- Nation theory based on religious demographics) and against the desire of the Jumma people. Right after the partition, the Pakistan Government started to ignore the Act and Regulations of 1900 for the CHTs and the Jumma people realized that their life would never be peaceful in Pakistan. In the subsequent years, their anger turned into violence, demanding for an autonomous State of Chittagong Hill Tracts. But the Government adopted more hostile attitude towards the Jumma people of the CHTs annulling the CHTs Police Regulation, 1881 that restricted indigenous people in the police force (Uddin, 2008). Additionally, Jummas were discriminated in jobs, business and education. Besides, the Government amended the 1900 Act several times in order to find a legitimate way for allowing migration of non- indigenous people into the CHTs without consulting the Jumma

In 1960s, the Pakistan Government constructed a hydro-electric dam at Kaptai (popularly known as Kaptai dam). Prior to construction it was neither consulted with the local people nor did it forecast the impact of this dam to the neighbouring lands, resources and people precisely. When the hydroelectric project came into effect in 1962, the water level rose beyond the forecasted one and so most of the rehabilitated (incorrect assumption of the engineers on forecasting the areas requiring rehabilitation before launching the hydro electricity production) areas submerged under water. The resettled people along with thousands of people became homeless loosing their houses, agricultural land, livestock and forests. Many indigenous people of the CHTs (about 100,000) became possibly the first ever environmental refugees in Indian subcontinent due to this huge hydroelectric project (GOB, 1975; Samad, 1994, 1999). As a result of Kaptai dam many Jumma people were moved into sparsely populated regions of Mizoram, Tripura, Assam and Arunachal of India without legal) identity (citizenship rights (Chowdhury, 2002; Uddin, 2008). All the respondents (100%) and key informants were very much aware of the negative impact of Kaptai hydroelectric dam and they considered this dam construction as the starting point of major conflict of the Jumma people with the Government. According to them, this dam not only ruined their life, but also inundated 65,527 ha of land, including 2,590 ha of well stocked

The constitution of the sovereign Bangladesh declared Bangladesh as a unitary State and Bengali as the State language. It also declared that citizens of Bangladesh are to be known as Bangali. During that time there was only one representative from the CHTs in the National Parliament who refused to endorse the constitution since it did not recognize the existence of other national communities or sub-national identities (Chowdhury, 2002; Shelly, 1992). Available report suggests that Jumma people remained indifferent to the cause of war

After the liberation, Jumma people demanded for i) autonomy for the CHTs, ii) retention of the CHTs Regulation 1900, iii) recognition of the three kings of the Jummas, and iv) ban on

**5.2 Indigenous people during Pakistan period (1947-1971)** 

**5.2.1 Hydro-electric dam of Kaptai and the indigenous people** 

reserved forest and about 21,862 ha of cultivable land.

against Pakistan (Chowdhury, 2006).

**5.3 Bangladesh (1971- ) and the indigenous people of the CHTs** 

people (Chowdhury, 2006).

have been practicing shifting cultivation as their principal economic activity in the denuded hillocks with scattered vegetation. It is estimated that at the beginning of the 20th century the tribal people dwelling in forest areas, obtained about 80-90% of their income from minor forest produce (Dasgupta & Ahmed, 1998). But this income has been reduced drastically in recent years. Cultivation of betel leaf (*Piper betle*) on the forest trees is the main economic activity of Khasi people. Similarly, the Garo community has been shaping their life, art and culture based on *Sal* (*Shorea robusta*) forests. Rapid degradation and deforestation of this unique deciduous forests coupled with Government led environmentally adverse development projects are posing immediate threats to this community.
