**8. References**

Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage. (2006). Six IUCN Protected Area Categories, In: *IUCN category of reserve*, 02-03-2006, Available from: http://www.deh.gov.au/parks/iucn.html#IV

**8** 

Koji Matsushita *Kyoto University* 

*Japan* 

**Recent Problems and New Directions** 

**Established in Common Forests in Japan** 

Property rights for land, including forest land, were introduced in Japan following the Meiji Restoration in 1867. During the Meiji Period (1868–1912), a new land registration system was introduced, and the land-tax system was reformed. Individuals received property rights to forest land at that time. The Meiji Restoration was an important turning point in forest

The custom of communal forest management, in which the forest is considered a common forest (*iriairin*), was developed during the Edo Period (1603–1868) in various regions1. Generally, forest land had high importance at that time, because of the necessity of various forest resources such as fallen-leaves and tree branches for agricultural production. Livestock management also required grazing land in common forests. Firewood and charcoal were the main energy resources produced from the common forest. Wood and wood-based products were also necessary as construction material. Therefore, the common forest was an essential resource for agricultural-based communities. In this chapter, the

For a common forest to be sustainable, its users had to manage it carefully (to avoid damaging or destroying it). This included preventing intrusion or utilization of the forest by people from other communities. Thus, the management of a common forest included both internal constraints (*e*.*g*., rules) and external exclusions. During the Edo Period, forest land was one of the major sources of conflict between communities, and in some cases, struggles continued over several decades. As the security of the common forest is directly linked to the livelihood and agricultural production of the entire community, all community members united to protect their common forest. The boundaries of common forests gradually became clear through such struggles, and the solidarity among community members strengthened. As a result, a sense of equality developed among common forest members (Takasu, 1966). A unanimity rule became important within such communities for making decisions on various matters, including utilization of the common forest. For example, when forest management practices commenced, unanimity rule determined who used the specific forest site and how the profit from the common forests was used. A unanimity rule on the common forest is also

community represents the smallest unit of a village, which can be called a hamlet2.

**1. Introduction** 

land ownership.

thought to be important today3.

**for Forest Producer Cooperatives** 

