**1. Introduction**

182 Sustainable Forest Management – Case Studies

Sakai, M. (2005). Seisan shinrin kumiai wo meguru futatsu no mondai (Two problems of the

Takasu, G. (1966). *Iriai rinya kindaika no shihyo (Index of modernization of common forest)*,

Totman, C. (2007). *Japan's imperial forest, Goryorin, 1889–1946: with a supporting study of the* 

Yamashita, U. (2006). Effect of instituting "authorized neighborhood associations" in the

*Economy*, No.697, (November 2006), pp.17–32, ISSN 0388-8614

*environment*), No.1, (March 2005), pp.25–38

Nikkan Ringyo Shinbunsha, Tokyo, Japan

ISBN 978-1-905246-30-4, Folkestone, U.K.

forest producer cooperative), *Sonraku to Kankyo* (*Rural community and the* 

*kan/min division of woodland in early Meiji Japan, 1871-76*, Global Oriental, pp.7–14,

iriai forest: A case study on Iiyama City and Sakae Village in Nagano, *Forest* 

The South Asian nation of Bangladesh, with a total population of approximately 150 million (mill) and an area of 147,570 km2, is one of the most densely populated country in the world. The current population density is ~1,127.3 people km-2 (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations [FAO], 2005), up from 755 people km-2 in 1991 (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics [BBS], 1993). The economy is based on agriculture and the society is agrarian, with approximately 75% of the population living in the rural areas (United Nations Population Fund [UNFPA], 2006). Per-capita land holdings are approximately 0.12 ha (Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh [GOB], 2002). Moist, humid, tropical-monsoon climate, with moderately warm temperatures, high humidity, and a wide seasonal variation in rainfall prevail in Bangladesh (GOB, 2001a). Bangladesh is prone to frequent natural calamities and is perceived as a major climate change victim.

Forest cover is shrinking Worldwide, despite many efforts to halt deforestation. Forest land and resources in many developing countries are serious pressure due to extreme poverty exacerbated by overwhelming increasing population. The forestry situation is even worse in Bangladesh that biotic and abiotic pressure associated with inter and intra competition between different landuses, conversion of forest land into industrial and other non-forest uses resulted in denudation and degradation of the hills, loss of forest areas, biodiversity and wildlife habitat in Bangladesh. Traditional forest management system failed to improve the forestry situation in the country. Large scale participatory social forestry program was introduced in the early eighties of the past century throughout the country's denuded and degraded forests as well as in marginal and newly accreted land.

Forests are the home to more than half of all species living around including human being. Population estimates show that there are about 300 - 400 mill indigenous people worldwide (Hinch, 2001; United Nations, 2009; World Bank, 2000). In developing countries approximately 1.2 billion people rely on agroforestry farming. They are recognized as the inhabitants of the World's most biologically diverse territories, possessor of unique linguistic and cultural diversity as well as they are in possession of huge traditional

Conflict and Corollaries on Forest and Indigenous People: Experience from Bangladesh 185

West. The CHTs include three hill districts namely, Bandarban, Rangamati, and Khagrachari (Fig.1); covering an area of 13,295 km2 (10 % of the country's total landmass (BBS, 2001; CHTDF, 2009) and the CHTs represent nearly 50 % of the total national forest area in

Forest dependent indigenous communities of the CHTs in Bangladesh were the main focus of research. Initially a review on Bangladesh forestry and indigenous people are done discussing contemporary global concern. The CHTs region as a part of the undivided India was ruled by the Mughals (1666-1757) followed by the British rulers (1757-1947). Later this region became a part of Pakistan (1947-1971) and finally, it has become a part of Bangladesh since 1971. History suggests that ignorance and abuses to the indigenous people of the CHTs have a long root of development (Uddin, 2010). In analyzing the conflict, a historical review of the three regimes has been made in order to have clear understanding of the root

Bangladesh (Forestry Master Plan [FMP], 1992).

causes and nature of the conflict.

**2.2 Methods** 

Fig. 1. Study area

knowledge. However, they suffer from discrimination, marginalization, poverty, hunger and conflicts. More importantly, their indigenous belief system, cultures, languages and ways of life continue to be threatened, sometimes even vulnerable to extinction (United Nations, 2009). There are about 5,000 such tribes/ethnic races worldwide representing 5% of the World's population (Zeppel, 2006). Indigenous people embody and nurture 80% of the World's cultural and biological diversity, and occupy 20% of the World's land surface (United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development [UNCSD], 2002).

In Bangladesh, except for the mangrove forests of Sundarbans, the other major natural forests are the dwelling place of the most of the indigenous communities. Due to lack of substitute products, people in Bangladesh depend on forests and forest resources especially, for fuelwood and timber. Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHTs) are known to be important reservoirs of forests and forest resources in Bangladesh. Apart from the forest resources, this hilly region of the country is bestowed with magnificent natural landscapes, lakes, hilly streams and rivers. Besides, the indigenous people and their huge cultural diversities and unique handcrafts attract clients from home and abroad. So the CHTs are quite important from both economic and ecological standpoints. The Forest Department, being the State agency responsible for forest management in Bangladesh, considers the indigenous people as a major threat to forest management (Roy, 2004). Therefore, an antagonistic relationship has been in existence between indigenous people and Forest Department since long before. Besides, the indigenous people of the CHTs are in constant conflict with Bangladesh Government with regards to land ownership, resource use, and settlement of nonindigenous migrants and other socio-cultural and political discourses, which has made the area unstable and very sensitive.

The indigenous people of the CHTs are alienated from the mainstream society. Hence, it is not possible to utilize properly the forest resources as well as to accrue the full potential of the CHTs under the prevailing circumstances. It is perceived that if a meaningful solution of the problems of the indigenous people of the CHTs can be achieved, forest and indigenous resources may be properly managed to harbour maximum economic gain that could significantly contribute to the economy of Bangladesh. As both the forests and indigenous people of the CHTs are struggling, it was thought necessary to conduct a study in order to explore the root causes and corollaries of the problems with recommendations for possible solutions through several problem-solving approaches. The specific objectives of this study were as follows:

