**4. Discussion**

20 Sustainable Forest Management – Case Studies

is often used. However, Niemeijer and de Groot (2008) argue that moving the framework for environmental indicators from causal chains to causal networks could be a better tool for management decisions and they suggest an enhanced DPSIR-system that could be appropriate. FEMI can be considered as local status indicator, but based on the proximity-totarget concept for principle design of construction, the indicator is working as a performance indicator where performance (status) is compared with a defined ideal typical

Hence, the intention of FEMI is to enlarge the framework for an ecological forest indicator to include ecological integration and the potential for a larger understanding and dynamic

To measure ecological and management oriented policy categories, such as for example the wise and sustainable use of forest resources, requires a set of different measurable indicators and data. Some are easily measurable with instruments and metrics, and others by judgement, often value laden along a scale. Performance indicators on social level usually refer to different kinds of reference conditions and values, such as national or international policy targets. Especially demanding, both technically and politically, is the implementation of sustainability performance indicators. Often they are very vague and difficult to follow up and address with responsible authorities or actors. European Environmental Agency

*"… concept of environmental performance evaluation is being developed for use in an environmental management system to quantify, understand and track the relevant environmental aspects of a system. The basic idea is to identify indicators (environmental, operational and management) which can be measured and tracked to facilitate continuous improvements. Performance indicators compare actual conditions with a specific set of reference conditions. They measure the 'distance(s)' between the current environmental situation and the* 

Proximity-to-target indicators are a type of environmental performance indicator designed for ranking, benchmarking and monitoring action towards well defined and measurable objectives. The proposed CFEMI is an extension of the concepts and principles from both the macro (societal) and micro (corporate) levels including mimicry of the proximate-to-target indicator from '*Pilot 2006 EPI Environmental Performance Index*'

To make high quality, representative measurements of forest variables, is a challenge. West (2004) gives an account of *accuracy* as the difference between a measurement or estimate of something and its true values, *bias* as the difference between the average of a set of repeated measurements or estimates of something and its true value, and *precision* as the variation in

Because much of the measurement phase of the field work is dependent on assessment of the values for the different variables, the indicator is vulnerable to the skills and experience of the observers. Within a close collaborating group of local foresters the observations can be sufficiently accurate, but comparing the results between different forests and assessment

(EEA, 2007) has defined the usefulness of a proximity-to-target approach:

*desired situation (target): 'distance to target' assessment."* 

a set of repeated measurements or estimates of something.

teams, the assessment could vary significantly.

well developed, natural and healthy forest (the target).

**3.5 Proximity-to-target performance indicator** 

involvement among stakeholders.

launched by Esty et al. (2006).

**3.6 Reliability of measurements** 

The scientific judgement on the feasibility of BEM framework and FEMI will depend on expectations, and many demurs and critics discussed can be raised. Concepts for ecological integrity which incorporates information from the multiple dimensions of ecosystems are, however, expected to be a useful tool for ecosystem managers and decision makers. The mediation framework and indicator are devised both to expose ecological integrity, and to be instrumental for the mediation between nature and society, and between locals and globals. This implies that the ultimate results of the application of the indicator is connected to the process of continuing improvement of genuine understanding between the globals and locals, and the continuing improvement of the management of the forest in order to secure ecosystem services for the local people as first priority and for the globals as second.

Working out the indicator system and then executing the implementation both contribute to the momentum of the learning loops and to the factual learning about the very easy accessible features of the forest ecosystem and corresponding ecosystem services.

Both selection of ecological phenomena, variables, field methods and measurements, and composition and calculation of the composed indicator are critical issues. To achieve a sufficient accuracy is difficult for many of the variables especially those depending on estimation of heights and cover. The success of the indicator will depend on how the balance of purpose, accuracy and selection of possible variables are compared with the momentum for increased local participation, increased consciousness and ecological knowledge, and increased motivation for interactive cooperation for finding wise solutions.

Local participation of sustainable management of a tropical forest requires that the knowledge about ecological status and the ecosystem services that the forest can provide, can be communicated in way that support enlightenment, democratic management processes and are environmentally sound. Hence, whole process of development and implementation using ecological indicators should be scientifically and ecologically proper (the global perspective) and locally understandable and fair (the local perspective). The case study shows that it is possible to carry out field inventory programs that encompass variables that cover main ecosystem services especially valuable for local and regional utilization, by using simple measurable ecological variables. However, many of the measured variables depend on estimations of measured values and the measurement could then be less reliable for calculation of the indicator.

The connection to the real social conditions at the slopes at Mt. Kilimanjaro in this case is rather weak due to the fact that detailed investigation of the relationship between society and ecosystems is not done. Assessing and making decisions about ecosystem resources is a normative and political action, and a challenge for an indicator system is then to make the normative dimension visible and an object for deliberative processes. To meet the requirement for local participation the indicator system has to move from a hard ecological approach with only measurable indicators to a practical and soft ecological approach and use an open, conceptual and learning oriented systems engineering approach. This movement from a hard system towards a soft system allows greater application of assessment, judgement and estimation.
