**5.1 Climatic conditions in South Africa**

South Africa is a water scarce country. Although some parts of the country receive more rainfall than others, the country's average rainfall of 450mm per year is far below the global average which amounts to 860mm per year. In addition, factors such as climate change and international obligations to neighbouring countries with shared watercourses limit the amount of water that can be used (Claassen, 2010).

Fig. 1. South Africa's average rainfall (Maherry, 2010)

While South Africa has enough water to meet its needs in the immediate future, based on calculations of runoff, yield and water use, there is a growing demand for water, which is currently being met by the development of the country's surface water resources. South Africa's estimated mean annual runoff is 43 500 million cubic metres per annum (excluding the runoff from Swaziland and Lesotho), the total available yield is 13 227 million m3/a and for the year 2000 the total water use requirements were 12 871 million m3/a (Classsen, 2010).

Integration Challenges of Water and Land Reform – A Critical Review of South Africa 87

In addition to the above, the South African government also faces other challenges related to water governance. After coming to power in 1994, the post-apartheid South African government passed world class water legislation to address the backlog in water supply and sanitation, which it inherited from the apartheid government, and to manage South Africa's situation of water scarcity (Funke et al., 2007b). In combination, South Africa's Water Services Act of 1997 and National Water Act of 1998 were designed to "redress the inequalities of racial and gender discrimination of the past; link water management to economic development and poverty eradication; and ensure the preservation of the

However, to date, the implementation of this legislation has been slow and problematic (Funke et al., 2007b). Challenges include high staff turnover and lack of institutional capacity in numerous government departments, resulting in these departments being overburdened (Hattingh et al., 2004, Funke and Nienaber, in press); a disconnect between water supply and water resource management (more water is being supplied at the municipal level than is ecologically feasible) (Pollard and Du Toit, 2005); the inability of many municipalities to treat domestic sewage and industrial effluent to enable this to be safely discharged into rivers and streams (Ashton, 2010); a serious backlog in setting up South Africa's Catchment Management Agencies (Hattingh et al. 2004); and a focus on development at the expense of the conservation of freshwater ecosystems (Funke and

In addition, the country is characterised by deteriorating water quality in its major river systems, water storage reservoirs and ground water resources, which results in social, economic and health risks to society (Ashton, 2010). Almost half of South Africa's 112 river

> CE E V CNT Level of endangerment - river ecosystems

12

18

Fig. 3. Level of endangerment – river ecosystems (Nel, 2010)

 

critically endangered

currently not threatened

endangered vulnerable

CE E V CNT

16

ecological resource base for future generations" (Schreiner et al., 2002).

ecosystems are currently at a level of critical endangerment.

Nienaber, in press).

Proportion of ecosystem hypes

60

54

40

20

0

In terms of water use, the water requirements of irrigated agriculture are an estimated 56% of the total annual water requirements of 22 045 million m3 surface and groundwater (Backeberg, 2007). Although the contribution of irrigation to total agricultural production varies according to crop type, most of this water is used for commercial food production in local and export markets. In South Africa, the total land area under irrigation is 1.3 million ha, of which 100ha are food plots and smallholder irrigation schemes. This land falls in various rainfall regions, with a highly variable average of 500mm per year. The two most important irrigation practices are permanent irrigation and the sprinkler method (Backeberg, 2006).


Table 1. Total areas, type and method of irrigation in different rainfall regions (WRC, 1996)

Despite just enough water being available for current use, including agriculture, South Africa's water resources face political, social and economic pressures. These include having enough infrastructure to secure water during low rainfall periods and supply areas of high demand, growing enough food to supply the growing population and meeting the water demands of energy, industry and mining (Claassen, 2010). In addition, due to increasing urbanisation and higher standards of living, competing demands are experienced for domestic, mining and industrial water use (Backeberg and Odendaal, 1998). At present, most of the country's water supply has already been allocated, and the only "supply options" available are linked to re-allocations between different water use sectors (De Lange, 2010).

Fig. 2. Water use per sector (Strydom, 2010)

In terms of water use, the water requirements of irrigated agriculture are an estimated 56% of the total annual water requirements of 22 045 million m3 surface and groundwater (Backeberg, 2007). Although the contribution of irrigation to total agricultural production varies according to crop type, most of this water is used for commercial food production in local and export markets. In South Africa, the total land area under irrigation is 1.3 million ha, of which 100ha are food plots and smallholder irrigation schemes. This land falls in various rainfall regions, with a highly variable average of 500mm per year. The two most important irrigation practices are permanent irrigation and the sprinkler method

Type of irrigation Method of irrigation

1 <126 19174 92.5 0 7.5 66.6 8.3 25.2 2 126-250 161197 61.1 0.4 38.5 77.1 16.8 6.1 3 (251-500) 399278 86.7 7.7 5.7 42.8 43.6 13.6 4 (501-750) 488543 75.2 20.8 4.0 21.0 65.4 10.8 5 (>750) 221940 81.5 16.6 1.9 5.3 80.9 13.8 Total 1290232 78.3 13.1 8.6 32.8 54.4 11.8 Table 1. Total areas, type and method of irrigation in different rainfall regions (WRC, 1996)

Despite just enough water being available for current use, including agriculture, South Africa's water resources face political, social and economic pressures. These include having enough infrastructure to secure water during low rainfall periods and supply areas of high demand, growing enough food to supply the growing population and meeting the water demands of energy, industry and mining (Claassen, 2010). In addition, due to increasing urbanisation and higher standards of living, competing demands are experienced for domestic, mining and industrial water use (Backeberg and Odendaal, 1998). At present, most of the country's water supply has already been allocated, and the only "supply options" available are linked to re-allocations between different water use sectors (De

Occasional [%]

Flood [%]

Blue = Commercial forestry

Red = Mining, industry, power

Green = Domestic and urban use (including industrial use supplied by municipal water)

Purple = Irrigation

plantations

generation

Sprinkler [%]

Micro [%]

Supplementary [%]

(Backeberg, 2006).

Region Rainfall

Lange, 2010).

[mm]

Total [ha]

Fig. 2. Water use per sector (Strydom, 2010)

Permanent [%] In addition to the above, the South African government also faces other challenges related to water governance. After coming to power in 1994, the post-apartheid South African government passed world class water legislation to address the backlog in water supply and sanitation, which it inherited from the apartheid government, and to manage South Africa's situation of water scarcity (Funke et al., 2007b). In combination, South Africa's Water Services Act of 1997 and National Water Act of 1998 were designed to "redress the inequalities of racial and gender discrimination of the past; link water management to economic development and poverty eradication; and ensure the preservation of the ecological resource base for future generations" (Schreiner et al., 2002).

However, to date, the implementation of this legislation has been slow and problematic (Funke et al., 2007b). Challenges include high staff turnover and lack of institutional capacity in numerous government departments, resulting in these departments being overburdened (Hattingh et al., 2004, Funke and Nienaber, in press); a disconnect between water supply and water resource management (more water is being supplied at the municipal level than is ecologically feasible) (Pollard and Du Toit, 2005); the inability of many municipalities to treat domestic sewage and industrial effluent to enable this to be safely discharged into rivers and streams (Ashton, 2010); a serious backlog in setting up South Africa's Catchment Management Agencies (Hattingh et al. 2004); and a focus on development at the expense of the conservation of freshwater ecosystems (Funke and Nienaber, in press).

In addition, the country is characterised by deteriorating water quality in its major river systems, water storage reservoirs and ground water resources, which results in social, economic and health risks to society (Ashton, 2010). Almost half of South Africa's 112 river ecosystems are currently at a level of critical endangerment.

Fig. 3. Level of endangerment – river ecosystems (Nel, 2010)

Integration Challenges of Water and Land Reform – A Critical Review of South Africa 89

South Africa's political transformation formalised by the country's first democratic elections in 1994 brought with it a host of progressive reforms in the water and agricultural sectors. The Water Services Act was ratified in 1997 and the landmark National Water Act in 1998 (Republic of South Africa, 1998). The National Water Act is in line with other international reforms in water management. It prioritises decentralised water management and common property aspects of water; separates ownership of land from ownership of water; confirms the need to ensure that aquatic ecosystems receive sufficient water to function properly; stipulates the need to ensure that neighbouring states utilise shared water resources equitably; and prioritises the right of all South Africans to have adequate access to wholesome supplies of water (DWAF, 1997). The National Water Act is regarded, along with the EU Water Framework Directive (EU, 2000), as a pioneer of an international wave of reform and one of the most innovative and far-reaching water laws in the world, which has set the benchmark for new ways of managing water resources (Woodhouse, 2008; Ashton et

However, the necessary goal of redressing past racial and gender inequality means that South Africa's water reform is expected to deliver on changes in process (holistic, decentralised, participatory and economically cost effective), social outcomes (Woodhouse, 2008) as well as ensuring higher environmental standards as stipulated in the 1998 National Water Act. According to Woodhouse, "The prospect of redistribution from existing 'haves' to 'have nots' raises considerably the political risks and expectations attached to the

In line with the South African government's social redress priority, the land reform programme intends to transfer approximately 30% of white-owned commercial farms to "new" black commercial farmers by 2014 in an effective and sustainable manner (Cousins and Scoones, 2010). The land reform programme in the country has three different dimensions namely, land restitution, land redistribution and tenure reform. The restitution component of the policy aims to return land that was taken away forcibly from black people during apartheid, or to provide those affected with financial compensation. It targets both rural and urban lands. The land redistribution dimension aims to equitably share resources by transferring land from white to black people so that the land ownership share of black people is increased. This is considered necessary because black people make up the large majority of the South African population but have less land compared to the white population. For instance, in 1991 they held only about 13.9 % (17 million ha) of the national land (Lyne and Darroch, 2003). The land tenure reform dimension aims to enhance the tenure security of vulnerable people, such as workers and their families residing on private

However, according to the Department of Rural Development and Land Reform's (DRDLR's) Strategic Plan for 2009-2012, by the end of the 2007/08 financial year the combined programme had only achieved 4.9 million ha. Cumulatively, from 1994 to the second quarter of 2008/09, the National Land Reform Programme had achieved just over 5.1 million hectares of land delivery. This means that from 1994 the yearly average output of 0.371 million ha has been less than one third of the expected 1.23 million required to meet the 2014 target. More importantly, it has been acknowledged that 90% of land reform

**5.2 Overview of water allocation and land reform in South Africa** 

al, 2008; Postel and Richter, 2003).

implementation of reform" (Woodhouse, 2008: 3).

commercial farms as well as people living in the former homelands.

projects on redistributed farming land have failed (Pressley, 2010).

One water governance related issue in particular that is of current interest and perceived national importance in South Africa is that of Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) (Hobbs, 2010). This issue has recently featured considerably in the country's newspapers and electronic media, where investigative journalists have flagged their concerns about it from various angles (Funke et al., in press). Acid mine water started decanting from abandoned underground mine workings close to Krugersdorp on the West Rand of the Gauteng Province in 2002. Now, the potential volume of AMD from the Witwatersrand Goldfield alone amounts to 350 Ml/day (Hobbs, 2010).

AMD, or the uncontrolled discharge of polluted water from defunct gold mining operations into surface and ground water resources, presents a serious threat to the receiving environment and has severe socio-economic and environmental impacts. Specifically, these impacts include the release of chemical contaminants into water resources, persistent environmental damage long after mine closure, and negative impacts on the health and safety of communities living in the vicinity of mining operations (Hobbs, 2010). There is no indication that the AMD threat will subside in the foreseeable future as mining operations remain active throughout South Africa as evident on the map below.

Fig. 4. Mining areas and minerals particularly susceptible to the formation of AMD (Hobbs and Kennedy, 2010)

Having sketched a picture of the climatic conditions in South Africa, an overview of water allocation and land reform in South Africa is presented to explain how the government chose to follow this reform path and what the results have been to date.
