**7. References**

336 Current Issues of Water Management

communities - including the same communities from whence water supply originates. For Los Angeles, the more water that is conserved, the easier it becomes to reduce reliance upon both Owens Valley imports and those from other regions. For New York, similarly, the less water used, the less likely it is that stored water supplies will be depleted - thereby stretching available water andmaking less urgent the completion of various infrastructure improvements to deliver water to the city. Both cities are pursuing additional "active" conservation measures - with Los Angeles emphasizing stormwater capture and wastewater reuse and New York focusing on drought management and distribution system leak detection (Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, 2010a; New York City Department of Environmental Protection, 1998). While New York will continue to rely on incremental improvements to achieve conservation goals - more metering and the like – it, too, is likely to experience the same economic pressures as Los Angeles. It is likely that other megacities

As for infrastructure, issues related to stress may be far more problematical. Both cities suffer from aging and deteriorating water distribution systems. New York City is rebuilding its aqueduct system - and is currently engaged in construction of "Tunnel n. 3", an upgrade of the Croton aqueduct system, which loses millions of gallons annually. New components are also being added to its Delaware Aqueduct - all at a cost of some \$2 billion. Los Angeles is rebuilding – piece-by-piece – its oldest distribution network components. However, the city faces a unique megacity challenge - continuing to deliver water in the event a major seismic eventruptures the Colorado and/or State Water Project Aqueducts. This is a major preoccupation for the Metropolitan Water District (MWD) which is the primary importing water agency for the region. While Los Angeles aspires to reduce reliance on MWD, during dry years it cannot do so. Moreover, it has made numerous investments in MWD projects under the assumption that it will continue to be a beneficiary of its supply (Los Angeles

Finally, as regards climate change, both cities are devoting enormous efforts in embracing climate issues in water resource planning. In New York City's case, sea-level rise threatens water infrastructure, especially for water treatment (Beller-Simms, et. al., 2008: 104-5). For Los Angeles, climate change threatens the robustness of already precarious imports - the aforementioned Metropolitan Water District, for example is already concerned that climate change will complicate its ability to engage in water trading schemes with rural, agricultural

In conclusion, it is not far-fetched to suggest that the massive water diversion projects Los Angeles and New York have pursued have had a symbolic as well as practical significance. For Los Angeles, the Owens Valley Aqueduct, Colorado River and State Water Project Aqueducts, and Port of Los Angeles all became symbols of the city's rise to eminence, and its ability to surmount the difficulties of being located in an insular region not readily blessed by a natural port or source of abundant freshwater. Similarly, for New York City, the Croton Aqueduct – the city's oldest imported water project – became part of a tradition of "grand civic projects" that, in the 19th Century, included the Erie Canal, Brooklyn Bridge, and IRT subway - all of which made the city the greatest metropolis in North America (Hood, 1993: 92). A final lesson here is that all these projects were not just civic activities, but publically-funded ones financed through bond markets, reminding us that neither the

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