**3.2 'New waves' in Moroccan water ethics**

248 Current Issues of Water Management

as well as socio-political. In practice, Morocco chose to manage the resource in a semi private, semi public way. This resulted in the State delegating water management and treatment as well as electricity provision to private companies. Thus, the Spanish consortium REDAL1 was put in charge of water distribution in Rabat, for instance. The *concession* is defined as a convention through which a public body gives the mission of exploiting a public service following certain conditions that are described in detail in a list of duties and requirements, and against a payment that, most of the time, comes from tax payers' money, to a 'concessionnaire' of its choice. This has been described as *gestion déléguée*. The resulting 'marketisation' of water in Morocco has been considered unsatisfactory, on two fronts. With current poverty levels, especially in urban environments, identifying appropriate water pricing has been a difficult problem to solve and the macro-economic situation a difficult terrain in which to integrate a natural resource market. The *gestion déléguée* therefore encountered a few hic ups, with REDAL1 being stopped after 3 years (instead of 30) and replaced by the great Veolia Environment. On a second front, politically speaking, this water

This is how the 1990s approaches led to the creation of the new Moroccan Environmental

In these early decades of the twenty first century, Morocco seems to be focusing on a new political environmental strategy where its visibility in terms of environmental initiatives is of prime importance. In 2000, the King Hassan II Great World Water Prize, an international award, was jointly established by the Government of Morocco and the World Water Council, "in memory of his Majesty King Hassan II of Morocco's distinguished leadership and encouragement of cooperation and sound management of water resources". The Prize is to be awarded to an institution, organization, individual or group of individuals in honor of outstanding achievements in any aspects of water resources such as scientific, economic,

The award is presented every three years in conjunction with the World Water Forum, during a special ceremony. The award winner receives a prize sum of US\$ 100,000, a trophy and a certificate. The theme for the Prize is "Cooperation and solidarity in the fields of management and development in water resources". The 4th edition of the King Hassan II Great World Water Prize will be held in Marseille in March 2012 during the 6th World Water Forum. Beside such grandiose initiatives, and maybe more importantly, a new Environmental Charter (together with the Fondation Mohamed VI pour la protection de l'environnement (http://www.fm6e.org/fr/notre-fondation.html) was announced in April 2010 and is aimed to provide a solid framework for all environmental laws, a 'de-facto constitution for environmental policy'. Amongst many of its targets are objectives to reduce external energy dependency and to ensure that half of energy usage comes from renewable energies (solar energy, use of methane from landfills, …). The Charter also puts special attention to water management and, in particular, aims at increasing waste water recycling to more than 96%. As Slimani explains (2010, p.59, 60), Morocco is commiting to a program costing 7 billion euros to improve the water treatment network and recycle used waters. All in all, the charter will thus provide proof that Morocco will sign up for a progressive policy to reconcile the imperatives of socio economic development with the preservation of the

management system has been far from operating in a participatory manner.

technical, environmental, social, institutional, cultural or political.

Charter.

**3.1.2 The 'new environmental charter'** 

In previous sections, we explored how both the technical and political dimensions of water management in Morocco evolved throughout time. We saw that technical choices also had political dimensions. Here, we are going to examine the ethical implications that water politics can have.


Source: COMEST, 2004

Table 2. Principles of water ethical practices

From Traditional to Modern Water Management Systems;

with principles of water ethics (Table 3).

**modes of 'development'** 

as industrial activities.

innovatively and independently.

Reflection on the Evolution of a 'Water Ethic' in Semi-Arid Morocco 251

The debates and international agreements on environmental and water ethics also encouraged a contemporary re-visit of Islamic principles used in the context of water management. Although it is clear that Islam generally advocates a fair distribution of water resources and a prioritization of usage, in practice there are currently a few issues that need adjusting for water management practices in a Muslim country like Morocco to be realigned

In addition to the alignment with international principles of water ethics and to Morocco's efforts to recreate links between modern water management and Islamic water management principles, the question of which type of 'economic development' to strategically embrace in order to help the country's development whilst generating people's participation to creating a sustainable economy is the central theme of this chapter. Politically, Morocco chose, after its independence, to base its economic development largely on natural resources – including agricultural – exports. Technology was one of its main tools in doing so. However, the creation of the new Environmental Charter as well as a new set of human and social reforms introduced by the King Mohamed the VIth at the beginning of the 21st century put the country in new 'tracks', in terms of a) how 'economic development' is being apprehended with regards to environmental protection and b) which actors could and/or should be involved in making 'sustainable development' happen. It is on these two aspects that I want

to finish my reflection on the evolution of a water ethics in Morocco.

**3.2.1 Ecological economics and human ecology: The role of water in alternative** 

Earlier, we examined the political dimensions of water issues. Another crucial link exists between 'water issues' and 'economic development': water is needed in agricultural as well

It is crucial to any type of production and to human life. It is also a much more complex, a more systemic type of natural resource than other natural resources that are used in economic activities in that, like air, it is indispensible to human life – without water, a human being will die in only 3 days. For this reason, human civilizations have valued water for all it brings to life: spiritual richness, a habitat for certain species, a support for navigation and for the generation of electricity, a crucial component of ecological cycles, a natural resource that can be directly consumed or that can contribute to the production of food, etc... Whilst 'economic development', in a mainstream neo-classical sense, will focus on the productive nature of water resources, alternative understandings of the term 'development', such as the ones introduced by disciplines such as ecological economics and human ecology (both preoccupied with the interactions between human economic systems and ecological systems functioning) will help in widening our understanding of 'development' and might help countries such as Morocco in dis-engaging themselves with old, quasi-colonial, styles of economic development, in order to enter the 21st century more

As Slimani explains (2010, p. 60), "Now that industrialized countries seem reluctant to fully engage, as the disappointing outcomes of the Copenhagen Summit on Climate Change in December 2009 have shown, Morocco's strategy constitutes a strong signal to developing countries. Instead of being an additional constraint, the environmental imperative could well be a new developmental tool and a stepping stone towards a stronger, at least more

First, what does **water ethics** mean? UNESCO previously examined that question through working group meetings organized under the auspices of the World Commission on the Ethics of Science and Technology (COMEST) and the International Hydrology Programme (IHP) in 1998 and published a report on Best Ethical Practice in Water Use (COMEST, 2004) which identified the fundamental principles presented in Table 2.

Morocco has been embracing, at least in political discourses, terms such as **ethics** and **integrated management** in the context of environmental and developmental strategies. Mohamed the VIth has been keen to show the world that his country was aligned to considerable international reflection on environmental ethics throughout the world and initiatives such as the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Bioethics and Human Rights (UDBHR) by all member countries of UNESCO in 2005.


Source: adapted from Faruqui et al. (2001).

Table 3. Issues and recommendations on how to integrate Islamic principles in a new 21st century water ethics

First, what does **water ethics** mean? UNESCO previously examined that question through working group meetings organized under the auspices of the World Commission on the Ethics of Science and Technology (COMEST) and the International Hydrology Programme (IHP) in 1998 and published a report on Best Ethical Practice in Water Use (COMEST, 2004)

Morocco has been embracing, at least in political discourses, terms such as **ethics** and **integrated management** in the context of environmental and developmental strategies. Mohamed the VIth has been keen to show the world that his country was aligned to considerable international reflection on environmental ethics throughout the world and initiatives such as the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Bioethics and Human Rights

> Many people don't have access to water and still rely on expensive informal sources of water. The situation is inequitable and the primary water right under Islam is

Policy-makers are beginning to appreciate the value of some haddiths with regards to water conservation and environmental education has been taking place in some mosques in the Middle East. The WHO launched health education programs

Supplying water almost free under today's conditions of polluted ansd scarce water supplies has resulted in severe inequities – the poor often pay immorally high prices for water in informal markets, or receive water of poor quality. Under changing conditions, Muslim leaders must adapt their water policies to meet timeless objectives such as social justice. Recovering costs for providing water is allowable in

recommended. If regulated markets are to be used then they must put in place legal, institutional and regulatory mechanisms to ensure that the markets operate fairly

**Community level:** In many Muslim countries, there is a very centralized decisionmaking system. Beside, decision-makers, often men, haven't invited wide participation. Changes have to accelerate and to happen at grassroots levels.

**National level:** IWM that include principles such as equitable tarrifs, environmental protection and food security need to integrate social policies sustained by grassroots

**International levels:** there are currently many international water sharing disputes where states are not following the principles of shura or fassad. Legal agreements

Considering huge water constraints in the MENA area, waste water reuse in irrigation has been explored in view of ensuring that it was safe, not harmful to

As a consensus in the rest of the world, private public partnerships are best

and efficiently. This includes developing better participatory processes.

Table 3. Issues and recommendations on how to integrate Islamic principles in a new 21st

which identified the fundamental principles presented in Table 2.

(UDBHR) by all member countries of UNESCO in 2005.

through mosques in Afghanistan.

Islam – but what is a fair tariff?

inputs and discussed at national levels.

need to be reached.

Source: adapted from Faruqui et al. (2001).

century water ethics

being compromised.

human health.

Social and spiritual dimensions of water

Non economic instruments for water management

Economic instruments for water management

Integrated water management (IWM) at different levels

The debates and international agreements on environmental and water ethics also encouraged a contemporary re-visit of Islamic principles used in the context of water management. Although it is clear that Islam generally advocates a fair distribution of water resources and a prioritization of usage, in practice there are currently a few issues that need adjusting for water management practices in a Muslim country like Morocco to be realigned with principles of water ethics (Table 3).

In addition to the alignment with international principles of water ethics and to Morocco's efforts to recreate links between modern water management and Islamic water management principles, the question of which type of 'economic development' to strategically embrace in order to help the country's development whilst generating people's participation to creating a sustainable economy is the central theme of this chapter. Politically, Morocco chose, after its independence, to base its economic development largely on natural resources – including agricultural – exports. Technology was one of its main tools in doing so. However, the creation of the new Environmental Charter as well as a new set of human and social reforms introduced by the King Mohamed the VIth at the beginning of the 21st century put the country in new 'tracks', in terms of a) how 'economic development' is being apprehended with regards to environmental protection and b) which actors could and/or should be involved in making 'sustainable development' happen. It is on these two aspects that I want to finish my reflection on the evolution of a water ethics in Morocco.

### **3.2.1 Ecological economics and human ecology: The role of water in alternative modes of 'development'**

Earlier, we examined the political dimensions of water issues. Another crucial link exists between 'water issues' and 'economic development': water is needed in agricultural as well as industrial activities.

It is crucial to any type of production and to human life. It is also a much more complex, a more systemic type of natural resource than other natural resources that are used in economic activities in that, like air, it is indispensible to human life – without water, a human being will die in only 3 days. For this reason, human civilizations have valued water for all it brings to life: spiritual richness, a habitat for certain species, a support for navigation and for the generation of electricity, a crucial component of ecological cycles, a natural resource that can be directly consumed or that can contribute to the production of food, etc... Whilst 'economic development', in a mainstream neo-classical sense, will focus on the productive nature of water resources, alternative understandings of the term 'development', such as the ones introduced by disciplines such as ecological economics and human ecology (both preoccupied with the interactions between human economic systems and ecological systems functioning) will help in widening our understanding of 'development' and might help countries such as Morocco in dis-engaging themselves with old, quasi-colonial, styles of economic development, in order to enter the 21st century more innovatively and independently.

As Slimani explains (2010, p. 60), "Now that industrialized countries seem reluctant to fully engage, as the disappointing outcomes of the Copenhagen Summit on Climate Change in December 2009 have shown, Morocco's strategy constitutes a strong signal to developing countries. Instead of being an additional constraint, the environmental imperative could well be a new developmental tool and a stepping stone towards a stronger, at least more

From Traditional to Modern Water Management Systems;

January and February 2010 (Slimani, L. 2010, p. 59).

ethics and governance, and to make it work.

access water in a new constitution.

Reflection on the Evolution of a 'Water Ethic' in Semi-Arid Morocco 253

Environment as leading the Arab and African nations in becoming more energy dependent via their renewable energy sources, hence deciding to use the charter as a 'blueprint' for other countries to follow as a collective, homogenised set of initiatives to fight climate change, Mohamed the VIth developed the concept of 'proximity' by inviting his citizens to participate in the writing of the Charter through an online consultative process, between

However, an *online*, *one month*-long consultative process might not have been enough for people to feel they could genuinely participate and be heard. And so, as the next section shows, there is still a long way to go in order to refine the new Moroccan vision of water

**3.2.2 Alternative environmental governance or 'Watering' the 'Printemps Maghrébin'**  The Commission Mondiale d'Ethique des connaissances Scientifiques et des Technologies, COMEST (the World Commission on Ethics, Scientific knowledge and technology) was still considering the debate on governance (in particular water governance) as relatively new, in 2004. It explained that "In general, governance is defined by the ways in which traditions and institutions allow to balance power in the running of a country. Water governance", it stressed, "deals with levels of governance where reality takes over theory. Good governance means that a genuine dialogue takes place. It allows people to define or re-define good shared principles, rights and responsibilities in view of improving the co-ordination of all involved parties, and stimulating development" (COMEST, 2004, p.8). In Morocco, a lot of shortcomings existing in the legal system as well as problems related to the lack of official recognition of certain rights, will have to be addressed if new modes of environmental governance are to really exist. Problems related to the 1995 water law were, for instance, illustrated by Boukhima (2009) who explained that the unrealistic financial conditions set by the law (payment of high fees to get the permission to drill a well, notably) had led to all sorts of illegal, de-regulated and ecologically destructive digging of wells by Syrian enterprises in the area of Souss-Massa-Darâa where the annual water deficit had already reached 233 million cubic meters. Similarly, economic and financial options taken by the Moroccan government in favour of the 'gestion déléguée' (private-public partnership) has been highly criticised and has been the object of numerous demonstrations. The right to accessing water is being jeopardised by current practices in favour of privatization and water pricing, and Non Governmental Organisations such as the ACME have been expressing their dissatisfaction and communicating the views of the Moroccan population, especially its wish to make water management more communal, since 'water is a common good that should not be privatized in any way, as well as the need to include the right to

Moroccan researcher Tazi-Sadeq spent relentless efforts defending the human right to access water and sanitation services, and has done so in an official context, from a UNESCO office in Rabat. As she put it, "The right to water emerges as a concept around which changes and reconciliations can crystallise. It is necessary to reconcile economy and ecology over water. But this vital resource calls for other reconciliations. It makes it necessary to remedy different inequalities, to create an international legal and institutional framework followed at the level of states – first guarantors of effective access to water – and establish links between local and global action. Each of these changes represents an argument in favour of

sustainable, type of growth". Slimani's point is also reinforced by Tazi-Sadeq, Moroccan researcher specialized on water issue, who adds that "The diminishing supply and the increasing and ever more diversified demand in water entail a change of paradigm. This change has political and ethical implications having to do with efficient management – on the usage side - and fair distribution of water resources. It consists in placing water policies on the side of the demand and the human person at the centre of the debate" (Tazi Sadeq, 2005, p.13-15).

These reflections are in line with definitions of 'development' that include both ecological and human dimensions. COMEST, in particular, explain that "*development* can only take place if the people who are both its beneficiaries and its instrument also are its justification and its main objectives. Development must be integrated and harmonized. In other words, it must favour the complete development of human beings in spiritual, moral and material ways, hence ensuring people's dignity in society, in agreement with the Declaration of Human Rights" (COMEST, 2004, p.10).

If a country like Morocco is envisaging thinking about 'development' in more ecological and human ways, it is partly because it came to recognize the need for alternative models of development. Things are not fully working, big technical pushes, reforms, water pricing methods, have not been fully embraced and, worse, have led to uprisings that had been unseen in the past (we will come back to this in the next section). The so called Human Development approach arose in part as a result of growing criticism to the leading development approach of the 1980s, which presumed a close link between national economic growth and the expansion of individual human choices. The need for an alternative development model was then seen as being due to many factors, including:


In Morocco, the human and ecological impacts of economic growth must also be stressed. As Leila Slimani (2010) explains, Morocco wants to use the protection of the environment as a central tool for development policies. For the last ten years, Morocco has experienced economic growth in all economic sectors: industrial, agricultural, tourism, urban development, infrastructures...These evolutions have had negative impacts on the environment. The Ministry of Trade and Industry estimated that environmental degradation costs 13 billion dirhams each year: 3,7% of its GNP (1.6 billion US dollars). Not only these costs are going to have direct consequences on the pace of developmental activities but they also impact lifestyle and the habitat of citizens. But the last point listed above (the democratization phenomenon) also resonated particularly loud and is motivating people to start thinking about development differently.

This is true both for internal reasons (Mohamed the VIth made a point of initiating social reforms in his country from the moment he replaced his – much more authoritarian – father) and international reasons (Foreign investors favor democratic regimes). Thus, on top of wanting to set an example to other countries and describing the Charter for the

sustainable, type of growth". Slimani's point is also reinforced by Tazi-Sadeq, Moroccan researcher specialized on water issue, who adds that "The diminishing supply and the increasing and ever more diversified demand in water entail a change of paradigm. This change has political and ethical implications having to do with efficient management – on the usage side - and fair distribution of water resources. It consists in placing water policies on the side of the demand and the human person at the centre of the debate" (Tazi Sadeq,

These reflections are in line with definitions of 'development' that include both ecological and human dimensions. COMEST, in particular, explain that "*development* can only take place if the people who are both its beneficiaries and its instrument also are its justification and its main objectives. Development must be integrated and harmonized. In other words, it must favour the complete development of human beings in spiritual, moral and material ways, hence ensuring people's dignity in society, in agreement with the Declaration of

If a country like Morocco is envisaging thinking about 'development' in more ecological and human ways, it is partly because it came to recognize the need for alternative models of development. Things are not fully working, big technical pushes, reforms, water pricing methods, have not been fully embraced and, worse, have led to uprisings that had been unseen in the past (we will come back to this in the next section). The so called Human Development approach arose in part as a result of growing criticism to the leading development approach of the 1980s, which presumed a close link between national economic growth and the expansion of individual human choices. The need for an alternative development model was then seen as being due to many factors, including:

• Growing evidence that did not support the then prevailing belief in the "trickle down"

• Social ills (crime, weakening of social fabric, HIV/AIDS, pollution, etc.) were still

In Morocco, the human and ecological impacts of economic growth must also be stressed. As Leila Slimani (2010) explains, Morocco wants to use the protection of the environment as a central tool for development policies. For the last ten years, Morocco has experienced economic growth in all economic sectors: industrial, agricultural, tourism, urban development, infrastructures...These evolutions have had negative impacts on the environment. The Ministry of Trade and Industry estimated that environmental degradation costs 13 billion dirhams each year: 3,7% of its GNP (1.6 billion US dollars). Not only these costs are going to have direct consequences on the pace of developmental activities but they also impact lifestyle and the habitat of citizens. But the last point listed above (the democratization phenomenon) also resonated particularly loud and is motivating people to

This is true both for internal reasons (Mohamed the VIth made a point of initiating social reforms in his country from the moment he replaced his – much more authoritarian – father) and international reasons (Foreign investors favor democratic regimes). Thus, on top of wanting to set an example to other countries and describing the Charter for the

• A wave of democratization in the early 90's raised hopes for people-centred models.

power of market forces to spread economic benefits and end poverty; • The human costs of Structural Adjustment Programs became more apparent;

spreading even in cases of strong and consistent economic growth;

2005, p.13-15).

Human Rights" (COMEST, 2004, p.10).

start thinking about development differently.

Environment as leading the Arab and African nations in becoming more energy dependent via their renewable energy sources, hence deciding to use the charter as a 'blueprint' for other countries to follow as a collective, homogenised set of initiatives to fight climate change, Mohamed the VIth developed the concept of 'proximity' by inviting his citizens to participate in the writing of the Charter through an online consultative process, between January and February 2010 (Slimani, L. 2010, p. 59).

However, an *online*, *one month*-long consultative process might not have been enough for people to feel they could genuinely participate and be heard. And so, as the next section shows, there is still a long way to go in order to refine the new Moroccan vision of water ethics and governance, and to make it work.
