**1. Introduction**

312 Sustainable Growth and Applications in Renewable Energy Sources

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**10. References** 

Inventory, Retrieved from

Fredericton, August and 2008.

Photovoltaic (PV) conversion or the production of electricity directly through the use of solar energy (Fig. 1) is undoubtedly a promising source of renewable energy despite the negligible position it still holds in the global energy landscape, namely barely 0.2% of the global electricity produced in 2010 (European Photovoltaic Industry Association [EPIA], 2011a; British petroleum Global [BPG], 2011).

In fact, it is difficult not to take its breathtaking growth into consideration since the production of PV electricity increased from 1 TWh in 1999 to 50 TWh (40 GW) in 2010, for an annual increase of 36% with a spectacular leap of 50% between 2009 and 2010 (Observ'ER, 2010; EPIA, 2011; BPG, 2011). Various hypotheses predict a global capacity between 131 GW and 196 GW in 2015 (EPIA, 2011). In comparison, from 1999 to 2009, wind energy increased 29% whereas fossil energy only grew 3.7% (Observ'ER, 2010).

Therefore, it is not surprising that the term "solar revolution" was already in use in the field of renewable energy as of 2006 (Bradford, 2006). However, although PV conversion is a credible and preferred candidate as a safe source of energy in the highly probable context of mixed energy and sustainable development, it remains marginal and there are legitimate questions concerning its development, which is still in the very early stages, particularly with respect to performance, production costs and competitiveness. It should be noted that fossil energies still satisfy 80% of the global demand for electricity (Observ'ER, 2010).

The purpose of this chapter is to assess both the performance of PV conversion, in economic and energetic terms, in a favourable global market and the intense research into the use of innovative technologies to improve performance. These assessments require an excursion into the life cycle of PV systems from the synthesis of semi-conductors to the use of the electricity generated, the storage of the energy and finally on to the dismantling and recycling of facilities.

The development of PV systems, from the design to the end of their life, is accompanied by environmental, health and safety concerns related to the expansive use of potentially toxic

Photovoltaic Conversion: Outlook at the Crossroads

**2. Genesis and context of solar energy use** 

took place in Mesopotamia, in the Arabic desert.

the rays of the sun into energy.

of relativity (Bradford, 2006).

Between Technological Challenges and Eco-Strategic Issues 315

Although the history of solar energy dates back to the earliest days of humanity, its evolution has been extremely slow and laborious, swinging between euphoria, aborted attempts, total disinterest and re-birth. The first time this resource was used in prehistoric times, namely when the rays of the sun were captured and used to kindle flames, apparently

The ancient Greeks were the first to describe the famous "burning mirrors" or solar reflectors, the ancestors of parabolic mirrors, created with silver, copper or brass, which were used to light the Olympic flame (Butti & Perlin, 1980). In addition, solar energy was used by the ancient Greeks in a passive form which had a major impact on the architecture of homes since, even in that distant time, deforestation was an issue, resulting in a shortage

The Roman Empire quickly adopted similar architectural habits since the Romans were also suffering from an over-consumption of charcoal. Outrageous taxes were even imposed for the domestic use of wood (Butti & Perlin, 1980). In 1515, Leonardo da Vinci attempted to build a giant mirror, a primitive solar concentrator, intended to transform the rays of the sun into heat for commercial purposes (Butti & Perlin, 1980; Lhomme, 2004). It would only be during the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century that the solar energy pioneers would emerge in a universe suddenly filled with scientific and technological effervescence in order to improve energy performance and eliminate dependency on wood and charcoal. However, these efforts, while praiseworthy and ingenious, were only partially successful. One of the most brilliant and prolific of these pioneers was Augustin Mouchot, the French inventor of the first solar engine in 1880. Despite his scientific fervour and his obvious desire to demonstrate the potential of solar energy, he failed to draw France into the Solar Age (Butti & Perlin, 1980). William Adams improved on Mouchot's prototype by installing a group of mirrors to boil the water to a faster way and doing his utmost to demonstrate the great potential of solar energy for the British Empire (Bradford, 2006). John Ericsson, invented the "caloric" engine in 1833, which used hot air as the operating fluid; this air was provided by a solar engine, thereby limiting energy losses (Butti & Perlin, 1980; Bradford, 2006). These pioneers provided the basis of thermodynamic solar energy, by transforming

In 1839, Edmond Becquerel first observed the PV reaction, which involves the creation of a spontaneous electrical current when a chain of conductive elements was lit. The first solar batteries, ancestors of modern solar cells, used selenium and were developed in 1883 by Charles Fritts. At that time, they had an efficiency of 0.2% (Lhomne, 2004). In 1921, Albert Einstein explained the PV effect that earned him the Nobel Prize in physics. According to history, Einstein considered the description of the PV effect of greater value than the theory

Between 1900 and 1915, the first efforts were made to market thermodynamic solar energy. Aubrey Eneas built and sold two immense machines to be used as boilers; they were equipped with more than 1700 individual mirrors generating 2.5 steam horsepower. Unfortunately, a major storm and hailstorm overpowered his inventions and forced him to abandon any idea of pursuing this line of research as he concluded that his projects were not economically viable (Butti & Perlin, 1980; Bradford, 2006). In 1912, Frank Shuman, one of the greatest visionaries in matters of solar energy, built a plant in Egypt that was strangely similar to modern solar power plants. Unfortunately, it was destroyed during the battles

of charcoal as a result of the unchecked use of this fuel for heating and cooking.

materials. Logically, the assessment of the life cycle of PV systems will raise concerns about their compatibility with the global approach of sustainable development in terms of ecological footprint, economic profitability and social acceptability. Social acceptability is even more fundamental in terms of the sustainability since the user should adopt a less traditional energy approach. Will solar energy, which is perceived as the future of renewable energies, be able to challenge of meeting the essential concepts of clean and green energy?

Fig. 1. Diagram of Photovoltaic Conversion and Practical applications
