**6. Discussion and conclusion**

Turkey imports about 70% of the energy sources it uses in primary energy consumption. This percentage is 59% for electricity production. The imported energy sources are oil, natural gas and hard coal. The load of imports on Turkey's economy as of 2000-2009 is illustrated in Fig. 23. Turkey spent 29 billion dollars overall for energy imports in 2009. This amount constitutes 29% of the overall exports in 2009 and 21% of the overall imports. In other words, Turkey spends approximately one-third of the income it obtains from overall exports for energy imports. Oil and natural gas are the most imported energy sources with a

**<sup>49</sup><sup>54</sup>57 57 54** 

Fig. 21. Projection of distribution of domestic energy sources in overall primary energy

2006 2007 2008 2009 2015 2020

<sup>20</sup> <sup>22</sup> <sup>23</sup> <sup>22</sup> <sup>24</sup> <sup>28</sup>

2006 2007 2008 2009 2015 2020

Fig. 22. Projection of development of domestic energy sources in electricity production (data

Turkey imports about 70% of the energy sources it uses in primary energy consumption. This percentage is 59% for electricity production. The imported energy sources are oil, natural gas and hard coal. The load of imports on Turkey's economy as of 2000-2009 is illustrated in Fig. 23. Turkey spent 29 billion dollars overall for energy imports in 2009. This amount constitutes 29% of the overall exports in 2009 and 21% of the overall imports. In other words, Turkey spends approximately one-third of the income it obtains from overall exports for energy imports. Oil and natural gas are the most imported energy sources with a

**<sup>55</sup> <sup>59</sup> <sup>60</sup> <sup>59</sup> <sup>53</sup> <sup>50</sup>**

**Total Indigenous energy sources**

**COAL=Hard coal+Lignite**

**RENEWABLE**

**Coal (Hard coal+lignite)**

**39 35 32 33** 

**Renewable**

0%

**45**

**% of total consumption**

from MENR, 2006,2010).

**6. Discussion and conclusion** 

production (data from MENR, 2006,2010).

25 19 17 19

**Imported energy sources: Oil, Natural gas, Hard coal**

**41 40 41**

20%

40%

% of total

60%

80%

100%

**12 11 11 10** 

**61** 

**30** 

**9** 

**28** 

**18** 

**FUTURE**

<sup>23</sup> <sup>23</sup>

**<sup>47</sup> <sup>50</sup>**

**FUTURE** 

**Other**

percentage of 89% (26 billion dollars) of the overall energy source imports and it is followed by hard coal with a percentage of 11% (3 billion dollars). The incredible increase rate of natural gas consumption in the recent years constitutes an important expense item in the imports items of Turkey. More importantly, use of natural gas in industry and electricity production makes Turkey completely dependent on the foreign countries in terms of energy security. Especially Turkey's supplying over 50% of its electricity production from natural gas causes very severe security problems and Turkey should question this issue very seriously. On the other hand, although Turkey has sufficient hard coal reserves, it increasingly imports hard coal in order to consume it in industry and electricity production due to some reasons such as production difficulties and insufficient investments. Turkey should immediately take action in order to meet such requirements from its own sources. It should not be expected that the domestic production covers the consumption within a very short time, but it should be aimed at meeting or minimizing the deficit between the production and import within a long time. On the other hand, although Turkey has sufficient lignite reserves for electricity production, importing hard coal for this purpose is a completely strategic mistake (Ylmaz,2008).

Fig. 23. Load of energy source imports on Turkey's economy

Renewable Energy and Coal Use in Turkey 83

EUAS.(2004,2009). Statistic Data, Electricity Generation Co. Inc. Available from

MENR. (1970,2000,2002, 2006, 2009, 2010). Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources

SIS. (2003,2004). State Institute of Statistics yearbook of Turkey, Prime Ministry, Available

TEIAS. (1970, 2004, 2009). Electricity Generation-Transmission Statistics of Turkey,

TKI. (2004,2009, 2010). Turkish Coal Enterprises. Coal (lignite) Annual Sector Report.

TPAO(2006) Primary Energy Production–Consumption in Turkey. Available from

TTK, (2004, 2009). Turkish Hard Coal Enterprises, Annual Reports, Zonguldak. Available

TUSIAD. 1998. The Evaluation of Turkey's Energy Strategies Toward to 21st Century.

Ylmaz, A.O, & Aroğlu E.(2003). The Importance of Lignite in Energy Production and

Ylmaz, A. O., & Uslu, T.(2006). The Role of Coal in Energy Production—Consumption and

Ylmaz, A. O.& Uslu, T.(2007). Energy policies of Turkey During the Period 1923–2003.

Ylmaz, A.O. &Uslu, T. & Savaş M.(2005). The Role of Coal in Sustainable Development of

Ylmaz, A.O.(2003). General Outlook to Turkish Energy Sector and the Importance of Coal

Ylmaz, A.O., (2004,2011) . Energy Statistics of Turkey, Unpublished Documents,

Ylmaz, A. O.(2006). Coal potential of Turkey: Coal and Energy, *Energy Exploration* 

Ylmaz, A.O.(2008). Renewable Energy and Coal Use in Turkey, *Renewable Energy*, 33, 950–

Ylmaz, A.O.(2009). Present Coal Potential of Turkey and Coal Usage in Electricity

Turkey, *Turkish 5th Energy Symposium*, Electricity Engineers Chamber of Turkey,

in Energy Production. *In: Turkish Fourth Energy Symposium,* Electricity Engineers

*and Fair of Turkey*. Mining Engineers Chamber of Turkey. Antalya. Ylmaz, A. O, & Aydner, K. (2009). The Place of Hard Coal in Energy Supply Pattern of

Sustainable Development of Turkey. *Energy Policy*, 35, 1117–1128.

Turkish Coal Enterprise. *In: Proceedings of the 18th International Mining Congress* 

from http:// www.tuik.gov.tr / [in Turkish and English]. Republic of Turkey,

Turkish Electricity Transmission Co. General Management Rpc Department, Ankara. Available from: http://www.teias.gov.tr/ [in Turkish

(MENR), Energy report of Turkey, Ankara. Available from

http://www.euas.gov.tr.

http://www.enerji.gov.tr.

Available from: http://www.tki.gov.tr

from: http://www.taskomuru.gov.tr

Turkey, *Energy Sources*, part B, 4, 179-189.

*Exploitation* ,Volume 24, Number 6, 371–390

Generation, *Energy Sources*, part B, 4, 135-144.

*Energy Policy*, 35, 258–264.

Chamber of Turkey, Ankara.

Ankara.

Trabzon.

959.

http://petrol.tpao.gov.tr/ rprte/ energytr2.htmS.

Publication Number TUSIAD-T/98-12/239, İstanbul.

Ankara.

and English].

The largest energy sources of Turkey are coal and renewable energy. Turkey should use these energy sources in areas where it can substitute them for oil and natural gas. The first of these areas is electricity production. In projections of Turkey (Fig. 22), it is proposed that 50% of the electricity production will be imported. It is planned that the overall demand for electricity will be 500 billion kWh in 2020. However, there is a potential for producing reliable electricity from renewable energy sources (480 billion kWh) and lignite thermal power plants (100 billion kWh), which are operative and of which the projects are completed, economically (Table 2.). In other words, Turkey has a potential for producing electricity it demands by using only its own sources. It is obligatory to comply with the environmental pollution and emission limits in use and production of coal. The required measures in this regard has been taken in most of the operative power plants and the studies for taking such measures continue rapidly in the other power plants. It is vital for Turkey to take operating the coal reserves by using environment-friendly technologies and utilizing its sources at the highest level among its priorities (Ylmaz, 2008).

### **7. References**


The largest energy sources of Turkey are coal and renewable energy. Turkey should use these energy sources in areas where it can substitute them for oil and natural gas. The first of these areas is electricity production. In projections of Turkey (Fig. 22), it is proposed that 50% of the electricity production will be imported. It is planned that the overall demand for electricity will be 500 billion kWh in 2020. However, there is a potential for producing reliable electricity from renewable energy sources (480 billion kWh) and lignite thermal power plants (100 billion kWh), which are operative and of which the projects are completed, economically (Table 2.). In other words, Turkey has a potential for producing electricity it demands by using only its own sources. It is obligatory to comply with the environmental pollution and emission limits in use and production of coal. The required measures in this regard has been taken in most of the operative power plants and the studies for taking such measures continue rapidly in the other power plants. It is vital for Turkey to take operating the coal reserves by using environment-friendly technologies and utilizing its sources at the highest level among its

Anaç, S. (2003). The Place of Coal in Energy Policies in Turkey, Turkish Coal Enterprise,

Aroğlu E. (ed).(1994). General Outlook to Turkish Lignite Sector, Privatisation in the World

Aroğlu, E.(1996) General Outlook For Worldwide Hard Coal Mining and The

Aroğlu, E., & Ylmaz, A.O. (1997a). A Short Statistical Evaluation of Turkish Lignite Sector

Aroğlu, E; Ylmaz, A.O. (1997b). Turkish Economy With Macro Economic

Aroğlu, E., & Ylmaz, A.O. (2002a). General Outlook for Worldwide Hard Coal Mining

Aroğlu, E, & Ylmaz, A.O. (2002b). Realities in Zonguldak coal basin. *Zonguldak Branch of* 

Aroğlu, E; & Ylmaz, A.O. (2002c). Evaluation of Turkish Lignite Mining, *Tunçbilek* 

BP ( 2009, 2010 ). Statistical Review of World energy, Annual Report. Available from

*Mining Engineers Chamber of Turkey*, Zonguldak,

*Municipality 2nd Lignite Festival*, Tunçbilek, Kütahya.

Evaluation of The Zonguldak Coal Enterprise/TURKEY, Privatization in The UK and Turkey With Particular Reference to The Coal Sector (Ed.M.Dartan), Marmara University European Community Institute, Istanbul,

During 1983–1993. *Istanbul Branch of Mining Engineers Chamber of Turkey*, Working

Indications and Statistical Evaluation of Turkish Mining Sector, Istanbul Branch of Mining Engineers Chamber of Turkey, Working Report No :5,

and the Evaluation of the Zonguldak Coal Enterprise. *Proceedings of the 13th coal congress of Turkey*, Zonguldak Branch of Mining Engineers Chambers of Turkey,

and Turkey, Turkish Mine Workers Union Publication, Ankara.

priorities (Ylmaz, 2008).

Available from http://www.tki.gov.tr.

**7. References** 

May

Istanbul

Zonguldak,

http://www.bp.com

Report No. 2, Istanbul.


**Experiences of Community Wind Electrification** 

Currently, early in the XXI century, an estimated 2400 million people depend on traditional biomass for heating and cooking and 1500 million people lack access to electricity (IEA, 2009). Lack of electricity particularly affects rural areas of developing countries (Kanagawa and Nakata, 2008), exacerbating the urban-rural gap. In Bolivia, 35% of the population, more

Electrification systems based on renewable energy have proved being adequate to provide decentralized electricity to isolated rural communities around the world (Chaureya et al., 2004). These autonomous systems are often much cheaper than the interconnected grid extension and use local resources, avoiding external dependencies which, in turn, promotes long-term sustainability of projects. In particular, micro-wind systems are an alternative with great potential to generate power in rural areas (Lew, 2000), although their use has been limited to date. In South America, a significant institutional effort was made in Argentina to develop rural electrification projects using wind energy in the province of Chubut (Seitz, 2006). In Peru, there are some demonstrative projects of the use of wind power to electrify isolated communities, the first one in El Alumbre (Ferrer-Martí et al.,

In Bolivia, the government's policies on rural electrification are governed by the Rural Electrification Regulation, which states that the Department of Energy is responsible for promoting sustainable development, seeking expanded coverage of electricity services throughout the country. Therefore it has the responsibility to update and develop the rural energy strategy, including the Indicative Rural Electrification Plan to facilitate the work of agents in the development of rural electrification. The basic principles that are taken into

Bruno Domenech1, Walter Canedo2, Carlos Reza2, Mirtha Tellez3, Milton Dominguez3,

*1Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya - Barcelona Tech, Spain* 

than 3.5 million people do not have access to electricity.

**1. Introduction** 

2010).

account are:

*2CINER, Bolivia 3Mosoj Causay, Bolivia* 

Lorenzo Perone4 and Jaime Salinas

*4Engineering Without Borders, Spain* 

 \*

**Projects in Bolivia: Evaluation and** 

**Improvements for Future Projects** 

*Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya - Barcelona Tech,* 

Laia Ferrer-Martí et al.\*

*Spain* 

Ylmaz, A.O.(2011), Evaluation of Turkish Lignite Mining, *Tunçbilek Municipality 8rd Lignite Festival*, Tunçbilek, Kütahya. **5** 
