**3. Renewable energy use in Turkey**

Totally energy demand of Turkey was making up about 29% of domestic resources and about 71% import resources. Turkey's primary energy production is 30.3 Mtoe (Table 1, Fig 1.). Turkey got a great share coal which is consisted of 57%. The primary energy that follows the coal and their shares are as follows; oil 8%, natural gas 2% and renewable energy 33%. Distribution of the share on the renewable energy are hydraulic, geothermal, wood, animal and vegetable waste and other 10%, 6%,12%,1% and 1%, respectively in primary energy production (Fig 5.). On the other hand, primary energy consumption of Turkey is 104.1 Mtoe in 2009. The biggest energy consumption resource is natural gas with 32% and followed of this gas; oil 29%, coal 30%, and renewable energy 9% in consumption (Fig5). Distribution of the share on the renewable energy are hydraulic, geothermal, wood, animal and vegetable waste and other 3%, 1%, 3%, 1% and 1%, respectively in primary energy consumption (MENR, 2010; TKI, 2004,2009). Turkey is dependent on the import of foreign primary energy sources especially; oil, natural gas and hard coal. Recently, according to research estimates, this trend is likely to continue in the near future.

Turkey has two main energy resources with large capacities. These are coal and renewable energy resources. Both energy resources constitute 90% of the primary energy production. The total primary energy production was 31% in 1970 and increased to 50% and 57% in 1989 and in 2009 respectively and this rate was met by coal. The share of the renewable energy resources was 43% in 1970 and decreased to 33% in 2009 (Fig. 6) (Ylmaz 2006; Ylmaz 2011).

**14**

**<sup>74</sup> <sup>75</sup> <sup>74</sup> 76 78 <sup>75</sup> <sup>74</sup> <sup>75</sup>**

**<sup>26</sup> <sup>25</sup> <sup>26</sup> <sup>24</sup> <sup>22</sup> <sup>25</sup> <sup>26</sup> <sup>25</sup> <sup>29</sup> <sup>30</sup>**

**38**

**62 55 50 50 44 47 45 45**

**<sup>71</sup> <sup>70</sup>**

**50 50**

**IMPORTED ENERGY SOURCES**

**<sup>56</sup> <sup>53</sup> <sup>55</sup> <sup>55</sup>**

**59**

**<sup>41</sup> <sup>40</sup> <sup>41</sup>**

**<sup>26</sup> <sup>26</sup> <sup>24</sup> <sup>22</sup>**

**<sup>74</sup> <sup>74</sup> <sup>76</sup> <sup>78</sup>**

**73 77 79 79 82 86**

**<sup>27</sup> <sup>23</sup> <sup>21</sup> <sup>21</sup> <sup>18</sup>**

**32 <sup>43</sup> <sup>46</sup> 53 46 36 <sup>31</sup> <sup>35</sup> <sup>31</sup>**

**68**

**% of total production**

1970

1971

the near future.

(Ylmaz 2006; Ylmaz 2011).

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

energy sources (data from TEIAS, 1970-2009)

**3. Renewable energy use in Turkey** 

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

Fig. 4. During the period 1970 and 2009, in electricity generation imported and indigenous

Totally energy demand of Turkey was making up about 29% of domestic resources and about 71% import resources. Turkey's primary energy production is 30.3 Mtoe (Table 1, Fig 1.). Turkey got a great share coal which is consisted of 57%. The primary energy that follows the coal and their shares are as follows; oil 8%, natural gas 2% and renewable energy 33%. Distribution of the share on the renewable energy are hydraulic, geothermal, wood, animal and vegetable waste and other 10%, 6%,12%,1% and 1%, respectively in primary energy production (Fig 5.). On the other hand, primary energy consumption of Turkey is 104.1 Mtoe in 2009. The biggest energy consumption resource is natural gas with 32% and followed of this gas; oil 29%, coal 30%, and renewable energy 9% in consumption (Fig5). Distribution of the share on the renewable energy are hydraulic, geothermal, wood, animal and vegetable waste and other 3%, 1%, 3%, 1% and 1%, respectively in primary energy consumption (MENR, 2010; TKI, 2004,2009). Turkey is dependent on the import of foreign primary energy sources especially; oil, natural gas and hard coal. Recently, according to research estimates, this trend is likely to continue in

Turkey has two main energy resources with large capacities. These are coal and renewable energy resources. Both energy resources constitute 90% of the primary energy production. The total primary energy production was 31% in 1970 and increased to 50% and 57% in 1989 and in 2009 respectively and this rate was met by coal. The share of the renewable energy resources was 43% in 1970 and decreased to 33% in 2009 (Fig. 6)

1989

1990

1991

1992

**INDIGENOUS ENERGY SOURCES**

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

**57 54 47 54** **64 69 65 69**

Fig. 5. Total primary energy production and consumption by energy sources in 2009 (data from MENR, 2009)

Fig. 6. During of the period 1970-2009, total primary energy production with rates of renewable energy and coal (data from MENR 1970-2009)

The distribution of renewable energy sources in primary energy production in Turkey is illustrated in Fig. 7 for the term 1970 and 2009. The energy sources used for the primary energy production are hydraulic energy, geothermal energy, wood, animal and vegetable waste. On average 43% of the primary energy production was met by the renewable energy in 1970. This percentage increased to 50% in 1980 and due to the imported natural gas, this rate was decreased to 33% in 2009. The shares of the energy sources in this production rate

Renewable Energy and Coal Use in Turkey 69

**77 72 68 64 64 60 55**

**% of total consumption**

1970

**20**

0

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

**WOOD**

1977

1978

5

10

15

**% of total consumption**

20

25

30

1971

**11 11**

**33 30 29**

1972

**Hard coal**

1973

1974

**<sup>10</sup> <sup>9</sup> <sup>9</sup> <sup>9</sup> <sup>9</sup>**

**<sup>27</sup> <sup>28</sup> <sup>27</sup> <sup>26</sup>**

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

**<sup>1</sup> <sup>1</sup> <sup>1</sup> <sup>1</sup> <sup>1</sup> <sup>2</sup> <sup>2</sup> <sup>2</sup> <sup>2</sup> <sup>3</sup> <sup>3</sup> <sup>3</sup> <sup>4</sup> <sup>3</sup> <sup>3</sup> <sup>3</sup> <sup>2</sup> <sup>4</sup>**

1979

1980

1981

**3.1 Energy production using renewable energy sources** 

1982

1983

1984

1985

energy sources in primary energy consumption (data from MENR 1970-2009)

1986

1987

Fig. 9. During of the period 1970 and 2009 development of the total share of renewable

**<sup>18</sup> <sup>18</sup> <sup>17</sup> <sup>17</sup> <sup>16</sup> <sup>15</sup> <sup>14</sup> <sup>14</sup> <sup>15</sup> <sup>15</sup> 15 15 <sup>14</sup> <sup>14</sup> <sup>13</sup> <sup>12</sup> <sup>11</sup>**

**<sup>8</sup> <sup>8</sup>**

**Animal and vegetable Waste**

**<sup>24</sup> <sup>25</sup>**

1980

**RENEWABLE**

1981

**<sup>9</sup> <sup>9</sup> <sup>9</sup> <sup>8</sup>**

**<sup>28</sup> <sup>28</sup> <sup>28</sup> 27 <sup>26</sup> <sup>25</sup> 23 <sup>22</sup> <sup>21</sup> 23 19**

1982

1983

1984

1985

energy sources in primary energy production (data from MENR 1970-2009)

**8 7 6 6 5 5**

1986

1987

Fig. 8. During of the period 1970 and 2009 development of the total share of renewable

1988

**5**

1988

1989

Distribution of installed capacity of Turkey by energy sources during the period 1940 and 2009 is illustrated in Fig. 10. The overall installed capacity was 217 MW in 1940 and the rate of renewable energy source was 3%. The overall installed capacity increased 164 times in 2003 and reached 35587 MW. The renewable source, which was 7.8 MW at the beginning of the term, increased 1614 times and reached 12594 MW (35%). The increase rate of use of renewable energy sources was accelerated especially in the middle of 1950s. This rate increased to 33%, 38%, and 35% in 1973, 1986 and in 2009 respectively. Especially, the electricity production using natural gas caused that this rate decreased. While hard coal

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

**Hydraulic** 

1997

1998

**11**

15 14 13 12 12 11 10 8 8 8 7 8 7 6 6 6 5 5 5 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 <sup>9</sup> <sup>9</sup> <sup>10</sup> <sup>10</sup> <sup>11</sup> <sup>11</sup> <sup>11</sup> <sup>11</sup> <sup>13</sup> <sup>11</sup> <sup>12</sup> <sup>14</sup> <sup>15</sup> <sup>16</sup> <sup>18</sup> <sup>21</sup> <sup>22</sup> <sup>22</sup> <sup>19</sup> <sup>21</sup> <sup>18</sup> <sup>17</sup> <sup>19</sup> <sup>17</sup> <sup>18</sup> <sup>17</sup> <sup>16</sup> <sup>16</sup> <sup>17</sup> <sup>17</sup> <sup>14</sup> <sup>15</sup> <sup>13</sup> <sup>12</sup> <sup>11</sup> <sup>11</sup> <sup>12</sup> <sup>13</sup> <sup>15</sup> <sup>15</sup>

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

**<sup>11</sup> <sup>10</sup> <sup>10</sup> <sup>10</sup> <sup>9</sup> <sup>9</sup> <sup>9</sup> <sup>8</sup> <sup>8</sup> <sup>8</sup> <sup>7</sup>**

**<sup>5</sup> <sup>4</sup> <sup>3</sup> <sup>3</sup> <sup>3</sup> <sup>3</sup> <sup>2</sup> <sup>2</sup> <sup>2</sup> <sup>2</sup>**

**<sup>18</sup> <sup>18</sup> <sup>18</sup> <sup>18</sup> <sup>18</sup> <sup>17</sup> <sup>16</sup> <sup>16</sup> <sup>16</sup>**

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

**<sup>3</sup> <sup>4</sup> <sup>4</sup> <sup>4</sup> <sup>5</sup> <sup>5</sup> <sup>5</sup> <sup>5</sup> <sup>5</sup> <sup>5</sup> <sup>4</sup> <sup>3</sup> <sup>3</sup> <sup>4</sup> <sup>4</sup> <sup>5</sup> <sup>4</sup> <sup>4</sup> <sup>3</sup> <sup>3</sup> <sup>3</sup>**

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

**Geothermal**

2006

2007

**2**

**15**

**Renewable in total consumption**

2000

2001

**Total Indigenous energy sources**

2002

2003

**<sup>6</sup> <sup>7</sup> <sup>6</sup> <sup>5</sup> <sup>5</sup> <sup>5</sup> <sup>4</sup>**

**12 12 <sup>11</sup> <sup>11</sup>**

**<sup>1</sup> <sup>1</sup>**

**<sup>2</sup> <sup>2</sup> <sup>2</sup> <sup>2</sup> <sup>1</sup>**

**13 13 13**

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

**<sup>4</sup> <sup>4</sup> <sup>3</sup>**

2008

2009

**<sup>1</sup> <sup>1</sup> <sup>1</sup>**

**<sup>9</sup> <sup>9</sup> <sup>9</sup>**

2009

1989

<sup>33</sup> <sup>30</sup> <sup>29</sup> <sup>27</sup> <sup>28</sup> <sup>27</sup> <sup>26</sup> <sup>24</sup> <sup>25</sup> <sup>27</sup> <sup>27</sup> <sup>28</sup> <sup>27</sup> <sup>26</sup> <sup>25</sup> <sup>23</sup> <sup>22</sup> <sup>21</sup> <sup>22</sup> <sup>19</sup> <sup>18</sup> <sup>18</sup> <sup>18</sup> <sup>18</sup> <sup>18</sup> <sup>17</sup> <sup>16</sup> <sup>16</sup> <sup>16</sup> <sup>15</sup> <sup>13</sup> <sup>13</sup> <sup>13</sup> <sup>12</sup> <sup>12</sup> <sup>11</sup> <sup>11</sup> <sup>9</sup> <sup>9</sup> <sup>10</sup>

**<sup>33</sup> <sup>33</sup> <sup>32</sup> <sup>29</sup> <sup>28</sup> <sup>28</sup> <sup>27</sup> <sup>26</sup> <sup>28</sup> <sup>29</sup>**

**<sup>52</sup> <sup>55</sup> <sup>56</sup> <sup>54</sup> <sup>57</sup> <sup>56</sup> <sup>54</sup> <sup>54</sup> <sup>56</sup> <sup>55</sup> <sup>54</sup> <sup>51</sup> <sup>51</sup> <sup>48</sup> <sup>47</sup> <sup>48</sup> <sup>44</sup> <sup>46</sup> <sup>42</sup> <sup>40</sup> <sup>39</sup> <sup>40</sup> <sup>38</sup>**

**Imported energy sources: Oil, Natural gas, Hard coal**

were as follows: 10% hydraulic, 6% geothermal, 12% wood and 4% animal and vegetable waste in 2009. According to this data, the largest energy source used in primary energy production was wood and hydraulic. While the share of the wood and waste and drung has decreased, the share of the hydraulic, geothermal has increased (Ylmaz 2008; MENR,1970- 2009; SIS, 2003–2004; TEIAS, 2004,2009).

Fig. 7. During of the period 1970-2009, renewable energy sources and rates used in primary energy production (data from MENR 1970-2009)

The development of the total share of renewable energy sources in primary energy consumption in Turkey is illustrated in Fig. 8 for the term 1970 and 2009. Turkey's main energy production resources are hard coal, lignite and renewable energy. The total domestic energy production was 77% (hard coal 15%, lignite 8%, renewable 33% and other oil-gas 21%) in 1970. The share of total domestic energy sources in overall primary energy production was 48% (hard coal 4%, lignite 18%, renewable 18 and other 8%) in 1990, and it decreased to 29% (hard coal 1%, lignite 15%, renewable 10% and other 4%) in 2009. In other words, the share of the renewable energy resources was 33% in 1970 and decreased to 10% in 2009. As seen in Figure 8, Turkey's total domestic energy sources in overall production has decreased from 1970 and 2009 term. When use of renewable domestic energy sources is considered in terms of primary energy production, it decreased to 10% levels in the recent years.

The primary energy consumption of Turkey has increased day by day and it will follow in the future. The development of the total share of renewable energy sources in primary energy consumption in Turkey is illustrated in Fig. 9 for the term 1970 and 2009. The energy sources used for the primary energy production are hydraulic energy, geothermal energy, wood, animal and vegetable waste. The share of total renewable energy sources in overall consumption was 33% in 1970 (hydraulic 1% wood 20%, waste and drug 11%) and it decreased to 23% (hydraulic 4% wood 11%, waste and drug 5%) in 1990. In 2009, the share of renewable energy sources in total primary energy consumption decreased and reached to 9% (Ylmaz 2008; MENR, 2006-2009; SIS, 2003–2004; TEIAS, 2004-2009).

were as follows: 10% hydraulic, 6% geothermal, 12% wood and 4% animal and vegetable waste in 2009. According to this data, the largest energy source used in primary energy production was wood and hydraulic. While the share of the wood and waste and drung has decreased, the share of the hydraulic, geothermal has increased (Ylmaz 2008; MENR,1970-

2009; SIS, 2003–2004; TEIAS, 2004,2009).

years.

**% of total production**

**<sup>42</sup> <sup>43</sup> <sup>43</sup> <sup>43</sup> <sup>45</sup>**

 **<sup>47</sup> <sup>46</sup> <sup>48</sup> <sup>47</sup> 39** 

**Animal and vegetable Waste**

energy production (data from MENR 1970-2009)

9% (Ylmaz 2008; MENR, 2006-2009; SIS, 2003–2004; TEIAS, 2004-2009).

**WOOD**

Fig. 7. During of the period 1970-2009, renewable energy sources and rates used in primary

The development of the total share of renewable energy sources in primary energy consumption in Turkey is illustrated in Fig. 8 for the term 1970 and 2009. Turkey's main energy production resources are hard coal, lignite and renewable energy. The total domestic energy production was 77% (hard coal 15%, lignite 8%, renewable 33% and other oil-gas 21%) in 1970. The share of total domestic energy sources in overall primary energy production was 48% (hard coal 4%, lignite 18%, renewable 18 and other 8%) in 1990, and it decreased to 29% (hard coal 1%, lignite 15%, renewable 10% and other 4%) in 2009. In other words, the share of the renewable energy resources was 33% in 1970 and decreased to 10% in 2009. As seen in Figure 8, Turkey's total domestic energy sources in overall production has decreased from 1970 and 2009 term. When use of renewable domestic energy sources is considered in terms of primary energy production, it decreased to 10% levels in the recent

The primary energy consumption of Turkey has increased day by day and it will follow in the future. The development of the total share of renewable energy sources in primary energy consumption in Turkey is illustrated in Fig. 9 for the term 1970 and 2009. The energy sources used for the primary energy production are hydraulic energy, geothermal energy, wood, animal and vegetable waste. The share of total renewable energy sources in overall consumption was 33% in 1970 (hydraulic 1% wood 20%, waste and drug 11%) and it decreased to 23% (hydraulic 4% wood 11%, waste and drug 5%) in 1990. In 2009, the share of renewable energy sources in total primary energy consumption decreased and reached to

**Renewable in total production**

**<sup>38</sup> <sup>38</sup> <sup>37</sup>**

**<sup>39</sup> <sup>40</sup> <sup>41</sup> <sup>40</sup> <sup>39</sup> <sup>38</sup> <sup>39</sup> <sup>38</sup>**

 **<sup>42</sup> <sup>33</sup>**

**Geothermal**

**Hydraulic** 

Fig. 8. During of the period 1970 and 2009 development of the total share of renewable energy sources in primary energy production (data from MENR 1970-2009)

Fig. 9. During of the period 1970 and 2009 development of the total share of renewable energy sources in primary energy consumption (data from MENR 1970-2009)

### **3.1 Energy production using renewable energy sources**

Distribution of installed capacity of Turkey by energy sources during the period 1940 and 2009 is illustrated in Fig. 10. The overall installed capacity was 217 MW in 1940 and the rate of renewable energy source was 3%. The overall installed capacity increased 164 times in 2003 and reached 35587 MW. The renewable source, which was 7.8 MW at the beginning of the term, increased 1614 times and reached 12594 MW (35%). The increase rate of use of renewable energy sources was accelerated especially in the middle of 1950s. This rate increased to 33%, 38%, and 35% in 1973, 1986 and in 2009 respectively. Especially, the electricity production using natural gas caused that this rate decreased. While hard coal

Renewable Energy and Coal Use in Turkey 71

**<sup>39</sup> <sup>43</sup> <sup>43</sup> <sup>40</sup> <sup>39</sup> 42 42 <sup>43</sup> <sup>46</sup> <sup>47</sup> <sup>46</sup> <sup>43</sup> <sup>39</sup> <sup>40</sup> <sup>43</sup> <sup>42</sup> <sup>42</sup> <sup>41</sup> <sup>45</sup> <sup>48</sup> <sup>47</sup> <sup>47</sup> <sup>47</sup> <sup>46</sup> <sup>44</sup>**

**16 14 13 11 9 8 8 7 7 6 6 6 5 4 3 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 <sup>11</sup> <sup>11</sup> <sup>19</sup> <sup>16</sup> <sup>14</sup> <sup>14</sup> <sup>19</sup> <sup>22</sup> 20 20 <sup>22</sup> <sup>24</sup> <sup>26</sup> <sup>28</sup> <sup>31</sup> <sup>35</sup> <sup>35</sup> <sup>31</sup> <sup>30</sup> <sup>30</sup> <sup>29</sup> <sup>29</sup> <sup>28</sup> <sup>28</sup> <sup>29</sup> <sup>28</sup> <sup>28</sup> <sup>27</sup> <sup>24</sup> <sup>24</sup> <sup>23</sup> <sup>20</sup> <sup>18</sup> <sup>18</sup> <sup>18</sup> <sup>20</sup> <sup>20</sup> <sup>20</sup> <sup>18</sup>**

**LIGNITE**

**RENEWABLE**

**Lignite**

**1.9 %**

**17 %**

**6 %**

**45 %**

**25 %**

**1.9 % 20 %**

**Renewable**

**Natural gas Petroleum**

**3 %**

**17 %**

**30 %**

 

**47 %**

 **<sup>36</sup> <sup>36</sup> <sup>32</sup> <sup>33</sup> <sup>32</sup> <sup>32</sup> <sup>31</sup> 23 26 <sup>29</sup>**

 **<sup>75</sup> 51 51 <sup>52</sup> <sup>46</sup>** 

**Imported energy sources: Oil, Natural gas, Hard coal**

**İmported coal**

**19 %**

**7 %**

**2.5 %**

**49 %**

**<sup>76</sup> 76 76 <sup>76</sup> <sup>77</sup> <sup>75</sup> <sup>74</sup> <sup>73</sup> <sup>73</sup> <sup>76</sup> <sup>77</sup> <sup>77</sup> <sup>78</sup> <sup>77</sup> <sup>75</sup> <sup>72</sup>**

 **41 41** 

 **66 65** 

**<sup>34</sup> <sup>33</sup> <sup>32</sup> <sup>33</sup> <sup>34</sup> <sup>34</sup>**

**<sup>53</sup> <sup>53</sup> <sup>53</sup> <sup>54</sup> <sup>54</sup> <sup>54</sup>**

**<sup>34</sup> <sup>33</sup>**

**% of total installed capacity**

 **<sup>86</sup> <sup>87</sup> <sup>87</sup>**

 

TEIAS 2009)

**61 %**

Fig. 12. During period of the 1940- 2009 electricity production by energy sources (data from

**11 %**

**21 %**

**12 %**

**14 %**

Coal Total

(Coal+Renewable) Total

**2 %**

**% of total**

**Hard coal**

**Hard coal**

 **<sup>88</sup> <sup>88</sup> <sup>88</sup> <sup>87</sup> <sup>82</sup> <sup>81</sup> <sup>82</sup>** 

 **<sup>89</sup> 87 87 87 87**

**27 %**

**<sup>92</sup> <sup>93</sup> <sup>93</sup> <sup>92</sup> <sup>92</sup> <sup>91</sup>**

**21 %**

**6 %**

**10 % 2.5 %**

**<sup>89</sup> <sup>90</sup> <sup>90</sup> <sup>91</sup> <sup>91</sup> <sup>91</sup> <sup>91</sup>**

 **26 24 <sup>25</sup> <sup>24</sup>** 

 

and coal by the total installed capacity (data from TEIAS, 2009)

**Other**

 **74 79** 

**51 %**

**89**

Fig. 11. During of the period 1970 and 2009 development of the share of renewable energy

in electricity production increased, since it is a cheaper than other resources, and this was quickly renounced after the oil crisis in 1973. After the crisis, Turkey gave importance on lignite, one of its own energy resources, and the share of coal in electricity production began increasing and reached 50%. After 2000s, use of natural gas began using in electricity production as in all other areas and its share in electricity production reached 45% in a very short time until 2003. Also imported hard coal began to use in electricity production with 6% in 2003. The share of natural gas has increased and reached to 49% in electricity generation in 2009. At the same year, distribution by resources was as follows natural gas: coal (hard coal %2 + lignite %20) renewable %19, oil %3, and imported hard coal 7% (Ylmaz 2008; Ylmaz, and Aydner, 2009).

**<sup>59</sup> <sup>57</sup> <sup>60</sup> <sup>64</sup> <sup>65</sup> <sup>65</sup> <sup>66</sup> <sup>67</sup> 68 68 <sup>70</sup>**

**Total Indigenous energy sources**

accounted for 50% of total installed capacity and 80% of electricity production in 1950, its share reduced continuously in the following years and realized 1.1% in installed capacity and 1.9% in electricity production. Lignite proved its importance during the petroleum crisis in 1973–1979. After 1973, its importance increased. The share of lignite in electricity production increased to 45% from 20% and its share in installed capacity reached 35% in the 1980s. After the year 2000, an increase in share of natural gas, both installed capacity and in electricity production, lowered the use of lignite. In 2009, the share of installed capacity by resources was 1%, 19%, 35%, 4%, 26% and 11% for hard coal, lignite, renewable, crude oil, natural gas and other, respectively (Ylmaz et al., 2005; Ylmaz, 2004,2011; Ylmaz 2008; Ylmaz and Aydner, 2009; Ylmaz and Uslu, 2006).

The most important and the largest energy capacities of Turkey's are coal and renewable energy resources. Both energy resources constitute 61% (hard coal 16%, lignite 13% and renewable 32%) of the total installed capacity in 1970. The total installed capacity increased and reached to 78% (hard coal 2%, lignite 29% and renewable 47%) until 1995. In this rate just only hard coal percentage decreased, lignite and renewable increased as domestic energy sources. But, after this time the total installed capacity decreased and reached to 54% (hard coal 1%, lignite 18% and renewable 34%) in 2009 as illustrated in Fig 11.

In Figure 12, distribution of electricity production of Turkey by energy resources is given in a long historical order for 1940 and 2009 term. As seen in the Figure, coal (especially hard coal) had a share of 80% in electricity production in 1940. In the same year, the share of electricity production by resources was 6%, 3%, 6%, 5%, for lignite, renewable, crude oil and other, respectively. The rate of electricity production using renewable energy resources and lignite had begun increasing in time reached to 21% and 14% respectively in 1973. The share of hard coal sharply decreased and reached to 12% in 1973. By the middle of 1960s, use of oil

Fig. 10. During period of the 1940- 2009 distribution of installed capacity by energy sources (data from TEIAS 2009)

accounted for 50% of total installed capacity and 80% of electricity production in 1950, its share reduced continuously in the following years and realized 1.1% in installed capacity and 1.9% in electricity production. Lignite proved its importance during the petroleum crisis in 1973–1979. After 1973, its importance increased. The share of lignite in electricity production increased to 45% from 20% and its share in installed capacity reached 35% in the 1980s. After the year 2000, an increase in share of natural gas, both installed capacity and in electricity production, lowered the use of lignite. In 2009, the share of installed capacity by resources was 1%, 19%, 35%, 4%, 26% and 11% for hard coal, lignite, renewable, crude oil, natural gas and other, respectively (Ylmaz et al., 2005; Ylmaz, 2004,2011; Ylmaz 2008;

The most important and the largest energy capacities of Turkey's are coal and renewable energy resources. Both energy resources constitute 61% (hard coal 16%, lignite 13% and renewable 32%) of the total installed capacity in 1970. The total installed capacity increased and reached to 78% (hard coal 2%, lignite 29% and renewable 47%) until 1995. In this rate just only hard coal percentage decreased, lignite and renewable increased as domestic energy sources. But, after this time the total installed capacity decreased and reached to 54%

In Figure 12, distribution of electricity production of Turkey by energy resources is given in a long historical order for 1940 and 2009 term. As seen in the Figure, coal (especially hard coal) had a share of 80% in electricity production in 1940. In the same year, the share of electricity production by resources was 6%, 3%, 6%, 5%, for lignite, renewable, crude oil and other, respectively. The rate of electricity production using renewable energy resources and lignite had begun increasing in time reached to 21% and 14% respectively in 1973. The share of hard coal sharply decreased and reached to 12% in 1973. By the middle of 1960s, use of oil

**Lignite**

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

**4 %**

**35%**

**11 %**

**26 %**

**4 %**

**0.8 % 18 %**

**<sup>29</sup> <sup>30</sup> <sup>30</sup> <sup>30</sup> <sup>29</sup> <sup>28</sup>**

**Renewable**

**35**

**Petroleum Natural gas**

**<sup>75</sup> <sup>76</sup> 76 76 <sup>76</sup> 77 <sup>75</sup> <sup>74</sup> <sup>73</sup> <sup>73</sup> 76 <sup>77</sup> <sup>77</sup> <sup>78</sup> <sup>77</sup> 75 72 <sup>66</sup> <sup>67</sup> <sup>66</sup> 60 59 <sup>57</sup> <sup>57</sup> <sup>58</sup> <sup>58</sup> <sup>58</sup>**

**<sup>32</sup> <sup>32</sup> <sup>32</sup> <sup>31</sup> <sup>31</sup>**

**İmported coal**

**<sup>26</sup> <sup>26</sup> <sup>25</sup> 22 <sup>23</sup> <sup>23</sup> <sup>23</sup> <sup>25</sup> <sup>25</sup> <sup>24</sup>**

**Other**

(hard coal 1%, lignite 18% and renewable 34%) in 2009 as illustrated in Fig 11.

**<sup>75</sup> <sup>75</sup> <sup>75</sup> <sup>76</sup> <sup>76</sup> <sup>75</sup> <sup>75</sup> <sup>75</sup> <sup>75</sup> <sup>75</sup>**

**<sup>68</sup> 69 69 61 59 57 60 <sup>64</sup> <sup>65</sup> <sup>65</sup> <sup>66</sup> <sup>67</sup> 68 68 70**

Ylmaz and Aydner, 2009; Ylmaz and Uslu, 2006).

**Hard coal**

**68 67 <sup>65</sup> <sup>66</sup> <sup>65</sup> <sup>64</sup> <sup>64</sup> <sup>63</sup> 65 70 <sup>67</sup> <sup>66</sup> <sup>66</sup> 65 <sup>63</sup> <sup>62</sup> 56 58 54 48 44 42 <sup>41</sup> <sup>41</sup> <sup>39</sup> 41 38 32 32 32 29 25 24 30 25 <sup>23</sup> <sup>22</sup> 26 28 27 27 <sup>28</sup> <sup>29</sup> <sup>30</sup> <sup>30</sup> 34 37 37**

0

1940

1942

**43 %**

**25 %**

**28 %**

**3%**

1944

1946

(data from TEIAS 2009)

1948

1950

1952

**55 %**

**15 %**

**27 %**

**3 %**

1954

1956

**48 %**

**14 %**

**6 %**

**29 %**

**2 %**

1958

1960

1962

1964

1966

1968

1970

1972

Fig. 10. During period of the 1940- 2009 distribution of installed capacity by energy sources

1974

**13 %**

**11 %**

**33 %**

**42 %**

(Coal+Renewable) Total

**3 %**

1976

1978

1980

Coal Total

1982

1984

1986

1988

**2 %**

**35 %**

**38 %**

**17 %**

**3 %**

1990

1992

10

20

30

40

50

**% of total**

60

70

80

90

100

**72 70 69 69 <sup>68</sup> <sup>67</sup> <sup>67</sup> <sup>66</sup> 69 73 <sup>71</sup> <sup>72</sup> <sup>72</sup> <sup>71</sup> <sup>70</sup> 68 74**

Fig. 11. During of the period 1970 and 2009 development of the share of renewable energy and coal by the total installed capacity (data from TEIAS, 2009)

in electricity production increased, since it is a cheaper than other resources, and this was quickly renounced after the oil crisis in 1973. After the crisis, Turkey gave importance on lignite, one of its own energy resources, and the share of coal in electricity production began increasing and reached 50%. After 2000s, use of natural gas began using in electricity production as in all other areas and its share in electricity production reached 45% in a very short time until 2003. Also imported hard coal began to use in electricity production with 6% in 2003. The share of natural gas has increased and reached to 49% in electricity generation in 2009. At the same year, distribution by resources was as follows natural gas: coal (hard coal %2 + lignite %20) renewable %19, oil %3, and imported hard coal 7% (Ylmaz 2008; Ylmaz, and Aydner, 2009).

Fig. 12. During period of the 1940- 2009 electricity production by energy sources (data from TEIAS 2009)

Renewable Energy and Coal Use in Turkey 73

**Renewable Energy Source Gross Technical Economic available** 

430

111 500 x 103 977 000 80 000

400

30

90

The coal production culture in Turkey was introduced with the exploration of hard coal by Uzun Mehmet in Köseağz quarter of Kestaneci village in Zonguldak province on 8th November 1829. Up to date, hard coal has been produced in Turkey. There is no definite information about the first use of lignite. It is known that lignite was being produced in

Hard coal is used intensively in industry and heating and especially in electricity production. Lignite coals are used mostly for electricity production since its calorific value is low. The share of coal in overall primary energy production was 31% (lignite 12%, hard coal 19%) in 1970, and it increased to 46% (lignite 38%, hard coal 8%) in 1990 with an increase rate of 48%. In 2009, the share of coal in total primary energy sources has increased and reached to 57% (lignite 53%, hard coal 4%) as shown in Fig 14. The primary energy production of Turkey has been limited and the largest share in this increase belonged to lignite. It is hope that this rate of percentage increase will continue in the following years. On the other hand, the share of coal in overall consumption was 24% (lignite 9%, hard coal 15%) in 1970, and it increased to 31%

53 730 215

7 500 5.4 500 -

1 400 000 6 105 500

115 000 290

10

40

36652 129.9

2 843 1.8 350 1.4

20 000 50

7

25

(billion kWh/year) 107 500

(billion kWh/year) 220 000

Table 2. Potential of Renewable Energy Sources (MENR,2009)

many locations in Turkey, especially in Soma -Kütahya (Ylmaz, 2008).

Hydropower (MW)

Geothermal

Solar

Wind

Heat (MW)

(Mtoe/year) Electricity (MW)

Heat + electricity (MW) (billion kWh/year) (Mtoe/year)

Electricity (MW)

Fuel (Mtoe/year)

Fuel (Mtoe/year)

**4. Coal and energy** 

**4.1 Energy production based on coal** 

Classic Biomass

Modern Biomass

(billion kWh/year)

The first of the areas where coal and renewable energy can be used most intensively is electricity production. In Figure 13, distribution of the total electricity production by renewable energy and coal sources are given in a historical order. As seen in the Figure, coal (especially hard coal) and renewable energy had a share of 68% (hard coal 16%, lignite 17% and renewable 18%) in electricity production in 1970. The rate of electricity production using renewable energy resources and lignite had begun increasing in time and the share of the hard coal decreased to 1% until beginning of 1988 and the share of renewable energy resources and lignite increased to 42% and 38% respectively. But, after that time the total electricity generation by renewable energy and coal resources decreased and reached to 41 % (hard coal 2%, lignite 20 % and renewable 19%) in 2009. Turkey has become a country, which imports 70% of its energy resources, during this term. Because after the crisis in 1973, Turkey gave importance on lignite, one of its own energy resources, and the share of coal in electricity production began increasing. However, after 2000s, use of natural gas began prevailing in electricity production as in all other areas and its share in electricity production reached 45% in a very short time.

Fig. 13. During of the period 1970 and 2009 development of the share of renewable energy and coal in the total electricity production (data from TEIAS 2009)

### **3.2 Renewable energy potential of Turkey**

The potentials of the main renewable energy sources of Turkey are collectively given in Table 2. The economical potential given in the Table equals the usable potential. The mostly used renewable energy sources in Turkey are biomass energy and hydraulic energy. While geothermal is the third source in the listing, its use is very limited. Use of solar energy is at an emblematic level and use of wind energy is being commenced recently. The overall economical and/or usable potential of the listed renewable energy sources is at a level of 68 Mtoe/year (TUSIAD,1998).

The overall annual electricity production potential of renewable energy sources is 486.3 billon kWh economically. Solar energy, geothermal energy and wind energy potentials are not used or used scarcely. The most used renewable energy source in Turkey is hydraulic energy. Today, the economical hydroelectric potential of Turkey is 129.9 billion kWh and 35% (45.930 GWh) of it is operative, 8% (10.518 GWh) of it is under construction and 57% (73.459 GWh) of it is at project level Table 2.

The first of the areas where coal and renewable energy can be used most intensively is electricity production. In Figure 13, distribution of the total electricity production by renewable energy and coal sources are given in a historical order. As seen in the Figure, coal (especially hard coal) and renewable energy had a share of 68% (hard coal 16%, lignite 17% and renewable 18%) in electricity production in 1970. The rate of electricity production using renewable energy resources and lignite had begun increasing in time and the share of the hard coal decreased to 1% until beginning of 1988 and the share of renewable energy resources and lignite increased to 42% and 38% respectively. But, after that time the total electricity generation by renewable energy and coal resources decreased and reached to 41 % (hard coal 2%, lignite 20 % and renewable 19%) in 2009. Turkey has become a country, which imports 70% of its energy resources, during this term. Because after the crisis in 1973, Turkey gave importance on lignite, one of its own energy resources, and the share of coal in electricity production began increasing. However, after 2000s, use of natural gas began prevailing in electricity production as in all other

**16 15 13 12 11 9 7 6 6 5 4 4 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2** 

1990

1991

1992

**LIGNITE**

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1989

**<sup>60</sup> <sup>35</sup> <sup>40</sup> <sup>38</sup> <sup>40</sup> <sup>46</sup> <sup>39</sup> <sup>41</sup> <sup>43</sup> <sup>39</sup> <sup>38</sup>**

**RENEWABLE**

**<sup>74</sup> <sup>75</sup> <sup>74</sup> <sup>76</sup> <sup>78</sup> <sup>75</sup> <sup>74</sup> <sup>75</sup> <sup>71</sup> <sup>70</sup>**

**<sup>38</sup> <sup>34</sup> <sup>34</sup> <sup>34</sup> <sup>30</sup> <sup>34</sup> <sup>30</sup> <sup>29</sup> <sup>30</sup> <sup>29</sup> <sup>29</sup> <sup>28</sup> <sup>28</sup> <sup>22</sup> <sup>17</sup> <sup>15</sup> <sup>18</sup> <sup>18</sup> <sup>20</sup> <sup>21</sup> <sup>20</sup>**

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

**30**

**62 55 50 50**

**<sup>25</sup> <sup>20</sup> <sup>26</sup>**

**<sup>25</sup> <sup>31</sup> <sup>25</sup> <sup>25</sup> <sup>19</sup> <sup>17</sup> <sup>19</sup>**

**41 40 41**

**<sup>44</sup> <sup>47</sup> <sup>45</sup> <sup>45</sup>**

**Imported energy sources: Oil, Natural gas, Hard coal**

areas and its share in electricity production reached 45% in a very short time.

**<sup>42</sup> <sup>47</sup> 38 25**

**<sup>35</sup> <sup>30</sup> <sup>42</sup>**

**86**

**<sup>77</sup> <sup>79</sup> <sup>79</sup> <sup>82</sup>**

**<sup>46</sup> <sup>49</sup> <sup>51</sup> <sup>53</sup> <sup>41</sup> <sup>44</sup>**

**73**

**<sup>74</sup> <sup>74</sup> <sup>76</sup> <sup>78</sup>**

**<sup>17</sup> <sup>16</sup> <sup>13</sup> <sup>14</sup> <sup>17</sup> <sup>17</sup> <sup>16</sup> <sup>18</sup> <sup>20</sup> <sup>24</sup> <sup>22</sup> <sup>21</sup> <sup>21</sup> <sup>28</sup> <sup>31</sup>**

1977

1978

**3.2 Renewable energy potential of Turkey** 

(73.459 GWh) of it is at project level Table 2.

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

and coal in the total electricity production (data from TEIAS 2009)

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

Fig. 13. During of the period 1970 and 2009 development of the share of renewable energy

The potentials of the main renewable energy sources of Turkey are collectively given in Table 2. The economical potential given in the Table equals the usable potential. The mostly used renewable energy sources in Turkey are biomass energy and hydraulic energy. While geothermal is the third source in the listing, its use is very limited. Use of solar energy is at an emblematic level and use of wind energy is being commenced recently. The overall economical and/or usable potential of the listed renewable energy sources is at a level of 68

The overall annual electricity production potential of renewable energy sources is 486.3 billon kWh economically. Solar energy, geothermal energy and wind energy potentials are not used or used scarcely. The most used renewable energy source in Turkey is hydraulic energy. Today, the economical hydroelectric potential of Turkey is 129.9 billion kWh and 35% (45.930 GWh) of it is operative, 8% (10.518 GWh) of it is under construction and 57%

**<sup>38</sup> <sup>46</sup> <sup>42</sup> <sup>43</sup>**

**Total Indigenous energy sources**

**35 <sup>27</sup> <sup>29</sup> 21 25**

**% of total electricity production**

1970

1971

1972

**Hard coal**

1973

1974

Mtoe/year (TUSIAD,1998).

1975

1976

**<sup>57</sup> <sup>54</sup> 47 54 64 69 <sup>65</sup> <sup>69</sup>**

**68**


Table 2. Potential of Renewable Energy Sources (MENR,2009)
