Publishing **Section 3**

**New Applied Techniques – Improving Material Culture and Experimentation** 

166 Archaeology, New Approaches in Theory and Techniques

Witten, A. (2006) *Handbook Of Geophysics In Archaeology.* ISBN-10: 1904768601. Equinox

**6** 

*1,2,3,4Israel 5France* 

, E. Mentovich2, D. Cvikel3,5,

O. Barkai4, A. Aronson1 and Y. Kahanov3

*5Centre d'Histoire des Techniques CH2ST/EA127,* 

*Université Paris 1 – Panthéon-Sorbonne* 

*1Faculty of Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv 2School of Chemistry, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv* 

**Archaeometallurgical Investigation of** 

*3Leon Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa 4Department of Maritime Civilizations, University of Haifa, Haifa* 

**Iron Artifacts from Shipwrecks – A Review** 

D. Ashkenazi1,

This chapter reviews the archaeometallurgical investigations of ancient iron artifacts, which were retrieved from two different shipwrecks. The analysis is based on materials science and archaeological literature, as well as archaeometallurgical observations made by the authors. Various tools were used in the investigation process, such as radiography, optical microscope, SEM with EDS, XRF, OES and microhardness measurements, and the results were compared with archeological-typological analyses within the relevant historical context. The connection between microstructure and mechanical properties enables the materials scientist to surmise the use of processes such as hammering, heating and quenching in ancient times. Such information regarding the iron artifacts may assist the archaeologist in understanding ancient manufacture processes, and what the probable uses of the objects were, as well as dating the objects and finding their ore origin. This

Studies of ancient metals exist in the literature (e.g., Wadsworth & Lesuer, 2000; Pense et al., 2000; Blyth et al., 2002; Perttula, 2004; Nicodemi et al., 2005; Hošek & Košta, 2006; Mapelli et al., 2007; Barrena et al., 2008; Caporaso et al., 2008). However, it is rare to find a general review which relates to the archaeometallurgical methods and includes an interpretation of the microstructure. It is even more challenging to find a metallurgical review relating to iron objects retrieved from a marine environment. The present paper attempts to fill this gap and provide information regarding the techniques of archaeometallurgy as they are applied to

information may also assist in the conservation process of these objects.

**2. Archaeometallurgical background of ancient iron objects** 

**1. Introduction** 

 

Corresponding Author

### **Archaeometallurgical Investigation of Iron Artifacts from Shipwrecks – A Review**

D. Ashkenazi1, , E. Mentovich2, D. Cvikel3,5, O. Barkai4, A. Aronson1 and Y. Kahanov3 *1Faculty of Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv 2School of Chemistry, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv 3Leon Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa 4Department of Maritime Civilizations, University of Haifa, Haifa 5Centre d'Histoire des Techniques CH2ST/EA127, Université Paris 1 – Panthéon-Sorbonne 1,2,3,4Israel 5France* 

#### **1. Introduction**

This chapter reviews the archaeometallurgical investigations of ancient iron artifacts, which were retrieved from two different shipwrecks. The analysis is based on materials science and archaeological literature, as well as archaeometallurgical observations made by the authors. Various tools were used in the investigation process, such as radiography, optical microscope, SEM with EDS, XRF, OES and microhardness measurements, and the results were compared with archeological-typological analyses within the relevant historical context. The connection between microstructure and mechanical properties enables the materials scientist to surmise the use of processes such as hammering, heating and quenching in ancient times. Such information regarding the iron artifacts may assist the archaeologist in understanding ancient manufacture processes, and what the probable uses of the objects were, as well as dating the objects and finding their ore origin. This information may also assist in the conservation process of these objects.

#### **2. Archaeometallurgical background of ancient iron objects**

Studies of ancient metals exist in the literature (e.g., Wadsworth & Lesuer, 2000; Pense et al., 2000; Blyth et al., 2002; Perttula, 2004; Nicodemi et al., 2005; Hošek & Košta, 2006; Mapelli et al., 2007; Barrena et al., 2008; Caporaso et al., 2008). However, it is rare to find a general review which relates to the archaeometallurgical methods and includes an interpretation of the microstructure. It is even more challenging to find a metallurgical review relating to iron objects retrieved from a marine environment. The present paper attempts to fill this gap and provide information regarding the techniques of archaeometallurgy as they are applied to

Corresponding Author

Archaeometallurgical Investigation of Iron Artifacts from Shipwrecks – A Review 171

(Fig. 1) is a very common iron meteoritic structure (Szurgot et al., 2008). Widmanstätten microstructure of proeutectoid ferrite is observed only over a limited range of transformation temperatures and C contents (Vander Voort, 2004). The main factors affecting the formation of Widmanstätten structure in steels are the chemical composition of the steel, the cooling rate and the size of austenite grains (Aliya & Lampman, 2004; Todorov & Khristov, 2004). Low C steels, which contain less than 0.3 wt% C, have a tendency to form a Widmanstätten pattern, when they have a coarse austenitic grain, and have been rapidly

Archaeological iron can be classified into two different categories: wrought iron and castiron. The use of cast-iron as a significant structural material, and its mass production, began in England (at Coalbrookdale) during the eighteenth century, when A. Darby devised a new method of smelting iron with coal (Goodway, 1998). The properties of cast-iron can be

Commercial cast-iron is defined as a ferrous alloy containing between 2.14 and 4.5 wt% C, and it usually contains between 0.5 and 3 wt% silicon (Si) and smaller amounts of other elements as phosphorus (P), sulphur (S) and manganese (Mn) (Stefanescu, 1996a, Mentovich et al., 2010). It has a relatively low melting point, good fluidity, good hardness and good wear resistance, but it tends to be brittle. The main difference between white and gray cast-irons is in the amount of silicon present in the alloy. While white cast-iron contains less than 1 wt% Si, gray cast-iron contains more than 1 wt% Si (Goodway, 1998; Mentovich et al., 2010). White cast-iron is named for its white fractured surface, whereas gray cast-iron is named for its gray fractured surface, which occurs because of the presence of graphitic flakes. Both white and gray cast-iron can be

The slow cooling rate of solidification or the high presence of silicon (which is a graphite stabilizing element) in the cast-iron, causes a graphite formation (Menon & McKay, 1996; Stefanescu, 1996b). Adding more than 1 wt% Si causes the carbon to precipitate as dark graphite flakes surrounded by a matrix of bright pearlite (alternating thin layers of ferrite

The structure of steels and cast-irons may oscillate between different microstructures as a result of C amounts, different alloying elements, the temperature of the heat treatment, and the rate of cooling. When steel with a pearlite phase in room temperature is heated to a higher temperature (912oC) and rapidly cooled (quenched) to room temperature, another phase is formed called martensite (metastable state). This has a body-centred tetragonal (BCT) elongated unit cell, which includes C atoms occupied in it. The martensite morphology depends on C content: below 0.6 wt% C content, the structure consists of martensite needles; between 0.6 and 1.0 wt%, the martensite is a mixture of needles lath and plate morphologies; and above 1.0 wt% C, the structure consists of plates with some retained austenite remains between the plates, as well as some martensite needles extending from the plates (Aliya & Lampman, 2004). The martensite phase has high hardness but it is

When iron is exposed to an atmospheric environment it forms different iron-oxides, such as Magnetite (Fe3O4), Hematite (-Fe2O3) and Maghemite (-Fe2O3) (Cornell & Schwertmann,

cooled from austenitic phase (Todorov & Khristov, 2004).

controlled by adding various alloying elements to it.

identified by their fractured surface (Callister, 2000).

and dark cementite) (Callister, 2000).

also a very brittle phase (Callister, 2000).

**2.2 Underwater corrosion** 

archaeological objects made of iron and retrieved from shipwrecks discovered in the Mediterranean Sea.

Information regarding ancient iron objects, including composition, trace elements and microstructure, as well as their manufacturing processes, can provide essential data concerning their date, their probable use, their origin and the technology of the time (e.g., Mentovich et al., 2010; Ashkenazi et al., 2011; Eliyahu et al., 2011). Intercultural interactions such as wars or trade connections can also be examined through this data. This information can also assist in improving the objects' conservation process. From the materials science and engineering point of view, it is interesting to explore the ways in which metals have been employed in the manufacturing process of metallic objects in ancient civilizations. Combining the empirical experiments of materials and the theoretical models allows an appreciation for the effects of structure on the material's properties. The relation between microstructure and mechanical properties enables the manipulation and control of the properties of metals by processes such as casting, cold working, hot working, heating and quenching. These technological aspects are strengthened and become more intriguing after the reaction of the iron with the seabed environment.

#### **2.1 Wrought iron, cast-iron and steel**

In the classification of ferrous alloys, pure iron (Fe) is defined as iron containing less than 0.008 by weight (wt%) carbon (C). At room temperature, pure iron is composed of a ferrite phase, which is an iron body-centered cubic (BCC) unit cell. At higher temperatures (912oC), the ferrite phase transforms into austenite iron, with face-centered cubic (FCC) unit cell. For rather pure iron manufacturing, a reduction process should be applied at a temperature of around 1200oC (viscous slag with solid-state phase), turning the iron ore into a spongy matter called bloom (Tylecote, 1962). The bloom contains many inclusions, known as slag. In order to reduce the amount of slag in the metallic iron bulk, the bloom is then hammered. The result is a heterogeneous, ductile, malleable, and easily welded material named 'wrought iron', with an average amount of 0.1 wt% C (Tylecote & Black, 1980). The term 'wrought iron' literally means 'worked iron'. In order to join two pieces of iron together, a forge-welding process is carried out at temperatures below that of melting (1538oC for pure iron) and above half of it, resulting in an austenite ductile phase, which allows for intensive dislocation movement (Murray, 1993; Barrena et al., 2008).

Ferrous alloys such as steel and cast-iron are defined as alloys containing Fe as the prime element and C as the secondary element (Callister, 2000). Iron alloys containing 0.008–2.14 wt% C include a combination of ferrite and an intermediate compound called cementite (Fe3C), and are defined as steel. The alternating microstructure between ferrite and Fe3C gives the pearlite phase optimized mechanical properties. The massive amount of cementite results in good hardness and abrasion resistance, but also in higher brittleness (Goodway, 1996).

Outstanding crystalline microstructure is formed when steels are cooled from extremely high temperatures at a critical cooling rate. This kind of microstructure, named Widmanstätten (or Thomson structure) was discovered by the geologists A. von Widmanstätten and C. von Schreibers in 1808, after they etched various meteorites, and revealed different morphologies (Vander Voort, 2004). Widmanstätten structure pattern

archaeological objects made of iron and retrieved from shipwrecks discovered in the

Information regarding ancient iron objects, including composition, trace elements and microstructure, as well as their manufacturing processes, can provide essential data concerning their date, their probable use, their origin and the technology of the time (e.g., Mentovich et al., 2010; Ashkenazi et al., 2011; Eliyahu et al., 2011). Intercultural interactions such as wars or trade connections can also be examined through this data. This information can also assist in improving the objects' conservation process. From the materials science and engineering point of view, it is interesting to explore the ways in which metals have been employed in the manufacturing process of metallic objects in ancient civilizations. Combining the empirical experiments of materials and the theoretical models allows an appreciation for the effects of structure on the material's properties. The relation between microstructure and mechanical properties enables the manipulation and control of the properties of metals by processes such as casting, cold working, hot working, heating and quenching. These technological aspects are strengthened and become more intriguing after

In the classification of ferrous alloys, pure iron (Fe) is defined as iron containing less than 0.008 by weight (wt%) carbon (C). At room temperature, pure iron is composed of a ferrite phase, which is an iron body-centered cubic (BCC) unit cell. At higher temperatures (912oC), the ferrite phase transforms into austenite iron, with face-centered cubic (FCC) unit cell. For rather pure iron manufacturing, a reduction process should be applied at a temperature of around 1200oC (viscous slag with solid-state phase), turning the iron ore into a spongy matter called bloom (Tylecote, 1962). The bloom contains many inclusions, known as slag. In order to reduce the amount of slag in the metallic iron bulk, the bloom is then hammered. The result is a heterogeneous, ductile, malleable, and easily welded material named 'wrought iron', with an average amount of 0.1 wt% C (Tylecote & Black, 1980). The term 'wrought iron' literally means 'worked iron'. In order to join two pieces of iron together, a forge-welding process is carried out at temperatures below that of melting (1538oC for pure iron) and above half of it, resulting in an austenite ductile phase, which

allows for intensive dislocation movement (Murray, 1993; Barrena et al., 2008).

Ferrous alloys such as steel and cast-iron are defined as alloys containing Fe as the prime element and C as the secondary element (Callister, 2000). Iron alloys containing 0.008–2.14 wt% C include a combination of ferrite and an intermediate compound called cementite (Fe3C), and are defined as steel. The alternating microstructure between ferrite and Fe3C gives the pearlite phase optimized mechanical properties. The massive amount of cementite results in good hardness and abrasion resistance, but also in higher brittleness (Goodway,

Outstanding crystalline microstructure is formed when steels are cooled from extremely high temperatures at a critical cooling rate. This kind of microstructure, named Widmanstätten (or Thomson structure) was discovered by the geologists A. von Widmanstätten and C. von Schreibers in 1808, after they etched various meteorites, and revealed different morphologies (Vander Voort, 2004). Widmanstätten structure pattern

Mediterranean Sea.

1996).

the reaction of the iron with the seabed environment.

**2.1 Wrought iron, cast-iron and steel** 

(Fig. 1) is a very common iron meteoritic structure (Szurgot et al., 2008). Widmanstätten microstructure of proeutectoid ferrite is observed only over a limited range of transformation temperatures and C contents (Vander Voort, 2004). The main factors affecting the formation of Widmanstätten structure in steels are the chemical composition of the steel, the cooling rate and the size of austenite grains (Aliya & Lampman, 2004; Todorov & Khristov, 2004). Low C steels, which contain less than 0.3 wt% C, have a tendency to form a Widmanstätten pattern, when they have a coarse austenitic grain, and have been rapidly cooled from austenitic phase (Todorov & Khristov, 2004).

Archaeological iron can be classified into two different categories: wrought iron and castiron. The use of cast-iron as a significant structural material, and its mass production, began in England (at Coalbrookdale) during the eighteenth century, when A. Darby devised a new method of smelting iron with coal (Goodway, 1998). The properties of cast-iron can be controlled by adding various alloying elements to it.

Commercial cast-iron is defined as a ferrous alloy containing between 2.14 and 4.5 wt% C, and it usually contains between 0.5 and 3 wt% silicon (Si) and smaller amounts of other elements as phosphorus (P), sulphur (S) and manganese (Mn) (Stefanescu, 1996a, Mentovich et al., 2010). It has a relatively low melting point, good fluidity, good hardness and good wear resistance, but it tends to be brittle. The main difference between white and gray cast-irons is in the amount of silicon present in the alloy. While white cast-iron contains less than 1 wt% Si, gray cast-iron contains more than 1 wt% Si (Goodway, 1998; Mentovich et al., 2010). White cast-iron is named for its white fractured surface, whereas gray cast-iron is named for its gray fractured surface, which occurs because of the presence of graphitic flakes. Both white and gray cast-iron can be identified by their fractured surface (Callister, 2000).

The slow cooling rate of solidification or the high presence of silicon (which is a graphite stabilizing element) in the cast-iron, causes a graphite formation (Menon & McKay, 1996; Stefanescu, 1996b). Adding more than 1 wt% Si causes the carbon to precipitate as dark graphite flakes surrounded by a matrix of bright pearlite (alternating thin layers of ferrite and dark cementite) (Callister, 2000).

The structure of steels and cast-irons may oscillate between different microstructures as a result of C amounts, different alloying elements, the temperature of the heat treatment, and the rate of cooling. When steel with a pearlite phase in room temperature is heated to a higher temperature (912oC) and rapidly cooled (quenched) to room temperature, another phase is formed called martensite (metastable state). This has a body-centred tetragonal (BCT) elongated unit cell, which includes C atoms occupied in it. The martensite morphology depends on C content: below 0.6 wt% C content, the structure consists of martensite needles; between 0.6 and 1.0 wt%, the martensite is a mixture of needles lath and plate morphologies; and above 1.0 wt% C, the structure consists of plates with some retained austenite remains between the plates, as well as some martensite needles extending from the plates (Aliya & Lampman, 2004). The martensite phase has high hardness but it is also a very brittle phase (Callister, 2000).

#### **2.2 Underwater corrosion**

When iron is exposed to an atmospheric environment it forms different iron-oxides, such as Magnetite (Fe3O4), Hematite (-Fe2O3) and Maghemite (-Fe2O3) (Cornell & Schwertmann,

Fig. 1. Widmanstätten microstructure: (a) schematic illustration (Drawing: D. Ashkenazi), (b) OM (ZEISS, AXIO Scope A.1) metallographic image (of a T-shaped anchor) showing

2003). At temperatures higher than 560oC, the common order of iron-oxide layers (from the internal to the surface respectively) is Fe/FeO/F3O4/F2O3/O2 (Fontana, 1987). Reddishorange powder rust and the presence of many cracks and cavities on the surface of the objects are indications of an ongoing active corrosion process, causing continuous loss of

Ancient objects made of iron, which were excavated from a marine environment (e.g., shipwrecks) after being buried for centuries under layers of sand of various types and thickness usually suffer from severe corrosion, and are generally covered with a thick encrustation coating and concretion, similar to what happened to the copper nails of the Ma'agan Mikhael shipwreck (Kahanov et al., 1999). The nails excavated from the Ma'agan Mikhael shipwreck had black colored concretions, which were assumed to be iron, but were identified later as unalloyed copper. The concretion was composed of a black-blue mineral called covellite (CuS) matrix. The concretion also included quartz particles (sand), and shell (calcium carbonate) inclusions (Kahanov et al., 1999). Copper in aerobic underwater surroundings tends to oxidize quite rapidly, resulting in a toxic protective layer that protects the copper from sulphides resulting from a reaction with microorganisms. Therefore

Widmanstätten microstructure, and (c) Widmanstätten microstructure in higher

metal, as well as degradation of mechanical properties (Selwyn, 2004).

magnification OM (Photos: A. Aronson).

Fig. 1. Widmanstätten microstructure: (a) schematic illustration (Drawing: D. Ashkenazi), (b) OM (ZEISS, AXIO Scope A.1) metallographic image (of a T-shaped anchor) showing Widmanstätten microstructure, and (c) Widmanstätten microstructure in higher magnification OM (Photos: A. Aronson).

2003). At temperatures higher than 560oC, the common order of iron-oxide layers (from the internal to the surface respectively) is Fe/FeO/F3O4/F2O3/O2 (Fontana, 1987). Reddishorange powder rust and the presence of many cracks and cavities on the surface of the objects are indications of an ongoing active corrosion process, causing continuous loss of metal, as well as degradation of mechanical properties (Selwyn, 2004).

Ancient objects made of iron, which were excavated from a marine environment (e.g., shipwrecks) after being buried for centuries under layers of sand of various types and thickness usually suffer from severe corrosion, and are generally covered with a thick encrustation coating and concretion, similar to what happened to the copper nails of the Ma'agan Mikhael shipwreck (Kahanov et al., 1999). The nails excavated from the Ma'agan Mikhael shipwreck had black colored concretions, which were assumed to be iron, but were identified later as unalloyed copper. The concretion was composed of a black-blue mineral called covellite (CuS) matrix. The concretion also included quartz particles (sand), and shell (calcium carbonate) inclusions (Kahanov et al., 1999). Copper in aerobic underwater surroundings tends to oxidize quite rapidly, resulting in a toxic protective layer that protects the copper from sulphides resulting from a reaction with microorganisms. Therefore

Archaeometallurgical Investigation of Iron Artifacts from Shipwrecks – A Review 175

Archaeometallurgy studies were used to provide essential information regarding dating, processing, and manufacturing techniques of the objects. In both cases, the artifacts were found covered with corrosion, encrustation and a concretion layer (Fig. 2 and Fig. 8). The samples were cut, roughly polished, and mounted in Bakelite at 180 psi pressure and a temperature of 180oC. Surface preparation included grinding the samples with silicon carbide papers, grades 240–600 grit, followed by polishing with 5 to 0.05 micron alumina pastes. Finally the samples were polished with 0.05 micron colloidal silica polishing suspension paste, and etched using Nital acid (Mentovich et al., 2010; Eliyahu, et al.,

The Tantura F shipwreck was discovered in Dor lagoon, Israel in 1995. It was excavated during five seasons in 2004–2008. Combining 14C dating with typological study of the pottery, the shipwreck was dated to between the second half of the seventh and the end of the eighth centuries AD (Barkai & Kahanov, 2007; Barkai et al., 2010). Among the finds exposed in the Tantura F shipwreck were two T-shaped type iron anchors: one on the starboard side and the other on the port side, close to the bow (Fig. 2). Both anchors were found broken, with part of the shank and the anchor cable ring missing. Anchor A was found under the wooden hull, touching it (Fig. 2a), while Anchor B was found concreted to

Fig. 2. The Tantura F anchors covered with a thick encrustation coating and concretion: (a)

Both anchors (Fig. 3) were considered to be found in-situ, thus dating them to the time of the shipwreck. The two anchors were retrieved from the seabed covered by a 4 cm thick gray layer of encrustation coating and concretion composed of sea sand, shells and small stones; however, the core of the iron shank and the arms were of solid, shining and hard iron.

The examination of the T-shaped anchors included radiography, metallographic crosssections (Fig. 4), Optical Microscope (OM), Vickers microhardness tests, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) analysis, and Optical Emission Spectroscopy (OES) analysis (Eliyahu et al., 2011). For the metallographic sampling three cross-sections were cut from two different parts of Anchors A and B for

Anchor A and (b) Anchor B attached to the vessel (Photos: I. Grinberg).

**3.1 Case Study I: T-shaped iron anchors from the Tantura F shipwreck** 

the outside of the planking below the hull (Fig. 2b).

according to ASTM E3-01 standard.

2011).

sulphidization of the copper nails occurred only inside the wood, in a rich bacterial environment which probably accelerated the concrete formation (Kahanov et al., 1997; Kahanov et al., 1999).

Therefore, for successful study and conservation of these items, it is important to understand the corrosion and concretion mechanisms of submerged iron artifacts. Corrosion of archaeological iron artifacts buried under sand in seawater is an electrochemical process, which involves anodic and cathodic reactions in an aqueous electrolytic environment and a biological process as well, involving anaerobic bacteria (North, 1976). When iron is buried in aqueous solution, the oxide layers grow slowly, resulting in oxide compounds such as: Goethite (-FeOOH), Akaganeite (-FeOOH), and Lepidocrocite (-FeOOH) (Balasubramaniam, 2003; Cornell & Schwertmann, 2003; Neff et al. 2004; Neff et al. 2005; Neff et al. 2006a; Neff et al., 2006b; Balos et al., 2008; Barrena et al., 2008; Park et al., 2010). During the underwater concretion the metallic iron slowly dissolves and then the metallic surface is covered with a ceramic, aggregate coating. This concretion, which covers the iron artifact, forms a protective 'cocoon' in the sea. Concretion formation occurs as a result of interaction between iron and its surrounding environment. In this process, which is one of the most fascinating features of iron corrosion, the metal's surface decreases, whereas the concretion conglomerate increases.

Since iron is a non-toxic metal, it can be colonized in the underwater marine environment, which includes sand, shells particles and marine organisms, and these create a calcium carbonate (CaCO3) shell (North, 1976). Sometimes the catalyst for this process is bacterial organisms, which are present in wooden ships and consume/degrade the cellulose of the waterlogged wood (Kahanov, 1997).

Removal of the concretion layer or cleaning the corrosion is required in order to learn about the artifacts, but this procedure might damage the metal object, if anything remains. In such cases it is recommended to examine the object with a non-destructive method, such as X-ray radiography, before the de-concretion process begins. Sometimes, information about an object can be obtained from the radiography itself (Pulak, 2004).

After retrieving the objects from the sea and beginning the de-concretion/corrosion process, wrought iron and cast-iron tend to corrode in dissimilar ways. Wrought iron corrodes along the slag inclusions, and the presence of chlorides in the alloy accelerates the corrosion rate (Balasubramaniam et al., 2003). Orange-brown drops, known as 'sweating', are formed on the surface of the iron object, indicating the presence of chlorides (Selwyn, 2004). Cast-iron exposed to the atmospheric environment can be corroded by graphitization, with accelerated corrosion on the external surface of the object (which is rich in graphite) and at the boundaries between the graphite and the metal (Najjaran et al., 2006).

#### **3. Studying cases of iron artifacts from shipwrecks for a better understanding of ancient cultures**

The present paper describes two case studies related to iron objects recovered during underwater excavations in Israel. The earlier case is the archaeometallurgical study of two iron anchors retrieved from the seventh-eighth century Tantura F shipwreck (Eliyahu et al., 2011), and the second is the archaeometallurgical study of two cast-iron cannonballs retrieved from the nineteenth century Akko 1 shipwreck (Mentovich et al., 2010).

sulphidization of the copper nails occurred only inside the wood, in a rich bacterial environment which probably accelerated the concrete formation (Kahanov et al., 1997;

Therefore, for successful study and conservation of these items, it is important to understand the corrosion and concretion mechanisms of submerged iron artifacts. Corrosion of archaeological iron artifacts buried under sand in seawater is an electrochemical process, which involves anodic and cathodic reactions in an aqueous electrolytic environment and a biological process as well, involving anaerobic bacteria (North, 1976). When iron is buried in aqueous solution, the oxide layers grow slowly, resulting in oxide compounds such as: Goethite (-FeOOH), Akaganeite (-FeOOH), and Lepidocrocite (-FeOOH) (Balasubramaniam, 2003; Cornell & Schwertmann, 2003; Neff et al. 2004; Neff et al. 2005; Neff et al. 2006a; Neff et al., 2006b; Balos et al., 2008; Barrena et al., 2008; Park et al., 2010). During the underwater concretion the metallic iron slowly dissolves and then the metallic surface is covered with a ceramic, aggregate coating. This concretion, which covers the iron artifact, forms a protective 'cocoon' in the sea. Concretion formation occurs as a result of interaction between iron and its surrounding environment. In this process, which is one of the most fascinating features of iron corrosion, the metal's surface decreases, whereas the

Since iron is a non-toxic metal, it can be colonized in the underwater marine environment, which includes sand, shells particles and marine organisms, and these create a calcium carbonate (CaCO3) shell (North, 1976). Sometimes the catalyst for this process is bacterial organisms, which are present in wooden ships and consume/degrade the cellulose of the

Removal of the concretion layer or cleaning the corrosion is required in order to learn about the artifacts, but this procedure might damage the metal object, if anything remains. In such cases it is recommended to examine the object with a non-destructive method, such as X-ray radiography, before the de-concretion process begins. Sometimes, information about an

After retrieving the objects from the sea and beginning the de-concretion/corrosion process, wrought iron and cast-iron tend to corrode in dissimilar ways. Wrought iron corrodes along the slag inclusions, and the presence of chlorides in the alloy accelerates the corrosion rate (Balasubramaniam et al., 2003). Orange-brown drops, known as 'sweating', are formed on the surface of the iron object, indicating the presence of chlorides (Selwyn, 2004). Cast-iron exposed to the atmospheric environment can be corroded by graphitization, with accelerated corrosion on the external surface of the object (which is rich in graphite) and at

The present paper describes two case studies related to iron objects recovered during underwater excavations in Israel. The earlier case is the archaeometallurgical study of two iron anchors retrieved from the seventh-eighth century Tantura F shipwreck (Eliyahu et al., 2011), and the second is the archaeometallurgical study of two cast-iron cannonballs

object can be obtained from the radiography itself (Pulak, 2004).

the boundaries between the graphite and the metal (Najjaran et al., 2006).

**3. Studying cases of iron artifacts from shipwrecks for a better** 

retrieved from the nineteenth century Akko 1 shipwreck (Mentovich et al., 2010).

Kahanov et al., 1999).

concretion conglomerate increases.

waterlogged wood (Kahanov, 1997).

**understanding of ancient cultures** 

Archaeometallurgy studies were used to provide essential information regarding dating, processing, and manufacturing techniques of the objects. In both cases, the artifacts were found covered with corrosion, encrustation and a concretion layer (Fig. 2 and Fig. 8). The samples were cut, roughly polished, and mounted in Bakelite at 180 psi pressure and a temperature of 180oC. Surface preparation included grinding the samples with silicon carbide papers, grades 240–600 grit, followed by polishing with 5 to 0.05 micron alumina pastes. Finally the samples were polished with 0.05 micron colloidal silica polishing suspension paste, and etched using Nital acid (Mentovich et al., 2010; Eliyahu, et al., 2011).

#### **3.1 Case Study I: T-shaped iron anchors from the Tantura F shipwreck**

The Tantura F shipwreck was discovered in Dor lagoon, Israel in 1995. It was excavated during five seasons in 2004–2008. Combining 14C dating with typological study of the pottery, the shipwreck was dated to between the second half of the seventh and the end of the eighth centuries AD (Barkai & Kahanov, 2007; Barkai et al., 2010). Among the finds exposed in the Tantura F shipwreck were two T-shaped type iron anchors: one on the starboard side and the other on the port side, close to the bow (Fig. 2). Both anchors were found broken, with part of the shank and the anchor cable ring missing. Anchor A was found under the wooden hull, touching it (Fig. 2a), while Anchor B was found concreted to the outside of the planking below the hull (Fig. 2b).

Fig. 2. The Tantura F anchors covered with a thick encrustation coating and concretion: (a) Anchor A and (b) Anchor B attached to the vessel (Photos: I. Grinberg).

Both anchors (Fig. 3) were considered to be found in-situ, thus dating them to the time of the shipwreck. The two anchors were retrieved from the seabed covered by a 4 cm thick gray layer of encrustation coating and concretion composed of sea sand, shells and small stones; however, the core of the iron shank and the arms were of solid, shining and hard iron.

The examination of the T-shaped anchors included radiography, metallographic crosssections (Fig. 4), Optical Microscope (OM), Vickers microhardness tests, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) analysis, and Optical Emission Spectroscopy (OES) analysis (Eliyahu et al., 2011). For the metallographic sampling three cross-sections were cut from two different parts of Anchors A and B for according to ASTM E3-01 standard.

Archaeometallurgical Investigation of Iron Artifacts from Shipwrecks – A Review 177

Fig. 4. The metallographic sections of the Tantura F Anchor A at the (a) transverse crosssection after polishing and etching, and (b) longitudinal cross-section before polishing and

Fig. 5. Metallographic section of the Tantura F Anchor A corrosion layer (left) and the encrustation coating that includes sand particles (center and right) (Photos: D. Ashkenazi).

The Akko 1 shipwreck was a Mediterranean naval auxiliary brig discovered in Akko harbour, and excavated during three seasons between 2006 and 2008. Various artifacts were discovered in the shipwreck, among them small-arms and ammunition, suggesting its involvement in a naval battle (Cvikel & Kahanov, 2009). Three cannonballs, which were identified as 9-,12-, and 24-pdrs, were retrieved from the Akko 1 shipwreck. Theoretically, any of them could have been a shot that hit the ship (Cvikel & Kahanov, 2009: 51; Mentovich et al., 2010). The cannonballs were found covered with a thick layer of encrustation coating (Fig. 8). Two of the cannonballs (Fig. 9), the 9-pdr and the 24-pdr, were studied using archaeometallurgical methods (Mentovich et al., 2010). The

**3.2 Case Study II: Cast-iron cannonballs from the Akko 1 shipwreck** 

etching (Photos: A. Aronson).

Fig. 3. Images of the Tantura F T-shaped iron anchors: (a) Anchor A and (b) Anchor B (Photo: J.J. Gottlieb, Drawing: O. Barkai).

The study revealed the microstructure and manufacturing process of the two T-shaped iron anchors (Eliyahu et al., 2011). A microscopic image of the concretion coating of Anchors A is shown, revealing the corrosion layer and sand particles (Fig. 5). A heterogeneous microstructure was observed at the core of the iron Anchors, containing ferrite, pearlite and Widmanstätten ferrite-pearlite (Fig. 6). This kind of microstructure is typical of wrought iron which has been made by bloomery. Slag inclusions were observed in both anchors, with a typical morphology of wüstite (FeO) trapped in a glassy matrix. Typical OM image of slag inclusions that were trapped in anchor A are shown in Fig. 7.

Vickers microhardness (Future-Tech Model FM-700e tester) measurements, with a load of 100 g-force, revealed decarburization, probably due to the final hot-working process. A decarburization profile was achieved for both anchors along the diameter of the shanks cross-section (Eliyahu et al., 2011). Chemical etching followed by soda-blast cleaning revealed some forge-welding lines, hinting at the manufacturing process of the two anchors (Eliyahu et al., 2011).

Fig. 3. Images of the Tantura F T-shaped iron anchors: (a) Anchor A and (b) Anchor B

The study revealed the microstructure and manufacturing process of the two T-shaped iron anchors (Eliyahu et al., 2011). A microscopic image of the concretion coating of Anchors A is shown, revealing the corrosion layer and sand particles (Fig. 5). A heterogeneous microstructure was observed at the core of the iron Anchors, containing ferrite, pearlite and Widmanstätten ferrite-pearlite (Fig. 6). This kind of microstructure is typical of wrought iron which has been made by bloomery. Slag inclusions were observed in both anchors, with a typical morphology of wüstite (FeO) trapped in a glassy matrix. Typical OM image of slag

Vickers microhardness (Future-Tech Model FM-700e tester) measurements, with a load of 100 g-force, revealed decarburization, probably due to the final hot-working process. A decarburization profile was achieved for both anchors along the diameter of the shanks cross-section (Eliyahu et al., 2011). Chemical etching followed by soda-blast cleaning revealed some forge-welding lines, hinting at the manufacturing process of the two anchors

(Photo: J.J. Gottlieb, Drawing: O. Barkai).

(Eliyahu et al., 2011).

inclusions that were trapped in anchor A are shown in Fig. 7.

Fig. 4. The metallographic sections of the Tantura F Anchor A at the (a) transverse crosssection after polishing and etching, and (b) longitudinal cross-section before polishing and etching (Photos: A. Aronson).

Fig. 5. Metallographic section of the Tantura F Anchor A corrosion layer (left) and the encrustation coating that includes sand particles (center and right) (Photos: D. Ashkenazi).

#### **3.2 Case Study II: Cast-iron cannonballs from the Akko 1 shipwreck**

The Akko 1 shipwreck was a Mediterranean naval auxiliary brig discovered in Akko harbour, and excavated during three seasons between 2006 and 2008. Various artifacts were discovered in the shipwreck, among them small-arms and ammunition, suggesting its involvement in a naval battle (Cvikel & Kahanov, 2009). Three cannonballs, which were identified as 9-,12-, and 24-pdrs, were retrieved from the Akko 1 shipwreck. Theoretically, any of them could have been a shot that hit the ship (Cvikel & Kahanov, 2009: 51; Mentovich et al., 2010). The cannonballs were found covered with a thick layer of encrustation coating (Fig. 8). Two of the cannonballs (Fig. 9), the 9-pdr and the 24-pdr, were studied using archaeometallurgical methods (Mentovich et al., 2010). The

Archaeometallurgical Investigation of Iron Artifacts from Shipwrecks – A Review 179

Fig. 9. Images of the Akko 1 shipwreck (a) 9-pdr and (b) 24-pdr cannonball, after removal of

examination of the cannonballs included OM, SEM-EDS, X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) and

The results showed that the two cannonballs were made of cast-iron and manufactured with sand casting moulds. The sand remains found within voids in both cannonballs were also studied by petrography (Mentovich et al., 2010). The OM examination of the two cannonballs revealed a corrosion layer at the surface of the cannonball, and a dendritic castiron microstructure beneath the surface (Fig. 10a and Fig. 11a). The 9-pdr cannonball was uniform and included only white cast-iron (Fig. 10). The cast-iron in the 24-pdr cannonball was non-uniform (Fig. 11) and included white cast-iron in the inner part of the cannonball, whereas the external part of the cannonball was composed of gray cast-iron. The difference between the two cannonballs may suggest the use of different technologies in their

A chemical analysis of the composition of the cast iron of the cannonballs, revealed more than 0.5 wt% of manganese (Mn) in both cannonballs (Mentovich et al., 2010). In 1839 J. Heath wrote a patent involving the addition of manganese to cast-iron, which resulted in metal free of gas porosity and blow holes (Wiltzen & Wayman, 1999; Wayman, 2000). Thus, it was suggested that the Akko 1 shipwreck cannonballs were manufactured around the

the concretion layer (Photo: J. J. Gottlieb).

manufacturing process (Mentovich et al., 2010).

Vickers microhardness tests.

1840s.

Fig. 6. OM metallographic image of the T-shaped Anchor A showing the heterogeneous structure of a 'wrought iron' (Photos: A. Aronson).

Fig. 7. OM metallographic image of (a) typical slag inclusions that were trapped in anchor A (high intensity of light), (b) ferrite grains at the area which surrounds the slag inclusions (Photos: A. Aronson).

Fig. 8. Images of Akko 1 shipwreck cannonballs covered with a thick layer of encrustation coating: (a) on the framing timbers, and (b) near the false keel (Photos: S. Breitstein).

Fig. 6. OM metallographic image of the T-shaped Anchor A showing the heterogeneous

Fig. 7. OM metallographic image of (a) typical slag inclusions that were trapped in anchor A (high intensity of light), (b) ferrite grains at the area which surrounds the slag inclusions

Fig. 8. Images of Akko 1 shipwreck cannonballs covered with a thick layer of encrustation coating: (a) on the framing timbers, and (b) near the false keel (Photos: S. Breitstein).

structure of a 'wrought iron' (Photos: A. Aronson).

(Photos: A. Aronson).

Fig. 9. Images of the Akko 1 shipwreck (a) 9-pdr and (b) 24-pdr cannonball, after removal of the concretion layer (Photo: J. J. Gottlieb).

examination of the cannonballs included OM, SEM-EDS, X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) and Vickers microhardness tests.

The results showed that the two cannonballs were made of cast-iron and manufactured with sand casting moulds. The sand remains found within voids in both cannonballs were also studied by petrography (Mentovich et al., 2010). The OM examination of the two cannonballs revealed a corrosion layer at the surface of the cannonball, and a dendritic castiron microstructure beneath the surface (Fig. 10a and Fig. 11a). The 9-pdr cannonball was uniform and included only white cast-iron (Fig. 10). The cast-iron in the 24-pdr cannonball was non-uniform (Fig. 11) and included white cast-iron in the inner part of the cannonball, whereas the external part of the cannonball was composed of gray cast-iron. The difference between the two cannonballs may suggest the use of different technologies in their manufacturing process (Mentovich et al., 2010).

A chemical analysis of the composition of the cast iron of the cannonballs, revealed more than 0.5 wt% of manganese (Mn) in both cannonballs (Mentovich et al., 2010). In 1839 J. Heath wrote a patent involving the addition of manganese to cast-iron, which resulted in metal free of gas porosity and blow holes (Wiltzen & Wayman, 1999; Wayman, 2000). Thus, it was suggested that the Akko 1 shipwreck cannonballs were manufactured around the 1840s.

Archaeometallurgical Investigation of Iron Artifacts from Shipwrecks – A Review 181

Fig. 10. The 9-pdr cannonball image of a white cast-iron as shown by (a) OM (ZEISS, AXIO Scope A.1) metallographic analysis, and (b) SEM-EDS (FEI Quanta 200FEG ESEM) analysis. (Photo: Z. Barkai / E. Mentovich / D. Schreiber).

Fig. 10. The 9-pdr cannonball image of a white cast-iron as shown by (a) OM (ZEISS, AXIO Scope A.1) metallographic analysis, and (b) SEM-EDS (FEI Quanta 200FEG ESEM) analysis.

(Photo: Z. Barkai / E. Mentovich / D. Schreiber).

Archaeometallurgical Investigation of Iron Artifacts from Shipwrecks – A Review 183

shipwreck were of better quality and manufacture in comparison to other studied anchors, such as, for example, the eleventh century Serçe Liman shipwreck (Stech & Maddin, 2004;

The study of the two cast-iron cannonballs from the Akko 1 shipwreck revealed that the amount of Mn in both hinted that they were manufactured post-1839, and consequently led to relating the shipwreck to the 1840 naval bombardment of Akko (Mentovich et al., 2010). In addition, historical evidence points to the fact that on the eve of this battle, a merchant

To summarize, the metallurgical analysis of the two T-shaped anchors found in the Tantura F shipwreck has contributed significant information relating to their manufacturing process, and the analysis of the chemical composition of the two cannonballs from the Akko 1 shipwreck has provided a strong hint regarding their dating, and hence of the wrecking event. These two case studies present the valuable contribution made by

The underwater excavations and research of the Akko 1 shipwreck have been supported by Mr. Ron Marlar, the Yaacov Salomon Foundation, the Halpern Foundation, the Sir Maurice Hatter Fellowship, Hecht Trust, the Jewish National Fund Fellowship, anonymous donors, the late Mr. Reuven Sadnai—Coral Maritime Services Ltd., and the President, Rector, Dean and Faculty of Humanities, University of Haifa. The underwater excavations and research of the Tantura F shipwreck was supported by Lord Jacobs of London, the Israel Science Foundation, the Hecht Trust, the Sir Maurice Hatter Fellowship, and the University of Haifa.

Further thanks are due to Prof. Yuval Goren, Department of Archaeology and Ancient Near Eastern Civilizations, Tel Aviv University; and to Mario Levinstein, David Schreiber and Moshe Eliyahu from the School of Mechanical Engineering at Tel Aviv University for their assistance. The authors would also like to thank Dr. Zahava Barkai of the Wolfson Applied

Aliya, D. & Lampman, S. (2004). Physical Metallurgy Concepts in Interpretation of

Ashkenazi, D., Cvikel, D., Iddan, N., Mentovich, E.D., Kahanov, Y. & Levinstain, M. (2011).

Balasubramaniam, R., Ramesh Kumar, A.V. & Dillmann, P. (2003). Characterization of rust

Balos, S., Benscoter, A. & Pense, A. (2008). Roman mystery iron blades from Serbia.

Microstructures, Metallography and Microstructures, In Vander Voort, G.F. (Editor) ASM Metals Handbook Vol. 9: Metallography and Microstructures, ASM

Archaeometallurgical Study of the Brass Cases from the Akko 1 Shipwreck. Journal

Materials Research Centre at Tel Aviv University for her assistance.

of Archaeological Sciences 38 (9), 2410–2419.

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on ancient Indian iron. Current Science 85 (11), 1546–1555.

archaeometallurgical investigations for the study of shipwreck and their artifacts.

brig was observed anchoring in the harbour (Codrington, 1880).

Van Doorninck, 2004).

**5. Acknowledgments** 

**6. References** 

The authors are grateful to them all.

International, Ohio, 44–70.

Fig. 11. The 24-pdr cannonball image of (a) a gray cast-iron as shown by an OM at the external part of the cannonball, (b) SEM-EDS analysis showing the gray cast-iron at higher magnification, and (c) a white cast-iron as shown by SEM-EDS analysis at the internal part of the cannonball (Photo: Z. Barkai / E. Mentovich / D. Ashkenazi).

#### **4. Discussion and conclusions**

This chapter has demonstrated a multidisciplinary study of archeology and metallurgy. It reviewed archaeometallurgical investigations of ancient iron artifacts retrieved from shipwrecks. The analyses were based on the archaeological-typological study of the finds, materials science, and archaeometallurgical observation.

It has been demonstrated here that using tools like OM, SEM-EDS, XRF and microhardness test may assist archaeologists in revealing more information regarding ancient iron objects retrieved from a marine environment, including their manufacturing process, as well as providing a strong hint for dating the objects, and hence a clue to the wrecking event.

In the study of the T-shaped iron anchors from the Tantura F shipwreck, it was concluded that decarburization had occurred (which is supported by microhardness measurements), probably as a result of the final hot-working process (Eliyahu et al., 2011). The information gathered from the archaeometllurgical investigation of the two T-shaped anchors found in the Tantura F shipwreck has enhanced understanding of metallurgical knowledge in the Eastern Mediterranean in the early Islamic period, and expands the database of anchors of that period. Specifically, this study indicated that the anchors found in the Tantura F shipwreck were of better quality and manufacture in comparison to other studied anchors, such as, for example, the eleventh century Serçe Liman shipwreck (Stech & Maddin, 2004; Van Doorninck, 2004).

The study of the two cast-iron cannonballs from the Akko 1 shipwreck revealed that the amount of Mn in both hinted that they were manufactured post-1839, and consequently led to relating the shipwreck to the 1840 naval bombardment of Akko (Mentovich et al., 2010). In addition, historical evidence points to the fact that on the eve of this battle, a merchant brig was observed anchoring in the harbour (Codrington, 1880).

To summarize, the metallurgical analysis of the two T-shaped anchors found in the Tantura F shipwreck has contributed significant information relating to their manufacturing process, and the analysis of the chemical composition of the two cannonballs from the Akko 1 shipwreck has provided a strong hint regarding their dating, and hence of the wrecking event. These two case studies present the valuable contribution made by archaeometallurgical investigations for the study of shipwreck and their artifacts.

#### **5. Acknowledgments**

182 Archaeology, New Approaches in Theory and Techniques

Fig. 11. The 24-pdr cannonball image of (a) a gray cast-iron as shown by an OM at the external part of the cannonball, (b) SEM-EDS analysis showing the gray cast-iron at higher magnification, and (c) a white cast-iron as shown by SEM-EDS analysis at the internal part

This chapter has demonstrated a multidisciplinary study of archeology and metallurgy. It reviewed archaeometallurgical investigations of ancient iron artifacts retrieved from shipwrecks. The analyses were based on the archaeological-typological study of the finds,

It has been demonstrated here that using tools like OM, SEM-EDS, XRF and microhardness test may assist archaeologists in revealing more information regarding ancient iron objects retrieved from a marine environment, including their manufacturing process, as well as providing a strong hint for dating the objects, and hence a clue to the wrecking event.

In the study of the T-shaped iron anchors from the Tantura F shipwreck, it was concluded that decarburization had occurred (which is supported by microhardness measurements), probably as a result of the final hot-working process (Eliyahu et al., 2011). The information gathered from the archaeometllurgical investigation of the two T-shaped anchors found in the Tantura F shipwreck has enhanced understanding of metallurgical knowledge in the Eastern Mediterranean in the early Islamic period, and expands the database of anchors of that period. Specifically, this study indicated that the anchors found in the Tantura F

of the cannonball (Photo: Z. Barkai / E. Mentovich / D. Ashkenazi).

materials science, and archaeometallurgical observation.

**4. Discussion and conclusions** 

The underwater excavations and research of the Akko 1 shipwreck have been supported by Mr. Ron Marlar, the Yaacov Salomon Foundation, the Halpern Foundation, the Sir Maurice Hatter Fellowship, Hecht Trust, the Jewish National Fund Fellowship, anonymous donors, the late Mr. Reuven Sadnai—Coral Maritime Services Ltd., and the President, Rector, Dean and Faculty of Humanities, University of Haifa. The underwater excavations and research of the Tantura F shipwreck was supported by Lord Jacobs of London, the Israel Science Foundation, the Hecht Trust, the Sir Maurice Hatter Fellowship, and the University of Haifa. The authors are grateful to them all.

Further thanks are due to Prof. Yuval Goren, Department of Archaeology and Ancient Near Eastern Civilizations, Tel Aviv University; and to Mario Levinstein, David Schreiber and Moshe Eliyahu from the School of Mechanical Engineering at Tel Aviv University for their assistance. The authors would also like to thank Dr. Zahava Barkai of the Wolfson Applied Materials Research Centre at Tel Aviv University for her assistance.

#### **6. References**


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**7** 

*Turkey* 

**Molecular Diagnosis Through** 

Hasibe Cingilli Vural1,\*, Ahmet Adil Trpan2, Evrim Tekeli1, Seda Akarsu2 and Babur Akarsu2 *1Selcuk Üniversity, Science Faculty, Department of Biology,* 

*2Selcuk University, Art Faculty, Department of Archaeology* 

*Molecular Biology, Selçuklu, Konya* 

**Genetic Typing of Skeletal Remains in** 

**Historical Populations of Situated Turkey** 

The Börükçü Location and The Lagina Hekate's Temenos are in the Muğla Province's Yatağan Town, in Turkey. In ancient world, The Börükçü Location and The Lagina Hekate's Temenos had been a part of Caria Region. At the ancient times, The Lagina Hekate's Temenos had a 9 km long holy way to the city Stratonicea, which is at the south of it (Akurgal E., 2000). An uninterrupted settlement has been seeing in this district since early bronze age (3000 B.C.) to present day (Güngördü E., 2003). Caria Region (Figure 1a-6b) had been having a mountainous geography and its name has been coming from "Car" people. They had a peculiar language and they were thinking themselves the natives of Anatolia (Güleç E., et.al., 2006). Anatolia has geographical regions because of its natural elements (Güngördü E., 2003). Since ancient period, these geographical regions has been shaping Anatolian people's life styles and connections betweeen each other. In Aegean region which contains Börükçü Location, The Lagina Hekate's Temenos and ancient Caria Region, mountains lines straight to the shore. These chains of mountains lines to Aegean Sea by becoming peninsulas, islands, promontories. Aegean Sea owns many islands and because of this, it's called the sea of islands. Approximately at the fourth geological period in Aegean Region, lands collapsed underwater, so Aegean islands existed (Baykara T., 1988 and Sevin V., 2001). At the same geological period, all Anatolia had the shape of present time and by the effects like; tectonic movements and outer factors, it still continues to change. Aegean shoreline is quite intricate. The Aegean pit plains are between mountain chains that usually progress in the east-west direction. And these pit plains have been progressing towards to sea by accumulation of silt that carried by rivers. So the ancient

Because of its physical elements, Aegean Region is divided into two parts, named; "Actual Aegea District" and "Inner Western Anatolia District". There's The Inner Western Anatolia

**1. Introduction** 

 \*

Corresponding Author

**1.1 History of archeological excavation site** 

coastal cities and ports are left inside the land today.


### **Molecular Diagnosis Through Genetic Typing of Skeletal Remains in Historical Populations of Situated Turkey**

Hasibe Cingilli Vural1,\*, Ahmet Adil Trpan2, Evrim Tekeli1, Seda Akarsu2 and Babur Akarsu2 *1Selcuk Üniversity, Science Faculty, Department of Biology, Molecular Biology, Selçuklu, Konya 2Selcuk University, Art Faculty, Department of Archaeology Turkey* 

#### **1. Introduction**

186 Archaeology, New Approaches in Theory and Techniques

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past. Materials Characterization 45, 259–267.

American fur trade sites. Archaeometry 41, 117–135.

57.

189–233.

microstructure and thermophysical properties of Morasko iron meteorites. Crystal

ASM Metals Handbook Vol. 9: Metallography and Microstructures, ASM

Doorninck, F.H., Serçe Liman: An Eleventh-Century Shipwreck, I: The Ship and Its Anchorage, Crew, and Passengers. Texas A&M University Press, College Station,

#### **1.1 History of archeological excavation site**

The Börükçü Location and The Lagina Hekate's Temenos are in the Muğla Province's Yatağan Town, in Turkey. In ancient world, The Börükçü Location and The Lagina Hekate's Temenos had been a part of Caria Region. At the ancient times, The Lagina Hekate's Temenos had a 9 km long holy way to the city Stratonicea, which is at the south of it (Akurgal E., 2000). An uninterrupted settlement has been seeing in this district since early bronze age (3000 B.C.) to present day (Güngördü E., 2003). Caria Region (Figure 1a-6b) had been having a mountainous geography and its name has been coming from "Car" people. They had a peculiar language and they were thinking themselves the natives of Anatolia (Güleç E., et.al., 2006). Anatolia has geographical regions because of its natural elements (Güngördü E., 2003). Since ancient period, these geographical regions has been shaping Anatolian people's life styles and connections betweeen each other. In Aegean region which contains Börükçü Location, The Lagina Hekate's Temenos and ancient Caria Region, mountains lines straight to the shore. These chains of mountains lines to Aegean Sea by becoming peninsulas, islands, promontories. Aegean Sea owns many islands and because of this, it's called the sea of islands. Approximately at the fourth geological period in Aegean Region, lands collapsed underwater, so Aegean islands existed (Baykara T., 1988 and Sevin V., 2001). At the same geological period, all Anatolia had the shape of present time and by the effects like; tectonic movements and outer factors, it still continues to change. Aegean shoreline is quite intricate. The Aegean pit plains are between mountain chains that usually progress in the east-west direction. And these pit plains have been progressing towards to sea by accumulation of silt that carried by rivers. So the ancient coastal cities and ports are left inside the land today.

Because of its physical elements, Aegean Region is divided into two parts, named; "Actual Aegea District" and "Inner Western Anatolia District". There's The Inner Western Anatolia

<sup>\*</sup> Corresponding Author

Molecular Diagnosis Through Genetic Typing of

coasts and its physical elements.

obtained and Ionia cities' heroic battles, rebellion failed.

Skeletal Remains in Historical Populations of Situated Turkey 189

District between horst and graben structered Actual Aegea District and The Central Anatolia Region. This district has a high altitude and prevents costal climate entering further inland but doesn't prevent tranportation. Aegean Region is generally under the influence of Mediterranean Climate, i.e. mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. There are differences in climate between Actual Aegea District and Inner Western Anatolia District. Actual Aegea District is closer to The Mediterranean Climate. On the other hand, Inner Western Anatolia District is colder than Actual Aegea District, because of being far from

Ancient Caria Region's frontier contains today's Muğla, Aydn provinces' major areas and Denizli province's western end segment. At the ancient period, Caria Region is surrounded by, Ionia and Lydia Regions in the north, Phrygia and Lycia Regions in the east and southeast (Prag J., Neave R., 1999). The west and the south boundary of Caria Region is The Aegean Sea. Carian frontiers are generally known but it's not known exactly or in the course of time, it had undergone many changes like many other ancient regions. Some of the the local kindoms before VII. Century B.C. are known at present, but much earlier period of Ancient Caria Region isn't known much. This region had experienced the control of Lydia state at VII. century B.C. and in the first half of VI. century B.C. After the victory of Ionia cities, The Persians under the command of Harpagos marched to Caria Region and at 545 B.C. Persians took this region under control. Heredot notifies that; except the Pedasians brief resistance, there hadn't been any resistance against Persians in Caria (Mansel A. F., 1988) and (Olmstead A. T., 1960). With this victory, Persian Satrapy period began in Caria and many satraps reigned in this Region. At the begining of V. century B.C., although Persians decisiveness to control the west Anatolia, after some discontentions and movements, a rebellion began in Ionia Region. At the first times, Caria didn't join this rebellion but later Caria joined too. Then rebellion had spread to a large area and continued many years. At 494 B.C. despite some great victories

At 478/477 B.C. Athens established "The Attika-Delos maritime alliance" with the main purpose to fight against Persians. Greek sacred island Delos was the center of this alliance and this alliance had established by taking an oath;"to contineu forever". After a while Caria joined this alliance too but this union couldn't contineu much. Many of Carian and Lycian cities left the alliance and other cities had begun thinking negative abaut this alliance. At the begining of The Peleponnes War, the alliance ended completely (Akurgal E., 2000). At 395 B.C. Caria, itself had turned into a satrapy and its administration had given an indigenous family. After satrap Hecatomnus (395-377 B.C.) Mausolus became the satrap of Caria. He married with his sister Artemisia (Whitley J., 2001). Mausolus expanded the domain of Caria and embraced Hellenic culture. He moved capital from Mylasa to Halicarnassus and expanded the city within Greek style. He brought sculptors and architects to make Hellen culture dominant in the other cities of Caria too. After his death a monumental shrine, called Mausoleum, built by his wife Artemisia. This monumental shrine is known, the seven wonders of the ancient world (Tekin, 2007). In Roman Empire, emperors Augustus's and Hadrianus's monumental shrines were also called Mausoleum so, this shows the influence of Mausoleum of Mausolus in ancient world (Whitley J., 2001). At 353 B.C. Artemisia took over the sovereignty of Caria after the death of her husband Mausolos. After Artemisia, Hidrieos and then Hecatomnos's daughter Ada ruled Caria. Ada overthrown and exiled by Pixodaros, then Pixodaros began to reign Caria. After Pixodaros, Orontobates began to rule Caria. At 334 B.C.

Fig. 1a-1b. 05BM29 number, were found in tombs dated to the Hellenistic period, length 1.36 m as measured skeletal north-south direction and lies parallel to the floor. Hand side of the skeleton was taken from the hip and right leg below the left foot is on the case thrown. Bone on the spinal cord, a standing bronze coins were found. Dated to the fourth century BC coins on the front of the commander's head in profile Persian, the rear side has a relief of the monument.

Fig. 1a-1b. 05BM29 number, were found in tombs dated to the Hellenistic period, length 1.36 m as measured skeletal north-south direction and lies parallel to the floor. Hand side of the skeleton was taken from the hip and right leg below the left foot is on the case thrown. Bone on the spinal cord, a standing bronze coins were found. Dated to the fourth century BC coins on the front of the commander's head in profile Persian, the rear side has a relief of the

monument.

District between horst and graben structered Actual Aegea District and The Central Anatolia Region. This district has a high altitude and prevents costal climate entering further inland but doesn't prevent tranportation. Aegean Region is generally under the influence of Mediterranean Climate, i.e. mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. There are differences in climate between Actual Aegea District and Inner Western Anatolia District. Actual Aegea District is closer to The Mediterranean Climate. On the other hand, Inner Western Anatolia District is colder than Actual Aegea District, because of being far from coasts and its physical elements.

Ancient Caria Region's frontier contains today's Muğla, Aydn provinces' major areas and Denizli province's western end segment. At the ancient period, Caria Region is surrounded by, Ionia and Lydia Regions in the north, Phrygia and Lycia Regions in the east and southeast (Prag J., Neave R., 1999). The west and the south boundary of Caria Region is The Aegean Sea. Carian frontiers are generally known but it's not known exactly or in the course of time, it had undergone many changes like many other ancient regions. Some of the the local kindoms before VII. Century B.C. are known at present, but much earlier period of Ancient Caria Region isn't known much. This region had experienced the control of Lydia state at VII. century B.C. and in the first half of VI. century B.C. After the victory of Ionia cities, The Persians under the command of Harpagos marched to Caria Region and at 545 B.C. Persians took this region under control. Heredot notifies that; except the Pedasians brief resistance, there hadn't been any resistance against Persians in Caria (Mansel A. F., 1988) and (Olmstead A. T., 1960). With this victory, Persian Satrapy period began in Caria and many satraps reigned in this Region. At the begining of V. century B.C., although Persians decisiveness to control the west Anatolia, after some discontentions and movements, a rebellion began in Ionia Region. At the first times, Caria didn't join this rebellion but later Caria joined too. Then rebellion had spread to a large area and continued many years. At 494 B.C. despite some great victories obtained and Ionia cities' heroic battles, rebellion failed.

At 478/477 B.C. Athens established "The Attika-Delos maritime alliance" with the main purpose to fight against Persians. Greek sacred island Delos was the center of this alliance and this alliance had established by taking an oath;"to contineu forever". After a while Caria joined this alliance too but this union couldn't contineu much. Many of Carian and Lycian cities left the alliance and other cities had begun thinking negative abaut this alliance. At the begining of The Peleponnes War, the alliance ended completely (Akurgal E., 2000). At 395 B.C. Caria, itself had turned into a satrapy and its administration had given an indigenous family. After satrap Hecatomnus (395-377 B.C.) Mausolus became the satrap of Caria. He married with his sister Artemisia (Whitley J., 2001). Mausolus expanded the domain of Caria and embraced Hellenic culture. He moved capital from Mylasa to Halicarnassus and expanded the city within Greek style. He brought sculptors and architects to make Hellen culture dominant in the other cities of Caria too. After his death a monumental shrine, called Mausoleum, built by his wife Artemisia. This monumental shrine is known, the seven wonders of the ancient world (Tekin, 2007). In Roman Empire, emperors Augustus's and Hadrianus's monumental shrines were also called Mausoleum so, this shows the influence of Mausoleum of Mausolus in ancient world (Whitley J., 2001). At 353 B.C. Artemisia took over the sovereignty of Caria after the death of her husband Mausolos. After Artemisia, Hidrieos and then Hecatomnos's daughter Ada ruled Caria. Ada overthrown and exiled by Pixodaros, then Pixodaros began to reign Caria. After Pixodaros, Orontobates began to rule Caria. At 334 B.C.

Molecular Diagnosis Through Genetic Typing of

used during the cereal production for disinfecting.

Skeletal Remains in Historical Populations of Situated Turkey 191

was being produced in the valleys and high plateaus. Alabanda District's sulphur was being

Olive and fig production was widespread in the region. Olive production produced much in the valley Maindros and its coastal section where the mediterranean climate is seen. At IV. century B.C., the quality of Carian olive oil was being talked even in Athens. Strabon mentioned about Carian Antiocheia's dried figs called "trifoliate". Furthermore, it's known that dried fig was an important export of ancient Caria Region and it was being exported to Egypt and Italy by ships in large quantities. In addition, viticulture and as a result wine and vinegar production, cabbage and herbs production, reed production used in manufacturing pen, various oils production and amphora manufacturing that used for transporting and storing, had been produced in ancient Caria. And also beekeeping, fishing, marble

The city of Stratonicea was one of the ancient cities in Caria Region as; Tralleis, Coscinia, Euhippe, Orthosia, Alinda, Alabanda, Antiocheia, Mylasa, Halicarnassus and Caunos. History of Stratonicea city and the sacred places connected to Stratonicea city is quite old. Ancient sources transfers that, at 270 B.C. Stratonicea city was being founded by Seleucid king I. Antiochus in the name of his wife, queen Stratonice. Queen Streatonice was the stepmother of I. Antiochus before he married with her. Strabon had written abaut Stratonicea city thus: Miletus Poseidon is arrived after Iasus. There are three cities in the interior to sign: Mylasa, Stratonicea and Alabanda. The others are depend on these or depend on the other coastal citie (Prag J., Neave R., 1999). Stratonicea City was being founded in an old Carian town called Chrysauris or Idrias or around it. In the early of II. century B.C. Rhodes dominance began in this city but at 167 B.C. it became independent again. Stratonicea City had an automnous and rich position in the Roman Empire era. After this, in the christianity period, Stratonicea City became a bishop center, depending on Aphrodisias Metropolitan. Some important structures of the Stratonicea city were bouleuterion, gymsasion that was being built in the middle of II. century B.C., theatre, the

After the archaeological works was led by Osman Hamdi at 1891-1892, excavation and restoration works have been continue by an archaeological research team led by Prof. Dr. Ahmet Trpan since 1993, in The Lagina Hekate's Temenos The propylon is at the southwest corner in The Lagina Hekate's Temenos. The stoa lays along the pribolos, at the northwest of the propylon (Prag J., Neave R., 1999). There's a water reservoir, almost 150 metres away from the southwest of the propylon. İn the Temenos, there's an oval pool which has an approximately 10 metres diameter. Lagina's ancient inscriptions are talking about a sacred pool. In a big probability, revealed out and restored pool must be this sacred pool. The altar, which is in The Lagina Hekate's Temenos is at the south Hekate's temple and also at the east of propylon. The Börükçü Location is at 100 metres east of the holy way which is between Stratonicea and The Lagina Hekate's Temenos Excavations of Börükçü Location are being made by an excavation team led by Prof. Dr. Ahmet Trpan from Selçuk University,

Between 1967-1970, Prof. Dr. Yusuf Boysal found materials that proves an uninterrupted settlement has been seeing in Lagina and araund since early bronze age. Late geometric

production and maritime trade had an important place in the economy of Caria.

Roman gate which was the beginning of the holy way to Lagina.

**1.2 The archaeology of human skeletal remains** 

Archaeological Department.

Alexander the Great seized Caria Region and gave the sovereignty to Ada again. The Dominance of Seleucid Empire began in Caria Region after Alexander the Great's death. At 180 B.C. Caria incorporated into the mainland of Pergamon Kingdom. At 133 B.C. this region became a part of the Roman Empire's Asia Province.

In a big probability, in the second half of II. thousand B.C., "Karkiša-Karakiša" in the Hittites' texts and at I. thousand B.C., "Karka" in persians' texts, belons to Carians. Discustions abaut the origin of "Car" people who named "Caria" hasn't ended. They were bleiving that they were the natives of Anatolia and Lydians, Mysians were their relatives (Prag J., Neave R., 1999). Heredotus and some Greek writers had reported that, Carians were Lelegian origined people and they had migrated to west Anatolia from Greek islands. Heredotus had written such: "Carians had come to mainlands from islands. Formerly, they were living in the islands with the origin of Lelegian and their nationality was Minoan. Much later Dorians and Ionians sent out the Carians from islands, thus the Carians went to mainlands. This is what the Gretans tell about Carians, but Carians themselves doesn't accept this, they say that they are the natives of mainland and they have been having the current name ever. They show a very old temple in Mylasa belongs to Zeus Carios that they accept only Mysians and Lydians to this temple because of being brother nations (Whitley J., 2001)

Athenios had written that: "In Philipus of Theangela's book which was about Carians and Lelegs, it was reported that Lelegs were used as slaves by Carians. Geographer Strabon had written the "Car" people as the most former nation of Greece, in Epidaurus, Hermione1. Pavsanias, who was a geographer and a traveller, had indicated that one of the Megaran castle's name was "Caria".

Greek had known some nations had lived in Anatolia before them, but they didn't have a clear view on this issue. Today, some academics argue the hypothesis which's main idea is; The "Car" people can be the continuation of Luwians. But the Luwian language which is a member of Indo-European languages family, never match with Carian place names and Carian religion. Carians' consideration about the "double axe" symbol and in the second half of II. thousand B.C. Gretans' usage of this symbol, attracts the attentions on this matching. Carians had a peculiar language and the studies are still going on about the origins of this language. In Ancient Greek epic poet Homer's Lliad, Carians had written thus: People with a coarse language (different from Greek language) . Carian alphabet was similiar to Phoenician alphabet and had between letters 30-37 (Whitley J., 2001).

Carians were qualified as warrior people. They were using crested helmet and carrying handled shield which can be hung on shoulder. They were the first people who were decorating external surfaces of their shields with pictures. And sometimes they were mercenaries in the armies of other states. In his lliad, Homer had written thus: Listen, let me tell you the most accurate, there are the Carians who are close the shore, there are the Paions who have curved springs, and the Lelegians, the Cauconians, divine Pelasgians, Lycians and Mysians are at around Thymbre, Phrygians, there are the Maionians too who fights with horse carts. And Strabon had written about Carians this: "Some authors attracts the attention to Carians' handled shields, shields decorated with symbols and crests which all called Carian, to indicate their enthusiasm for military. İn this topic at least Anacreon says so:"Come, pass your arm into the handle of the shield which is an invention of Carians." And Alcaios writes:"Caria by shaking crests (Güngördü E., 2003). At the ancient period, livestock production was constituting a large portion of the total production in Caria. Cereal

Alexander the Great seized Caria Region and gave the sovereignty to Ada again. The Dominance of Seleucid Empire began in Caria Region after Alexander the Great's death. At 180 B.C. Caria incorporated into the mainland of Pergamon Kingdom. At 133 B.C. this

In a big probability, in the second half of II. thousand B.C., "Karkiša-Karakiša" in the Hittites' texts and at I. thousand B.C., "Karka" in persians' texts, belons to Carians. Discustions abaut the origin of "Car" people who named "Caria" hasn't ended. They were bleiving that they were the natives of Anatolia and Lydians, Mysians were their relatives (Prag J., Neave R., 1999). Heredotus and some Greek writers had reported that, Carians were Lelegian origined people and they had migrated to west Anatolia from Greek islands. Heredotus had written such: "Carians had come to mainlands from islands. Formerly, they were living in the islands with the origin of Lelegian and their nationality was Minoan. Much later Dorians and Ionians sent out the Carians from islands, thus the Carians went to mainlands. This is what the Gretans tell about Carians, but Carians themselves doesn't accept this, they say that they are the natives of mainland and they have been having the current name ever. They show a very old temple in Mylasa belongs to Zeus Carios that they accept only Mysians and Lydians to this

Athenios had written that: "In Philipus of Theangela's book which was about Carians and Lelegs, it was reported that Lelegs were used as slaves by Carians. Geographer Strabon had written the "Car" people as the most former nation of Greece, in Epidaurus, Hermione1. Pavsanias, who was a geographer and a traveller, had indicated that one of the Megaran

Greek had known some nations had lived in Anatolia before them, but they didn't have a clear view on this issue. Today, some academics argue the hypothesis which's main idea is; The "Car" people can be the continuation of Luwians. But the Luwian language which is a member of Indo-European languages family, never match with Carian place names and Carian religion. Carians' consideration about the "double axe" symbol and in the second half of II. thousand B.C. Gretans' usage of this symbol, attracts the attentions on this matching. Carians had a peculiar language and the studies are still going on about the origins of this language. In Ancient Greek epic poet Homer's Lliad, Carians had written thus: People with a coarse language (different from Greek language) . Carian alphabet was

Carians were qualified as warrior people. They were using crested helmet and carrying handled shield which can be hung on shoulder. They were the first people who were decorating external surfaces of their shields with pictures. And sometimes they were mercenaries in the armies of other states. In his lliad, Homer had written thus: Listen, let me tell you the most accurate, there are the Carians who are close the shore, there are the Paions who have curved springs, and the Lelegians, the Cauconians, divine Pelasgians, Lycians and Mysians are at around Thymbre, Phrygians, there are the Maionians too who fights with horse carts. And Strabon had written about Carians this: "Some authors attracts the attention to Carians' handled shields, shields decorated with symbols and crests which all called Carian, to indicate their enthusiasm for military. İn this topic at least Anacreon says so:"Come, pass your arm into the handle of the shield which is an invention of Carians." And Alcaios writes:"Caria by shaking crests (Güngördü E., 2003). At the ancient period, livestock production was constituting a large portion of the total production in Caria. Cereal

similiar to Phoenician alphabet and had between letters 30-37 (Whitley J., 2001).

region became a part of the Roman Empire's Asia Province.

temple because of being brother nations (Whitley J., 2001)

castle's name was "Caria".

was being produced in the valleys and high plateaus. Alabanda District's sulphur was being used during the cereal production for disinfecting.

Olive and fig production was widespread in the region. Olive production produced much in the valley Maindros and its coastal section where the mediterranean climate is seen. At IV. century B.C., the quality of Carian olive oil was being talked even in Athens. Strabon mentioned about Carian Antiocheia's dried figs called "trifoliate". Furthermore, it's known that dried fig was an important export of ancient Caria Region and it was being exported to Egypt and Italy by ships in large quantities. In addition, viticulture and as a result wine and vinegar production, cabbage and herbs production, reed production used in manufacturing pen, various oils production and amphora manufacturing that used for transporting and storing, had been produced in ancient Caria. And also beekeeping, fishing, marble production and maritime trade had an important place in the economy of Caria.

The city of Stratonicea was one of the ancient cities in Caria Region as; Tralleis, Coscinia, Euhippe, Orthosia, Alinda, Alabanda, Antiocheia, Mylasa, Halicarnassus and Caunos. History of Stratonicea city and the sacred places connected to Stratonicea city is quite old. Ancient sources transfers that, at 270 B.C. Stratonicea city was being founded by Seleucid king I. Antiochus in the name of his wife, queen Stratonice. Queen Streatonice was the stepmother of I. Antiochus before he married with her. Strabon had written abaut Stratonicea city thus: Miletus Poseidon is arrived after Iasus. There are three cities in the interior to sign: Mylasa, Stratonicea and Alabanda. The others are depend on these or depend on the other coastal citie (Prag J., Neave R., 1999). Stratonicea City was being founded in an old Carian town called Chrysauris or Idrias or around it. In the early of II. century B.C. Rhodes dominance began in this city but at 167 B.C. it became independent again. Stratonicea City had an automnous and rich position in the Roman Empire era. After this, in the christianity period, Stratonicea City became a bishop center, depending on Aphrodisias Metropolitan. Some important structures of the Stratonicea city were bouleuterion, gymsasion that was being built in the middle of II. century B.C., theatre, the Roman gate which was the beginning of the holy way to Lagina.

#### **1.2 The archaeology of human skeletal remains**

After the archaeological works was led by Osman Hamdi at 1891-1892, excavation and restoration works have been continue by an archaeological research team led by Prof. Dr. Ahmet Trpan since 1993, in The Lagina Hekate's Temenos The propylon is at the southwest corner in The Lagina Hekate's Temenos. The stoa lays along the pribolos, at the northwest of the propylon (Prag J., Neave R., 1999). There's a water reservoir, almost 150 metres away from the southwest of the propylon. İn the Temenos, there's an oval pool which has an approximately 10 metres diameter. Lagina's ancient inscriptions are talking about a sacred pool. In a big probability, revealed out and restored pool must be this sacred pool. The altar, which is in The Lagina Hekate's Temenos is at the south Hekate's temple and also at the east of propylon. The Börükçü Location is at 100 metres east of the holy way which is between Stratonicea and The Lagina Hekate's Temenos Excavations of Börükçü Location are being made by an excavation team led by Prof. Dr. Ahmet Trpan from Selçuk University, Archaeological Department.

Between 1967-1970, Prof. Dr. Yusuf Boysal found materials that proves an uninterrupted settlement has been seeing in Lagina and araund since early bronze age. Late geometric

Molecular Diagnosis Through Genetic Typing of

belongs to a daughter.

Skeletal Remains in Historical Populations of Situated Turkey 193

Fig. 3. 06BM05 numbered graves, with a north-south direction, lattice-type boats have been built in the inside 1.40 m in length. Hocker style of the skeleton was buried east-west and head north toward where it was deposited were identified. Bone anatomy and morphology after examining the molecular work, dated to the Classical period in the 10-12 age burial

certain areas. Most revealed archeaological finds are olive oil workshops. Also organic, glass, metal finds revealed too (Mansel A. F., 1988). Graves that belongs to interval from geometric period to Roman period were revealed in Börükçü Location. Many of them were from archaic and classical period. Hellenistic and Roman graves were revealed too. Many

skeletons were revealed during the excavations of graves (Güleç E. et.al., 2006).

Fig. 2. 06BM02 numbered, dated to the Classical period in the grave, above ground level at a depth of 0.75 m is revealed burial inhumation style. Skeleton of the east-west, head north of the way and placed in the style of Hocker was buried were found.

period was saw in Aldağ and Bozukbağ, classical settlement and tombs was found in Emirler. An archaic period settlement was revealed and many terra cotta materials was found in Hacbayramlar mound. A sacred area that belongs to Apollon and Artemis and tombs used in classical period was revealed by excavations in Koranza. The Börükçü's finds indicates that the Börükçü Location belongs to the same period as the settlements above. It was determined that an intensive habitation existed from VII. century B.C. to II. century B.C.

At the excavations of Börükçü, abundance of weaving workshops and olive oil workshops attracted the attention. Researches' and excavations' results, distance to other places, owned roads, water sources and wells araund, have shown that, Börükçü Location was contemporary with other settlements but different from them (Mansel A. F., 1988).

Remnants of the water structures were found in Börükçü Location. And also reconstructed structures were revealed which were belonged to Ottaman period. archaic period's fountain which is at the roadside of the holy way proves that this way was quite old. A natural inclination was converted to a terrace so this revised field was used to place the buildings in Börükçü. In some of the terraces only graves was found. Ways formed with steps and ramp formed paths revealed in this sloping field. Börükçü Location has an apperance as industrial and manufacturing spaces and cemeteries. Certain professional groups was collected in

Fig. 2. 06BM02 numbered, dated to the Classical period in the grave, above ground level at a depth of 0.75 m is revealed burial inhumation style. Skeleton of the east-west, head north of

period was saw in Aldağ and Bozukbağ, classical settlement and tombs was found in Emirler. An archaic period settlement was revealed and many terra cotta materials was found in Hacbayramlar mound. A sacred area that belongs to Apollon and Artemis and tombs used in classical period was revealed by excavations in Koranza. The Börükçü's finds indicates that the Börükçü Location belongs to the same period as the settlements above. It was determined that an intensive habitation existed from VII. century B.C. to II. century B.C. At the excavations of Börükçü, abundance of weaving workshops and olive oil workshops attracted the attention. Researches' and excavations' results, distance to other places, owned roads, water sources and wells araund, have shown that, Börükçü Location was

contemporary with other settlements but different from them (Mansel A. F., 1988).

Remnants of the water structures were found in Börükçü Location. And also reconstructed structures were revealed which were belonged to Ottaman period. archaic period's fountain which is at the roadside of the holy way proves that this way was quite old. A natural inclination was converted to a terrace so this revised field was used to place the buildings in Börükçü. In some of the terraces only graves was found. Ways formed with steps and ramp formed paths revealed in this sloping field. Börükçü Location has an apperance as industrial and manufacturing spaces and cemeteries. Certain professional groups was collected in

the way and placed in the style of Hocker was buried were found.

Fig. 3. 06BM05 numbered graves, with a north-south direction, lattice-type boats have been built in the inside 1.40 m in length. Hocker style of the skeleton was buried east-west and head north toward where it was deposited were identified. Bone anatomy and morphology after examining the molecular work, dated to the Classical period in the 10-12 age burial belongs to a daughter.

certain areas. Most revealed archeaological finds are olive oil workshops. Also organic, glass, metal finds revealed too (Mansel A. F., 1988). Graves that belongs to interval from geometric period to Roman period were revealed in Börükçü Location. Many of them were from archaic and classical period. Hellenistic and Roman graves were revealed too. Many skeletons were revealed during the excavations of graves (Güleç E. et.al., 2006).

Molecular Diagnosis Through Genetic Typing of

Skeletal Remains in Historical Populations of Situated Turkey 195

Fig. 5. 06BM13 grave number, type and north-south direction are **oyğu boat**. A part of the east and west walls of the tomb wall **oygu soil,** other aspects are carved into the rock. One regular burial in tombs and 11 skulls were recovered. However, the irregular parts and

ratings on individual bones, a new staging system was developed at Archeometry-Biotechnology Laboratory in Selcuk University, Science Faculty, and assigned as period or era each bone based on visual inspection for the DNA study. The bone samples of more than 100 individuals were chosen to study the genetics of this skeletal population. In addition to numerous human skeletons, the cave contains bones from some autochthonous animal species. All skeletal material was wrapped in aluminum foil, placed in plastic bags, and labeled. Earlier analysis showed that the state of DNA preservation in the bones is excellent, mainly due to the low temperature prevailing in the cave since prehistoric times (Burger et

All DNA extractions and PCR setups were carried out in a dedicated ancient DNA laboratory following the suggested protocols for contamination controls and detections (Herrmann and Hummel 1994). All bone samples and extraction reagents were exposed to UV irradiation. Furthermore, all post-extraction manipulations were conducted by H.C.Vural. Disposable laboratory coats, gloves, fitler tips, dedicated pipets, and disposable laboratory ware were used throughout the analyses. Benches and equipment were

skeleton skull burial uncovered determination could be made.

al., 1999). Eleven animal bone samples were chosen for aDNA analysis.

**2.1.2 Contamination controls** 

Fig. 4. 06BM09 numbered north-south direction in the grave with oyğu boat, 0.05 m at a depth of skull and skeleton belonging to the same 0:20 m. were uncovered at a depth of body. Skeletal north-south direction have been credited with extending the right arm from the elbow was extended slightly broken. The skull is looking toward the southwest.

#### **2. Genetic analysis of aged skeletal material**

#### **2.1 Material and methods**

#### **2.1.1 Collection of samples**

DNA isolation a subset of 100 bones from the total set obtained from Mugla in Turkey was analyzed in this study. Upon recovery of the skeletal remains, the bones were described in terms of sex, estimated age, and some of the skeletal weathering stages. Existing techniques were refined by targeted primer design focusing on a DNA fragment shorter than 200 bp, an approach allowing us to identify up to all bone samples at the same time. In order to allow

Fig. 4. 06BM09 numbered north-south direction in the grave with oyğu boat, 0.05 m at a depth of skull and skeleton belonging to the same 0:20 m. were uncovered at a depth of body. Skeletal north-south direction have been credited with extending the right arm from the elbow was extended slightly broken. The skull is looking toward the southwest.

DNA isolation a subset of 100 bones from the total set obtained from Mugla in Turkey was analyzed in this study. Upon recovery of the skeletal remains, the bones were described in terms of sex, estimated age, and some of the skeletal weathering stages. Existing techniques were refined by targeted primer design focusing on a DNA fragment shorter than 200 bp, an approach allowing us to identify up to all bone samples at the same time. In order to allow

**2. Genetic analysis of aged skeletal material** 

**2.1 Material and methods 2.1.1 Collection of samples** 

Fig. 5. 06BM13 grave number, type and north-south direction are **oyğu boat**. A part of the east and west walls of the tomb wall **oygu soil,** other aspects are carved into the rock. One regular burial in tombs and 11 skulls were recovered. However, the irregular parts and skeleton skull burial uncovered determination could be made.

ratings on individual bones, a new staging system was developed at Archeometry-Biotechnology Laboratory in Selcuk University, Science Faculty, and assigned as period or era each bone based on visual inspection for the DNA study. The bone samples of more than 100 individuals were chosen to study the genetics of this skeletal population. In addition to numerous human skeletons, the cave contains bones from some autochthonous animal species. All skeletal material was wrapped in aluminum foil, placed in plastic bags, and labeled. Earlier analysis showed that the state of DNA preservation in the bones is excellent, mainly due to the low temperature prevailing in the cave since prehistoric times (Burger et al., 1999). Eleven animal bone samples were chosen for aDNA analysis.

#### **2.1.2 Contamination controls**

All DNA extractions and PCR setups were carried out in a dedicated ancient DNA laboratory following the suggested protocols for contamination controls and detections (Herrmann and Hummel 1994). All bone samples and extraction reagents were exposed to UV irradiation. Furthermore, all post-extraction manipulations were conducted by H.C.Vural. Disposable laboratory coats, gloves, fitler tips, dedicated pipets, and disposable laboratory ware were used throughout the analyses. Benches and equipment were

Molecular Diagnosis Through Genetic Typing of

**2.1.4 Sample preparation and DNA isolation** 

**2.1.3 Decalsification of bone and genomic DNA extraction** 

probably not significant.

Skeletal Remains in Historical Populations of Situated Turkey 197

frequently treated with a 20% bleach solution. Sterile water was aliquoted and irradiated by placing the tubes directly on a light source of 254 nm for 30 min (Sarkar and Sommer, 1990). Two extractions were prepared for each bone sample by two researchers to test reproducibility and aDNA quality. The amount of contaminant DNA in this study was

Extraction of DNA was carried out using the laboratory handling and cleaning protocol (Römpler H., et. al., 2006). After cleaning of bone with chromatographic water, small piece of ancient bones were ground to powder with a mixer mill. Aliquots of the powder were subjected to a calsification method. 150 mg of bone powder was extracted with 0.7 ml of 0.5 M EDTA (pH 8.3) for 48 hours at 56 oC. After addition of 1 U of proteinase K, solution of bone was incubated at 37oC. Genomic DNA from supernatant was extracted automatically by using EZ1 Automatic DNA Isolation System (Qiagen, Germany) with investgator kit (Qiagen, Ilden, Germany) from ancient bones. Amount and purity of extracted DNA from ancient bones were measured by Shimadzu UV 1700 Spectrophotometer. Extracted DNA

Approximately 1 cm3 of bone was cut from the source section using a Dremel MultiPro tool and was collected in a tube. Samples were then immersed in filter-sterilized wash buffer (1% SDS, 25 mM EDTA) and 0.1 mg/ml proteinase K, and incubated for one hour at room temperature. Following the incubation, the wash buffer was poured off and each sample was washed with 1ml of sterile dH2O six consecutive times. Samples were allowed to air dry. Bone powder from the dried bone samples was collected in one of two ways. Bone was either ground to powder drilled using a the Dremel tool both fitted with 1/16 microfuge tube and weighed. Four hundred microliters of digestion buffer (20 mM Tris, 100 mM EDTA, 0.1% SDS) and 0.4 mg/ml proteinase K was added to each ground bone sample and incubated overnight at 56 ºC. A standard phenol/chloroform organic extraction was

Fig. 7. Genomic DNA was isolaled from fossil bone tissue remains, respectively, Lane 1, 2, 3- 13 with Bio Robot EZ1. aDNA samples submitted to electrophoresis in 1% agarose gel. Sample codes, respectively, 05BM13, 05BM22, 06BM09, 05BM29, 06BM40, 05BM21, 07BM05,

05BM23, 06BM39, 07BM13, 05BM64, 05BM30, 05BM106 illustrated in the table 1.

was then stored at -20 °C until assay for the amelogenin was performed (Figure 7).

Fig. 6a-6b. Geometric period is dated 06BM18 numbered graves. Type of boat was built in marble tomb. Been left entirely as a rough floor sculpture made of marble in a single block. In the eastern side of the head of the skeleton in the form of slight increase has been given the bag.

Fig. 6a-6b. Geometric period is dated 06BM18 numbered graves. Type of boat was built in marble tomb. Been left entirely as a rough floor sculpture made of marble in a single block. In the eastern side of the head of the skeleton in the form of slight increase has been given

the bag.

frequently treated with a 20% bleach solution. Sterile water was aliquoted and irradiated by placing the tubes directly on a light source of 254 nm for 30 min (Sarkar and Sommer, 1990). Two extractions were prepared for each bone sample by two researchers to test reproducibility and aDNA quality. The amount of contaminant DNA in this study was probably not significant.

#### **2.1.3 Decalsification of bone and genomic DNA extraction**

Extraction of DNA was carried out using the laboratory handling and cleaning protocol (Römpler H., et. al., 2006). After cleaning of bone with chromatographic water, small piece of ancient bones were ground to powder with a mixer mill. Aliquots of the powder were subjected to a calsification method. 150 mg of bone powder was extracted with 0.7 ml of 0.5 M EDTA (pH 8.3) for 48 hours at 56 oC. After addition of 1 U of proteinase K, solution of bone was incubated at 37oC. Genomic DNA from supernatant was extracted automatically by using EZ1 Automatic DNA Isolation System (Qiagen, Germany) with investgator kit (Qiagen, Ilden, Germany) from ancient bones. Amount and purity of extracted DNA from ancient bones were measured by Shimadzu UV 1700 Spectrophotometer. Extracted DNA was then stored at -20 °C until assay for the amelogenin was performed (Figure 7).

#### **2.1.4 Sample preparation and DNA isolation**

Approximately 1 cm3 of bone was cut from the source section using a Dremel MultiPro tool and was collected in a tube. Samples were then immersed in filter-sterilized wash buffer (1% SDS, 25 mM EDTA) and 0.1 mg/ml proteinase K, and incubated for one hour at room temperature. Following the incubation, the wash buffer was poured off and each sample was washed with 1ml of sterile dH2O six consecutive times. Samples were allowed to air dry. Bone powder from the dried bone samples was collected in one of two ways. Bone was either ground to powder drilled using a the Dremel tool both fitted with 1/16 microfuge tube and weighed. Four hundred microliters of digestion buffer (20 mM Tris, 100 mM EDTA, 0.1% SDS) and 0.4 mg/ml proteinase K was added to each ground bone sample and incubated overnight at 56 ºC. A standard phenol/chloroform organic extraction was

Fig. 7. Genomic DNA was isolaled from fossil bone tissue remains, respectively, Lane 1, 2, 3- 13 with Bio Robot EZ1. aDNA samples submitted to electrophoresis in 1% agarose gel. Sample codes, respectively, 05BM13, 05BM22, 06BM09, 05BM29, 06BM40, 05BM21, 07BM05, 05BM23, 06BM39, 07BM13, 05BM64, 05BM30, 05BM106 illustrated in the table 1.

Molecular Diagnosis Through Genetic Typing of

**2.2.3 Negative control amplification** 

and 72 oC for 30 s, for 40 cycles and 72 oC 5 min.

Skeletal Remains in Historical Populations of Situated Turkey 199

microliter BSA. The temperature profile was 95 oC for 4 min, 95 oC for 30 s, 54 oC for 1 min,

Ancient DNA (aDNA) sex identification was used to aid in the verification of individual identification through comparisons to historical documentation of burials and small sizes human fossil skeletal bones estimations of sex. The PCR reaction is manipulated through primer design to favour the amplification of the Y fragment over the X fragment thus minimizing the occurrence of 'false female' results for male samples (Faerman M., et.al.,

Sequence Amel-A (5'- CCCTGGGCTCTGTAAAGAATAGTG -3')

Sequence Amel-B (5'- ATCAGAGCTTAAACTGGGAAGCTG -3') These primers amplify a small region in intron 1 of the amelogenin gene that encompasses a deletion polymorphism giving a product of 106 bp for the X allele and a product of 112 bp for the Y allele, so both products should be present in males, but only one in females. 0,5 mg genomic DNA was amplified in a mixture composed of 5 μL 10XPCR Taq buffer (pH 8.8), 2 mM MgCl2, and 10 mM dNTPs (dGTP, dATP, dTTP, dCTP) at each, 0.5 mM of each primer, and 0.3 U DreamTaq polymerase (Advanced Biotechnologies Ltd., Fermantase Life Science). Amplification was submitted to denaturation at 94 oC for 10 min, 50 amplification cycles with denaturation at 94 oC for 30 s, annealing at 60 oC for 10 min and extension at 72 oC for 1 min in a thermocycler (Biorad, Germany). PCR blank reactions did not show spot contamination during the collection of the data. As as result, sex gender of ancient human bones was determined related with DNA fragments with different length of base pair as male and female. Studies of ancient DNA from museum and fossil samples can provide valuable information toward a better understanding of degraded DNA preserved in postmortem specimens. This information helps to improve molecular techniques designed to recover and analyze old DNA to be used for evolutionary studies and as well as for forensic analysis. Our comparison of commonly used ancient DNA extraction techniques based on glass bead-based methods usually cause noticeable loss of genomic DNA during purification. We also found that the choice of extraction buffer may be critical to the success of recovering endogenous DNA from different types of tissue (for example, soft tissue, and bone material) preserved under different physical and chemical conditions. We have obtained results only either at the lowest or at the highest amounts of aDNA extracts analyzed. Multiple steps were taken during DNA amplification procedures to decrease the effects of PCR inhibitors found in the amplification reaction. For fossil material, PCR mixes were set up in dedicated hood in the ancient DNA laboratory using appropriate contamination control procedures and then brought to the main molecular genetics or archaeometry laboratory for thermocyling. For all ancient and modern reactions, amplification products were not detected in the negative extraction (Figure 8).

An increase of PCR cycle may increase the risk of minute amount of modern DNA contamination in the resulting in DNA amplification. In this study, potential modern DNA contamination was assessed based on the possible amplification produced in the negative

**2.2.2 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) amplification of sex determination** 

1995). In this study, the primers for PCR amplifications used are as follows:

performed on each of the samples. DNAs were precipitated using 3M sodium acetate and 95% ethanol, vacuum dried, and resuspended in TE buffer (10 mM Tris, 1 mM EDTA) based on the original mass of the bone powder. Furthermore, After addition of proteinase K, solution of bone was incubated at 37 oC. Genomic DNA from supernatant was extracted automatically by using EZ1 Automatic Nucleic Acid Isolation System (Qiagen, Germany) with investigator kit (Qiagen, Ilden, Germany) from ancient bones. Amount and purity of extracted DNA from ancient bones were measured by Spectrophotometer. In addition to spectrophotometric measurement, extracted DNA was applied to 1 % agarose gel, stained and imaged under ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. As a result, 50 ng pure DNA was extracted from ancient bones. Several precautions were taken to prevent contamination during the experiments. Grinders and drills used to generate bone powder were washed with 70% EtOH and 10% bleach, and were UV irradiated between each sample prep. Pre-amplification and post-amplification steps were carried out in separate rooms. Finally, negative controls and reagent blanks were included in all experiments.

#### **2.1.5 Ancient DNA Quantity**

Genomic DNAs isolated from fossil bone remains were showed by spectrophotometric analysis. DNA quality and concentrations were evaluated nearly 1.8. Genomic DNA from supernatant was extracted automatically by using EZ1 Automatic Nucleic Acid Isolation System (Qiagen, Germany) with investigator kit (Qiagen, Ilden, Germany) from ancient bones. Amount and purity of extracted DNA from ancient bones were measured by Spectrophotometer and then extracted DNA was applied to 1 % agarose gel, stained and imaged under ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. As a result, 50 ng pure DNA was extracted from ancient bones. Several precautions were taken to prevent contamination during the experiments. EZ1 Nucleic acid isolation method; This tehnique is quite useful for high yield and quality of aDNA isolation from human skeletal remains. In this methods, no further purification was needed for molecular analysis.

#### **2.2 PCR amplfcaton**

#### **2.2.1 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of species determination**

Molecular archaeology is an emergent field in archaeology that has been brought about by the advancements of the recognition and understanding of DNA. This new developing branch of archaeology focuses on the acquisition of either DNA or mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA) and being able to determine species of natural archaeological finds as well as determine blood lines and/or sex of animal or human remains. These DNA. As our technology advances as well as our knowledge of the DNA itself our understanding of ancient peoples, plants, and animals, will allow us a biological window into their lives.

A 200 bp segment of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene was amplified using the primers;

#### CB7u: 5'- GCGTACGCAATCTTACGATCAA-'3 and

#### CB7l: 5'-CTGGCCTCCAATTCATGTGAG-'3.

The PCRs were carried out in 50 ml of 60 mM KCl; 12 mM TrisHCl; 2.5 mM MgCl2; 150 mM dNTPs; 0.18 mM each primer; and 2U AmpliTaq Gold (Applied Biosystems), and 0.2

performed on each of the samples. DNAs were precipitated using 3M sodium acetate and 95% ethanol, vacuum dried, and resuspended in TE buffer (10 mM Tris, 1 mM EDTA) based on the original mass of the bone powder. Furthermore, After addition of proteinase K, solution of bone was incubated at 37 oC. Genomic DNA from supernatant was extracted automatically by using EZ1 Automatic Nucleic Acid Isolation System (Qiagen, Germany) with investigator kit (Qiagen, Ilden, Germany) from ancient bones. Amount and purity of extracted DNA from ancient bones were measured by Spectrophotometer. In addition to spectrophotometric measurement, extracted DNA was applied to 1 % agarose gel, stained and imaged under ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. As a result, 50 ng pure DNA was extracted from ancient bones. Several precautions were taken to prevent contamination during the experiments. Grinders and drills used to generate bone powder were washed with 70% EtOH and 10% bleach, and were UV irradiated between each sample prep. Pre-amplification and post-amplification steps were carried out in separate rooms. Finally, negative controls

Genomic DNAs isolated from fossil bone remains were showed by spectrophotometric analysis. DNA quality and concentrations were evaluated nearly 1.8. Genomic DNA from supernatant was extracted automatically by using EZ1 Automatic Nucleic Acid Isolation System (Qiagen, Germany) with investigator kit (Qiagen, Ilden, Germany) from ancient bones. Amount and purity of extracted DNA from ancient bones were measured by Spectrophotometer and then extracted DNA was applied to 1 % agarose gel, stained and imaged under ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. As a result, 50 ng pure DNA was extracted from ancient bones. Several precautions were taken to prevent contamination during the experiments. EZ1 Nucleic acid isolation method; This tehnique is quite useful for high yield and quality of aDNA isolation from human skeletal remains. In this methods, no further

**2.2.1 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of species determination** 

Molecular archaeology is an emergent field in archaeology that has been brought about by the advancements of the recognition and understanding of DNA. This new developing branch of archaeology focuses on the acquisition of either DNA or mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA) and being able to determine species of natural archaeological finds as well as determine blood lines and/or sex of animal or human remains. These DNA. As our technology advances as well as our knowledge of the DNA itself our understanding of ancient peoples, plants, and animals, will allow us a biological window into their lives.

A 200 bp segment of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene was amplified using the primers;

CB7u: 5'- GCGTACGCAATCTTACGATCAA-'3 and

CB7l: 5'-CTGGCCTCCAATTCATGTGAG-'3. The PCRs were carried out in 50 ml of 60 mM KCl; 12 mM TrisHCl; 2.5 mM MgCl2; 150 mM dNTPs; 0.18 mM each primer; and 2U AmpliTaq Gold (Applied Biosystems), and 0.2

and reagent blanks were included in all experiments.

purification was needed for molecular analysis.

**2.1.5 Ancient DNA Quantity** 

**2.2 PCR amplfcaton** 

microliter BSA. The temperature profile was 95 oC for 4 min, 95 oC for 30 s, 54 oC for 1 min, and 72 oC for 30 s, for 40 cycles and 72 oC 5 min.

#### **2.2.2 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) amplification of sex determination**

Ancient DNA (aDNA) sex identification was used to aid in the verification of individual identification through comparisons to historical documentation of burials and small sizes human fossil skeletal bones estimations of sex. The PCR reaction is manipulated through primer design to favour the amplification of the Y fragment over the X fragment thus minimizing the occurrence of 'false female' results for male samples (Faerman M., et.al., 1995). In this study, the primers for PCR amplifications used are as follows:

Sequence Amel-A (5'- CCCTGGGCTCTGTAAAGAATAGTG -3')

Sequence Amel-B (5'- ATCAGAGCTTAAACTGGGAAGCTG -3')

These primers amplify a small region in intron 1 of the amelogenin gene that encompasses a deletion polymorphism giving a product of 106 bp for the X allele and a product of 112 bp for the Y allele, so both products should be present in males, but only one in females. 0,5 mg genomic DNA was amplified in a mixture composed of 5 μL 10XPCR Taq buffer (pH 8.8), 2 mM MgCl2, and 10 mM dNTPs (dGTP, dATP, dTTP, dCTP) at each, 0.5 mM of each primer, and 0.3 U DreamTaq polymerase (Advanced Biotechnologies Ltd., Fermantase Life Science). Amplification was submitted to denaturation at 94 oC for 10 min, 50 amplification cycles with denaturation at 94 oC for 30 s, annealing at 60 oC for 10 min and extension at 72 oC for 1 min in a thermocycler (Biorad, Germany). PCR blank reactions did not show spot contamination during the collection of the data. As as result, sex gender of ancient human bones was determined related with DNA fragments with different length of base pair as male and female. Studies of ancient DNA from museum and fossil samples can provide valuable information toward a better understanding of degraded DNA preserved in postmortem specimens. This information helps to improve molecular techniques designed to recover and analyze old DNA to be used for evolutionary studies and as well as for forensic analysis. Our comparison of commonly used ancient DNA extraction techniques based on glass bead-based methods usually cause noticeable loss of genomic DNA during purification. We also found that the choice of extraction buffer may be critical to the success of recovering endogenous DNA from different types of tissue (for example, soft tissue, and bone material) preserved under different physical and chemical conditions. We have obtained results only either at the lowest or at the highest amounts of aDNA extracts analyzed. Multiple steps were taken during DNA amplification procedures to decrease the effects of PCR inhibitors found in the amplification reaction. For fossil material, PCR mixes were set up in dedicated hood in the ancient DNA laboratory using appropriate contamination control procedures and then brought to the main molecular genetics or archaeometry laboratory for thermocyling. For all ancient and modern reactions, amplification products were not detected in the negative extraction (Figure 8).

#### **2.2.3 Negative control amplification**

An increase of PCR cycle may increase the risk of minute amount of modern DNA contamination in the resulting in DNA amplification. In this study, potential modern DNA contamination was assessed based on the possible amplification produced in the negative

Molecular Diagnosis Through Genetic Typing of

remanis using RT-QPCR

**2.2.6 Statistical analyses** 

were considered significant at p<0.05.

**3. Result and discussion** 

Skeletal Remains in Historical Populations of Situated Turkey 201

SYBR Green was done as described by the supplier using the Fast Start DNA Master SYBR Green I (Roche Applied Science) with 8 mM MgCl2 in the reaction mixture. Amplification conditions were 95°C for 10 min and 45 cycles, each cycle at 95 °C for 10 s, 56 °C for 10 s and 72 °C for 20 s. The LightCycler amplification and Real-Time PCR detection with fluorescence labeled hybridisation probes was done following the protocol provided either for the

LightCycler. Positive and neagtive controls were included in all reactions (Figure 9).

Fig. 9. Determination of species and quantification in ancient DNA isolated from burial

Statistical analyses were performed in Microsoft Excel. Single factor Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to examine the effect of weathering stage, sex, age, and bone type on the DNA quantity and quality results from the Voegtly bone samples. ANOVA was also used to examine the effect of skeletal weathering on amplification success of multiple bones from a single individual, as well as the effect of skeletal weathering, bone weathering, and bone type on amplicon size. DNA quantities for sex and age statistics were averaged when multiple bones originated from a single individual. Amplification success vs. DNA quantity was examined using a t-test with equal variance assumed. The effect of PCR inhibition during QPCR on spiked samples with and without anti-inhibitory addition (BSA or commercial enhancer) was examined using a two-tailed paired t-test. In all cases results

Ancient DNA (aDNA) and proteins provide valuable clues to questions about nutrition, domestication, population genetics, kinship reconstruction and human evolution. By investigating ancient biomolecules with the use of newer molecular biology techniques and robust procedures of inference genetic data from both archaeological remains and living populations, molecular anthropology has begun to draw more informed conclusions about human evolutionary history. Ancient DNA can shed light on the relationships between populations and how they dispersed through the ancient world and validate evolutionary hypotheses inferred from archaeological, linguistic and historical records. Also, aDNA can

Fig. 8. Polyacrilamide gel electrophoresis of PCR products in male and female fossil DNA templates or 106/112 bp amelogenin gene PCR products. Respectively, Lanes 1-4, Lane 1 : amelogenin male sample 106/112 bp, and lane 2: amelogenin female PCR fossil sample 106 bp, Lane 3 negative control water blank or none DNA, Lane 4, 100 bp ladder size standard marker.

control extraction. The negative control extraction is a sample that contains everything used during DNA extractions procedure followed by PCR amplifications except the powdered ancient bone of the respective sample was substituted with deionized water (Yang et al., 2003; Yang et al., 1998; Pääbo S., 1985; Pääbo S., 1989; Pääbo S., et.al., 2004). An indication that a very low level or non-existence of modern DNA contamination as well as specificity of the primers and sensitivity of PCR amplifications procedures that had been utilized in this study.

#### **2.2.4 Gel electrophoresis of PCR amplicons**

PCR product was separated by electrophoresis on 2 % agarose gel in 1XTAE buffer (45 Mm Tris, 1 mM EDTA, pH 8), stained with ethidium bromide. In addition to electrophoresis of agarose gel, PCR products were completely loaded in 1,5 % acrylamide:bisacrylamide gels, stained with Ag(NO3) and agarose gel systems were visualized under UV, and Poly Acrylamide Gel Electrophoresis systems were illuminated from above using an white fluorescent light source. We isolated the samples from a histological section of the burial place material and repeated the procedure three times. In each of the three repeated approaches, amelogenin could be amplified in all samples showing a successful DNA extraction. Amplification products generally showed weak signals in agarose gel analysis, presumably due to low amount of extracted material. Nevertheless, high-resolution polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis demonstrated that the ancient DNA is derived from a female individual, as in all amelogenin PCR products only the X-Chromosome specific 106 bp fragment was visualized

#### **2.2.5 Determining using RT-QPCR of aDNA quality**

2 μl of DNA and 3 μl primer mix was used in a final volume of 20 μl according to the manufacturer's directions. LightCycler amplification and Real-Time QPCR detection with

Fig. 8. Polyacrilamide gel electrophoresis of PCR products in male and female fossil DNA templates or 106/112 bp amelogenin gene PCR products. Respectively, Lanes 1-4, Lane 1 : amelogenin male sample 106/112 bp, and lane 2: amelogenin female PCR fossil sample 106 bp, Lane 3 negative control water blank or none DNA, Lane 4, 100 bp ladder size standard marker.

control extraction. The negative control extraction is a sample that contains everything used during DNA extractions procedure followed by PCR amplifications except the powdered ancient bone of the respective sample was substituted with deionized water (Yang et al., 2003; Yang et al., 1998; Pääbo S., 1985; Pääbo S., 1989; Pääbo S., et.al., 2004). An indication that a very low level or non-existence of modern DNA contamination as well as specificity of the primers

PCR product was separated by electrophoresis on 2 % agarose gel in 1XTAE buffer (45 Mm Tris, 1 mM EDTA, pH 8), stained with ethidium bromide. In addition to electrophoresis of agarose gel, PCR products were completely loaded in 1,5 % acrylamide:bisacrylamide gels, stained with Ag(NO3) and agarose gel systems were visualized under UV, and Poly Acrylamide Gel Electrophoresis systems were illuminated from above using an white fluorescent light source. We isolated the samples from a histological section of the burial place material and repeated the procedure three times. In each of the three repeated approaches, amelogenin could be amplified in all samples showing a successful DNA extraction. Amplification products generally showed weak signals in agarose gel analysis, presumably due to low amount of extracted material. Nevertheless, high-resolution polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis demonstrated that the ancient DNA is derived from a female individual, as in all amelogenin PCR products only the X-Chromosome specific 106

2 μl of DNA and 3 μl primer mix was used in a final volume of 20 μl according to the manufacturer's directions. LightCycler amplification and Real-Time QPCR detection with

and sensitivity of PCR amplifications procedures that had been utilized in this study.

**2.2.4 Gel electrophoresis of PCR amplicons** 

**2.2.5 Determining using RT-QPCR of aDNA quality** 

bp fragment was visualized

SYBR Green was done as described by the supplier using the Fast Start DNA Master SYBR Green I (Roche Applied Science) with 8 mM MgCl2 in the reaction mixture. Amplification conditions were 95°C for 10 min and 45 cycles, each cycle at 95 °C for 10 s, 56 °C for 10 s and 72 °C for 20 s. The LightCycler amplification and Real-Time PCR detection with fluorescence labeled hybridisation probes was done following the protocol provided either for the LightCycler. Positive and neagtive controls were included in all reactions (Figure 9).

Fig. 9. Determination of species and quantification in ancient DNA isolated from burial remanis using RT-QPCR

#### **2.2.6 Statistical analyses**

Statistical analyses were performed in Microsoft Excel. Single factor Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to examine the effect of weathering stage, sex, age, and bone type on the DNA quantity and quality results from the Voegtly bone samples. ANOVA was also used to examine the effect of skeletal weathering on amplification success of multiple bones from a single individual, as well as the effect of skeletal weathering, bone weathering, and bone type on amplicon size. DNA quantities for sex and age statistics were averaged when multiple bones originated from a single individual. Amplification success vs. DNA quantity was examined using a t-test with equal variance assumed. The effect of PCR inhibition during QPCR on spiked samples with and without anti-inhibitory addition (BSA or commercial enhancer) was examined using a two-tailed paired t-test. In all cases results were considered significant at p<0.05.

#### **3. Result and discussion**

Ancient DNA (aDNA) and proteins provide valuable clues to questions about nutrition, domestication, population genetics, kinship reconstruction and human evolution. By investigating ancient biomolecules with the use of newer molecular biology techniques and robust procedures of inference genetic data from both archaeological remains and living populations, molecular anthropology has begun to draw more informed conclusions about human evolutionary history. Ancient DNA can shed light on the relationships between populations and how they dispersed through the ancient world and validate evolutionary hypotheses inferred from archaeological, linguistic and historical records. Also, aDNA can

Molecular Diagnosis Through Genetic Typing of

**4. Acknowledgment** 

**5. References** 

matbaas.

1728.

University (BAP) for providing foundation.

Akurgal E. (2000) Anadolu Kültür Tarihi (9. Bask), Ankara:Gökçe

amel. Molecular Biology and Evolution 18(12), 2146-2153.

bone remains (human or animal materials) (Gill P., et.al., 1994).

Skeletal Remains in Historical Populations of Situated Turkey 203

DNA originating from individuals from major phyla of vertebrates was isolated by the organic method from various specimens. Extracted DNA was subjected to PCR and direct cycle sequencing using a universal pair of primers. In order to evaluate the utility of this gene for discrimination of fosil bone remains as well as for exploring their phylogenetic relationships. These data show that the Cyt b gene is useful for phylogenetic study of fosil

Real-time PCR is now a common method for measuring gene expression, it is increasingly important for users to be aware of the numerous choices available in all aspects of this technology. Unlike traditional PCR, there are many complexities with real-time PCR that can affect overall results. However, with a well-designed experiment performed with the proper controls, real-time PCR can be one of the most sensitive, efficient, fast, and reproducible methods of measuring gene expression and DNA quantification. LightCycler Real-Time PCR using SYBR Green for detection was applied to quantify the actual amount of the prepared DNA. For every sample, a primer pair amplifying a single copy region of the genome was designed amelogenin primers. The specificity of the PCR reaction was tested after every run by determining the melting point of the respective product. All reaction products showed single peaks and the product size was verified to be in the expected range by gel electrophoresis.

As our technology advances as well as our knowledge of the DNA itself our understanding of ancient peoples, plants, and animals, will allow us a biological window into their lives. Molecular archaeology can in time, as our knowledge and technology increases, provide us with the ability to learn more about the life of ancient individuals. It can be seen how modern humans may differ from our ancestors or what plants and animals may have existed at the time and been utilized by them, which can be found by exploring what their tools and clothing or other artifacts were constructed out of. Not every area of the world is accessible to this technology due to the variety of climates, but in those areas where suitable DNA samples may be taken a whole new knowledge of the ancient culture under examination may be gained.

We are grateful to Dr. A. Ahmet Trpan and his working group for the access to valuable archaeological skeletal material. This study was partially supported by Selcuk University Archeometry - Biotechnology Laboratory and Scientific Research Foundation of Selcuk

Baykara T. (1988) Anadolu'nun Tarihi Coğrafyasna Giriş 1 (1. Bask), Ankara:Sevinç

Burger J., Hummel S., Herrman and Winfried H., (1999) DNA Preservation: A

Delgado S., Casane D., Bonnaud L., Laurn M., Sre J.Y., Grondot M., (2001) Molecular

Microsatelitte-DNA study on Ancient Skeletal Remains, Electrophoresis, 20:1722-

evidence for Precambrian origin of amelogenin, the major protein of vertebrate an

help solve archaeological puzzles and build up a picture of the demography of past societies by identifying the sex of skeletons that cannot be determined by osteology and to assess the degree of maternal relatedness in multiple burials (Hagelberg et.al., 1989 and Hagelberg et.al., 1991). The remarkable thing about sexual differentiation is its diversity. That males are the heterogametic sex, larger than females, more aggressive than females, and the 'nondefault' mode of sexual differentiation are concepts not valid throughout most of the animal kingdom. Sex chromosomes are characteristic only of land animals. In birds, the heterogametic sex is female and the sex chromosomes are not related to those of mammals. External factors such as temperature determine sex in lower vertebrates, and there is no similarity among sex-determining genes of different species (Delgado S. et.al., 2001).

Sex determination using DNA can be valuable for both forensic and archaeological research. Standard osteological methods, however, are less expensive and more rapid when the skeletons of adults are complete and the bones are in good shape. For archaeological research, the use of DNA to determine the sex of juveniles provides an opportunity to extend traditional mortuary analyses through the inclusion of children of known sex (Delgado S., et. al., 2005). Molecular analyses can also address questions regarding the sex of adult skeletons that fall in the overlapping range of male and female morphological variation. By using this method in combination with routine genotyping more information about a material under investigation can be obtained. In addition, the amplification of the AMEL gene can also be used as an internal control. In conclusion our findings show that the PCR assay based on the AMEL gene is reliable for sex identification of fossil bone remains in Koranza and Necropal area are situated in the region of modern city Mugla in Turkey. The advantage of this assay is that neither additional control amplicons with a second locus specific autosomal primer pair nor restriction endonuclease steps are necessary for sex determination and control of the PCR reaction. However, despite these objections and characteristic features of aDNA mentioned above, it can be shown that the molecular approach is the most powerful tool for the identification and reconstruction of kinship of skeletal human remains of archaeological excavations. These validated protocols allow the assignment of unknown men to every major branch of the global human population. Hopefully these protocols will encourage new research groups to implement a broader range of anthropological surveys, archaeological excavations and archaeometry studies etc. Furthermore, there is not the only parameter that determines the overall specificity and sensitivity of the PCR reaction; primer design and optimization of PCR parameters also have a profound effect. Results of our present work demonstrate that the primers utilised in this test (Amel A and Amel B) provide robust and highly efficient amplification. It is envisaged that this test will prove to be an advantageous addition to other methods of forensic DNA analysis.

The size difference between the amplified segments of X and Y copy of AMG was not big enough to be detected clearly on agarose or polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE). For that reason, we searched the list of commercial restriction enzymes and find a new enzyme capable of recognizing and cleaving the PCR product for Y copy of AMG, but not the X copy. The molecular determination of gender based on AMG PCR/Restriction enzyme digestion was compared with anthropometric reports. At the beginning stages of the project the molecular sex determination was both different from anthropometric reports and also not reproducible (Mitchell R.J., et.al., 2006). However, after optimizing the procedure and setting guidelines to eliminate the risk of contamination we were able to have reliable and reproducible molecular sex determination.

help solve archaeological puzzles and build up a picture of the demography of past societies by identifying the sex of skeletons that cannot be determined by osteology and to assess the degree of maternal relatedness in multiple burials (Hagelberg et.al., 1989 and Hagelberg et.al., 1991). The remarkable thing about sexual differentiation is its diversity. That males are the heterogametic sex, larger than females, more aggressive than females, and the 'nondefault' mode of sexual differentiation are concepts not valid throughout most of the animal kingdom. Sex chromosomes are characteristic only of land animals. In birds, the heterogametic sex is female and the sex chromosomes are not related to those of mammals. External factors such as temperature determine sex in lower vertebrates, and there is no

similarity among sex-determining genes of different species (Delgado S. et.al., 2001).

addition to other methods of forensic DNA analysis.

reproducible molecular sex determination.

Sex determination using DNA can be valuable for both forensic and archaeological research. Standard osteological methods, however, are less expensive and more rapid when the skeletons of adults are complete and the bones are in good shape. For archaeological research, the use of DNA to determine the sex of juveniles provides an opportunity to extend traditional mortuary analyses through the inclusion of children of known sex (Delgado S., et. al., 2005). Molecular analyses can also address questions regarding the sex of adult skeletons that fall in the overlapping range of male and female morphological variation. By using this method in combination with routine genotyping more information about a material under investigation can be obtained. In addition, the amplification of the AMEL gene can also be used as an internal control. In conclusion our findings show that the PCR assay based on the AMEL gene is reliable for sex identification of fossil bone remains in Koranza and Necropal area are situated in the region of modern city Mugla in Turkey. The advantage of this assay is that neither additional control amplicons with a second locus specific autosomal primer pair nor restriction endonuclease steps are necessary for sex determination and control of the PCR reaction. However, despite these objections and characteristic features of aDNA mentioned above, it can be shown that the molecular approach is the most powerful tool for the identification and reconstruction of kinship of skeletal human remains of archaeological excavations. These validated protocols allow the assignment of unknown men to every major branch of the global human population. Hopefully these protocols will encourage new research groups to implement a broader range of anthropological surveys, archaeological excavations and archaeometry studies etc. Furthermore, there is not the only parameter that determines the overall specificity and sensitivity of the PCR reaction; primer design and optimization of PCR parameters also have a profound effect. Results of our present work demonstrate that the primers utilised in this test (Amel A and Amel B) provide robust and highly efficient amplification. It is envisaged that this test will prove to be an advantageous

The size difference between the amplified segments of X and Y copy of AMG was not big enough to be detected clearly on agarose or polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE). For that reason, we searched the list of commercial restriction enzymes and find a new enzyme capable of recognizing and cleaving the PCR product for Y copy of AMG, but not the X copy. The molecular determination of gender based on AMG PCR/Restriction enzyme digestion was compared with anthropometric reports. At the beginning stages of the project the molecular sex determination was both different from anthropometric reports and also not reproducible (Mitchell R.J., et.al., 2006). However, after optimizing the procedure and setting guidelines to eliminate the risk of contamination we were able to have reliable and DNA originating from individuals from major phyla of vertebrates was isolated by the organic method from various specimens. Extracted DNA was subjected to PCR and direct cycle sequencing using a universal pair of primers. In order to evaluate the utility of this gene for discrimination of fosil bone remains as well as for exploring their phylogenetic relationships. These data show that the Cyt b gene is useful for phylogenetic study of fosil bone remains (human or animal materials) (Gill P., et.al., 1994).

Real-time PCR is now a common method for measuring gene expression, it is increasingly important for users to be aware of the numerous choices available in all aspects of this technology. Unlike traditional PCR, there are many complexities with real-time PCR that can affect overall results. However, with a well-designed experiment performed with the proper controls, real-time PCR can be one of the most sensitive, efficient, fast, and reproducible methods of measuring gene expression and DNA quantification. LightCycler Real-Time PCR using SYBR Green for detection was applied to quantify the actual amount of the prepared DNA. For every sample, a primer pair amplifying a single copy region of the genome was designed amelogenin primers. The specificity of the PCR reaction was tested after every run by determining the melting point of the respective product. All reaction products showed single peaks and the product size was verified to be in the expected range by gel electrophoresis.

As our technology advances as well as our knowledge of the DNA itself our understanding of ancient peoples, plants, and animals, will allow us a biological window into their lives. Molecular archaeology can in time, as our knowledge and technology increases, provide us with the ability to learn more about the life of ancient individuals. It can be seen how modern humans may differ from our ancestors or what plants and animals may have existed at the time and been utilized by them, which can be found by exploring what their tools and clothing or other artifacts were constructed out of. Not every area of the world is accessible to this technology due to the variety of climates, but in those areas where suitable DNA samples may be taken a whole new knowledge of the ancient culture under examination may be gained.

#### **4. Acknowledgment**

We are grateful to Dr. A. Ahmet Trpan and his working group for the access to valuable archaeological skeletal material. This study was partially supported by Selcuk University Archeometry - Biotechnology Laboratory and Scientific Research Foundation of Selcuk University (BAP) for providing foundation.

#### **5. References**

Akurgal E. (2000) Anadolu Kültür Tarihi (9. Bask), Ankara:Gökçe


**8** 

*Spain* 

**Experimental Archaeology at** 

Imma Ollich, Montserrat de Rocafiguera,

*Universitat de Barcelona Fundació Privada l'Esquerda* 

Maria Ocaña, Carme Cubero and Oriol Amblàs

**L'Esquerda – Crops, Storage, Metalcraft** 

**and Earthworks in Mediaeval and Ancient Times** 

The archaeological site of l'Esquerda is placed in the inlands of Catalonia, in the town of Roda de Ter, county of Osona, 70 Km north from Barcelona. The site occupies a big peninsula of 12 ha over the river Ter. It is situated in the intersection between a fertile and plane plateau called Plana de Vic, and some scarped and bushy mountains named "Les Guilleries", crossed by the river Ter on its way to Girona and the coast. The site is only accessible from the north face where the walls were built and its particular placement makes it be an outstanding strategic location in the inlands of Catalonia, with natural protection.

**1. Introduction** 

Fig. 1. Location map of the site of l'Esquerda


Hagelberg .E, Skyes B., Hedges R., (1989) Ancient bone DNA amplified. Nature 342: 485.


### **Experimental Archaeology at L'Esquerda – Crops, Storage, Metalcraft and Earthworks in Mediaeval and Ancient Times**

Imma Ollich, Montserrat de Rocafiguera, Maria Ocaña, Carme Cubero and Oriol Amblàs *Universitat de Barcelona Fundació Privada l'Esquerda Spain* 

#### **1. Introduction**

204 Archaeology, New Approaches in Theory and Techniques

Delgado S., Grondot M., Sre J.Y., (2005) Molecular evolution of amelogenin in mammals.

Faerman M., Filan D., Kahila G., Greenblatt C.L., Smith P. and Oppenheim A., (1995) Sex

Gill P., Ivanov P.l., Kimpton C., Piercy R., Benson N., Tully G., Evett I., Hagelberg E., and

Güleç E., Özer İ., Sağr M., Satar Z. (2006) 21. Arkeometri Sonuçlar Toplants,

Güngördü E. (2003) Türkiye'nin Coğrafyas(1. Bask), Ankara: Asil Yayn Dağtm LTD. ŞTİ. Hagelberg .E, Skyes B., Hedges R., (1989) Ancient bone DNA amplified. Nature 342: 485. Hagelberg E., Bell L.S, Allen T, Byde A., Jones S.J., Clegg J.B., (1991) Analysis of ancient bone DNA: techniques and applications. Phil Trans R Soc London 333: 399-407. Herrmann, R.G., and S. Hummel. (1994) Ancient DNA: Recovery and Analysis of Genetic

Mansel A. F. (1988) Ege ve Yunan Tarihi (5. Bask), Ankara:Türk Tarih Kurumu Basmevi. Mitchell R.J., Kreskas M., Baxter E., Buffalino L. and Van Oorschot R.A.H., (2006) An

Olmstead A. T. (1960) History Of The Persian Empire (4. Impression), Composed and Printed by The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. Pääbo S., (1985) Molecular cloning of ancient Egyptian mummy DNA. Nature 314:644–45. Pääbo S., (1989) Ancient DNA: extraction, characterization, molecular cloning, and

Pääbo S., Poinar H, Serre D, Jaenicke-Despres V, Hebler J, Rohland N, Kuch M, Krause J,

Prag J., Neave R. (1999) Making Faces (1. Published), British Museum Press, London. U.K. Römpler H., Rohland N., Lalueza-Fox C., Willerslev E., Kuznetsova T., Rabeder G.,

Sevin V. (2001) Anadolu'nun Tarihi Coğrafyas 1(1. Bask), Ankara:Türk Tarih Kurumu

Tekin O. (2007) Satraplar Anadolu'su, Arkeo Atlas Yaşayan Geçmişin Dergisi, Say:6,

Whitley J. (2001) The Archaeology Of Ancient Greece(1. Published), Printed in the United

Yang, D.Y., Eng, B. and Saunders, S.R., (2003) Hypersensitive PCR, ancient human mtDNA

Yang, D.Y., Eng, B., Waye, J.S., Dudar, J.C and Saunders, S.R.., (1998) Technical note:

Improved DNA extraction from ancient bones using silica-based columns.

Sarkar G, Sommer SS., (1990) Shedding light on PCR contamination. Nature 343-27.

Kingdom at the Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

American Journal of Physical Anthropology 105: 539-543.

and contamination. Human Biology 75: 355-364.

Vigilant L, Hofreiter M ., (2004) Genetic Analyses from Ancient DNA. Annu Rev

Bertranpetit J., (2006) Schoneberg T., Hofreiter M. Nuclear gene indicates coat-color

enzymatic amplification. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:1939–43.

Identification of archeological human remains based on amplification of the X and

Sullivan K., (1994) Identification of the remains of the Romanov family by DNA

Material from Paleontological, Archaeological, Museum, Medical and Forensic

Investigation of Sequence Deletions of Amilogenin (AMELY), a Y-chromosome Locus commonly used for Gender Determination, Annals of Human Biology, 33 (2):

Journal of Molecular Evolution 60, 12-30.

Y Amilogenin Alleles, Gene, 167, 327-332.

Ankara:Kültür Bakanlğ DÖSİMM Basmevi, 21-28.

Specimens. New York, NY: Springer Verlag.

polymorphism in mammoths. Science. 313:62.

227-240.

Genet. 38:645-79.

Basmevi.

İstanbul, 62-73.

analysis. Nature Genetics 6:130-135.

The archaeological site of l'Esquerda is placed in the inlands of Catalonia, in the town of Roda de Ter, county of Osona, 70 Km north from Barcelona. The site occupies a big peninsula of 12 ha over the river Ter. It is situated in the intersection between a fertile and plane plateau called Plana de Vic, and some scarped and bushy mountains named "Les Guilleries", crossed by the river Ter on its way to Girona and the coast. The site is only accessible from the north face where the walls were built and its particular placement makes it be an outstanding strategic location in the inlands of Catalonia, with natural protection.

Fig. 1. Location map of the site of l'Esquerda

Experimental Archaeology at L'Esquerda –

written sources (Ollich, 2000)

*civitas*, using the old visigothic name.

around it too (Ollich, 2006).

Crops, Storage, Metalcraft and Earthworks in Mediaeval and Ancient Times 207

towers and other defence structures were totally destroyed and became completely unusable. Afterwards, a little late Iberian town was built over the ruins, taking profit of the same prime materials. This little town with small houses, and a possible new wall weaker than the primitive one, was active during the 2nd and 1st century BC. Little archaeological information has remained from this period because of the modern agrarian fieldworks carried out in the

During the Roman period there was not any occupation in the site that might have been in ruins by this time. Meanwhile, a new roman city, *Auso*, was growing 5 km southwest –

L'Esquerda site was newly occupied during Visigothic times (from 5th to 7th centuries AD). Presumably this new occupation was due to the instability in the area caused by the crisis of Roman Empire. A big silo field, dated by Radiocarbon from those times, has been found in the backside od the old walls. At the present time, 66 silos have been dug, but the silo field seems to be much bigger. The silos were built inside the Iberian levels, and only their bottom part has remained. These pits were used for grain storage, as palaeocarpological analysis reveals. In some of them the covering rounded-shape stone has also been recovered. However, they were used as garbage holes at last, when being out of use for storage. They are all filled with stones, pottery and specially with a lot of fauna bones recently studied (Valenzuela, 2008). This silo field seems to have been in use for a long time, since there are some structures built over some others which were already destroyed, and it seems to correspond with a visigothic settlement, probably the *Rota Civitas* mentioned in

In late 8th century BC the place of l'Esquerda was occupied by Frank Carolingians in order to establish a frontier in the river Ter against Muslims. They tried to stop them going to northern Europe through Pyrenean mountains. At l'Esquerda, Frank people probably reused the ancient Iberian and Visighotic stone-made fortresses, but they also built some new ones made with wood. The post-holes and spaces carved in the rock seem to correspond to this phase, when some round wooden towers were built to control the river and the land around it. L'Esquerda is really well located, with a complete view from the south to the Pyrenean Mountains and the way to the north. Also, in this point, the river goes to the east, to Girona and the coast. So, for Carolingians was so critical to control this place, to defend Girona (that was given itself to Carolingian Empire of Charles the Great in 785 AD) and to stop the Muslim armies in their way to Narbonne. L'Esquerda was called *Rota* 

All these first Carolingian wooden structures at l'Esquerda were destroyed in 826 AD, during the rebellion of Aissó, a pro-muslim indigenous chief that tried to get out Carolingian, occupied the site and controlled the river until 875 AD. At that moment both the county of Osona and the bishopric of Vic were reorganised. Documentary evidences mention a first church in l'Esquerda in 927 AD, and archaeological works had shown the remains of its *presbiterium* and its stone altar. This high-mediaeval church was surrounded by a necropolis with anthropomorphic graves. Some little stone houses gradually grew

At some point between 10th and 11th century, l'Esquerda began a complete urban reform and a new church, consecrated around 1040 AD, was built. It followed the new norms of

site from 17th century, which have seriously damaged these archaeological levels.

where now is Vic (the mediaeval *Vicus Ausonensis*), the new capital of the county.

Fig. 2. Aerial view of the site of l'Esquerda, surrounded by the river Ter

The site was inhabited during a long period. The earliest evidences are dated back to late bronze-age, by some hand-made potteries. The hypothesis of an early Iberian phase has been recently established for the site (Rocafiguera-Ollich-Ocaña, 2011).

Later, in the 5th century BC, a strong *oppidum* was built there. The structure takes profit of the natural geology of the environment and a big wall was built in the northern face. It is a huge barrier-shaped wall, with two massive towers in its front. All the structure is made on coarse rough stones without mortar. From an archaeological insight of the destruction levels, the highest part of the structure is presumed have been built in clay.

The fortification was the main pattern of urbanism in the whole site along the centuries. Between the two entrance towers, there is a NS two-metre-wide street, with different levels of pavements. The street and walls set up a reticular plan that is followed until 13th century AD in the site (Ollich-Rocafiguera, 2002). This Iberian *oppidum* lasted until the end of the 3rd century BC. Some new constructions or architectural changes in the site have been discovered for this time. The main one corresponds to the end of the fortress. In this latest period, all the defences were strengthened: some gates were closed, some *armora* were built and even the street could have been closed by a slope wall in stone (Ollich-Rocafiguera, 2001). All of these changes seem to be due to the general instability of the Iberian Peninsula in late 3rd and early 2nd century BC, caused by Punic wars, the Roman victory and the indigenous revolutions in the earliest roman period, in which *Ausetani* took regularly part.

At the end of this convulse period, in early 2nd century BC, the *oppidum* of l'Esquerda was completely destroyed. Even though there are no evidences of direct fighting, all the walls,

Fig. 2. Aerial view of the site of l'Esquerda, surrounded by the river Ter

been recently established for the site (Rocafiguera-Ollich-Ocaña, 2011).

levels, the highest part of the structure is presumed have been built in clay.

period, in which *Ausetani* took regularly part.

The site was inhabited during a long period. The earliest evidences are dated back to late bronze-age, by some hand-made potteries. The hypothesis of an early Iberian phase has

Later, in the 5th century BC, a strong *oppidum* was built there. The structure takes profit of the natural geology of the environment and a big wall was built in the northern face. It is a huge barrier-shaped wall, with two massive towers in its front. All the structure is made on coarse rough stones without mortar. From an archaeological insight of the destruction

The fortification was the main pattern of urbanism in the whole site along the centuries. Between the two entrance towers, there is a NS two-metre-wide street, with different levels of pavements. The street and walls set up a reticular plan that is followed until 13th century AD in the site (Ollich-Rocafiguera, 2002). This Iberian *oppidum* lasted until the end of the 3rd century BC. Some new constructions or architectural changes in the site have been discovered for this time. The main one corresponds to the end of the fortress. In this latest period, all the defences were strengthened: some gates were closed, some *armora* were built and even the street could have been closed by a slope wall in stone (Ollich-Rocafiguera, 2001). All of these changes seem to be due to the general instability of the Iberian Peninsula in late 3rd and early 2nd century BC, caused by Punic wars, the Roman victory and the indigenous revolutions in the earliest roman

At the end of this convulse period, in early 2nd century BC, the *oppidum* of l'Esquerda was completely destroyed. Even though there are no evidences of direct fighting, all the walls, towers and other defence structures were totally destroyed and became completely unusable. Afterwards, a little late Iberian town was built over the ruins, taking profit of the same prime materials. This little town with small houses, and a possible new wall weaker than the primitive one, was active during the 2nd and 1st century BC. Little archaeological information has remained from this period because of the modern agrarian fieldworks carried out in the site from 17th century, which have seriously damaged these archaeological levels.

During the Roman period there was not any occupation in the site that might have been in ruins by this time. Meanwhile, a new roman city, *Auso*, was growing 5 km southwest – where now is Vic (the mediaeval *Vicus Ausonensis*), the new capital of the county.

L'Esquerda site was newly occupied during Visigothic times (from 5th to 7th centuries AD). Presumably this new occupation was due to the instability in the area caused by the crisis of Roman Empire. A big silo field, dated by Radiocarbon from those times, has been found in the backside od the old walls. At the present time, 66 silos have been dug, but the silo field seems to be much bigger. The silos were built inside the Iberian levels, and only their bottom part has remained. These pits were used for grain storage, as palaeocarpological analysis reveals. In some of them the covering rounded-shape stone has also been recovered. However, they were used as garbage holes at last, when being out of use for storage. They are all filled with stones, pottery and specially with a lot of fauna bones recently studied (Valenzuela, 2008). This silo field seems to have been in use for a long time, since there are some structures built over some others which were already destroyed, and it seems to correspond with a visigothic settlement, probably the *Rota Civitas* mentioned in written sources (Ollich, 2000)

In late 8th century BC the place of l'Esquerda was occupied by Frank Carolingians in order to establish a frontier in the river Ter against Muslims. They tried to stop them going to northern Europe through Pyrenean mountains. At l'Esquerda, Frank people probably reused the ancient Iberian and Visighotic stone-made fortresses, but they also built some new ones made with wood. The post-holes and spaces carved in the rock seem to correspond to this phase, when some round wooden towers were built to control the river and the land around it. L'Esquerda is really well located, with a complete view from the south to the Pyrenean Mountains and the way to the north. Also, in this point, the river goes to the east, to Girona and the coast. So, for Carolingians was so critical to control this place, to defend Girona (that was given itself to Carolingian Empire of Charles the Great in 785 AD) and to stop the Muslim armies in their way to Narbonne. L'Esquerda was called *Rota civitas*, using the old visigothic name.

All these first Carolingian wooden structures at l'Esquerda were destroyed in 826 AD, during the rebellion of Aissó, a pro-muslim indigenous chief that tried to get out Carolingian, occupied the site and controlled the river until 875 AD. At that moment both the county of Osona and the bishopric of Vic were reorganised. Documentary evidences mention a first church in l'Esquerda in 927 AD, and archaeological works had shown the remains of its *presbiterium* and its stone altar. This high-mediaeval church was surrounded by a necropolis with anthropomorphic graves. Some little stone houses gradually grew around it too (Ollich, 2006).

At some point between 10th and 11th century, l'Esquerda began a complete urban reform and a new church, consecrated around 1040 AD, was built. It followed the new norms of

Experimental Archaeology at L'Esquerda –

teach about experimental archaeology.

framework and constructive techniques.

used, and also a bronze smelting kiln was built and tested.

Spanish *Ministerio de Educación y Cultura (DGICYT Projects)*.

Crops, Storage, Metalcraft and Earthworks in Mediaeval and Ancient Times 209

organised in a systematic way of proving or disproving a specified hypothesis- that must be previously planned, and capable of replication. Hypotheses from archaeological data must be proved only by empirical data obtained through experimentation. In 1991, a long-term project of experimental archaeology was started in l'Esquerda. We named it LEAF Project. Since then, five three-year research projects have been carried, all of them funded by

All the research works are carried on in the AREA (Archaeological Research Experimentation Area), a land in front of the site, specially consecrated to experiment in archaeology, that was gently given to us by the Town-Council of Roda de Ter. There is also a laboratory to work in. All together is used as an Open Air Area to research, to learn and to

The first project, *Experimental archaeology, application to mediaeval Mediterranean agriculture*  (DGICYT, PB90-0430*),* aimed to establish the basis of a long-term agricultural study. The design of the experiments consisted on four fields where 3 year and 2 year rotation were studied, together with autumn and spring sawn. In the same project a haystack was built, and also two ditch-and-bank structures to study the processes of erosion and sedimentation. The second project, carried out simultaneously with the agricultural one, was named *Experimental Archaeology. Storage constructions in Middle Ages* (DGICYT, PB94-0842), and had the goal of building an exact real-sized replica of a 13th century granary identified at the site, and some underground silos. The aim was also to solve a lot of questions about mediaeval

In the third project - *Experimental archaeology: Tools and agricultural techniques in Middle-Ages*  (DGICYT, PB98-1241) - the aim was to deep insight all the necessary implements for the agricultural process, from the ploughing to the storage in granary and silos. This third project, together with the discovery of a blacksmith's in the mediaeval site, opened the need to learn more about metal craftwork. This was the most important goal in the fourth project: *Experimental Archaeology: technologies of metallurgical production in mediaeval agriculture* (DGICYT, HUM2004-5280/HIST). In this time an iron furnace was built and experimentally

Finally, the fifth project *Experimental Archaeology: ethnoarchaeological application to experimental agricultural processes in Middle Ages* (DGICYT, HAR2008-00871/HIST), wants to close the experimentation about the agricultural cycle and its ethnoarchaeological aspects. So, new experiments have been carried about building and burning haystacks, about evolution and reparation of agricultural structures, like the granary, the silos and the iron smith's, and also to food processing, with experiments of milling, and cooking bread in a hand-made bread oven. Twenty years of experimental archaeology in l'Esquerda have given a great amount of results, and also some new solutions for the interpretation of archaeological data in the site. So, experimentation has been demonstrated as a very important way to the knowledge of

Among all the experiments carried out at l'Esquerda, the growing of ancient species archaeologically registered in the site is the most important one. The origin of this

some aspects of the history that otherwise would have been impossible to clarify.

**3. The LEAF agricultural project: 20 years of experimental crops** 

Romanesque art that bishop Oliba of Vic had introduced in the region. At the same time, some new stone houses were built inside the *sacraria*, a sacred space of 30 meters around the church in order to profit of its protection. They used both stone and clay for walls, with wood timbers and tiles for roofs. Archaeological works show this was a very good period for l'Esquerda: all the town was growing around the church, with a square and a long street with stone buildings in each side, a smithy, a granary, some water tanks and other structures. This low-mediaeval village expanded until last 13th century, when some problems of agricultural production began, and some fights between the feudal lord of Cabrera and the King took place. In 1314, during one of these fights l'Esquerda was absolutely destroyed and its population moved to the new parish near the bridge (Ollich et al., 1995)

#### **2. Principles of experimental archaeology**

The discovery of a 13th century granary belonging to the latest period of the mediaeval village of l'Esquerda, and the palaeocarpological data obtained from the sediment found inside opened the chance to research about experimental archaeology. The first step of the project was to get in touch with Dr. Peter J. Reynolds, director of the Butser Ancient Farm (Petersfield, England), a research centre devoted to experimental archaeology. In collaboration with Butser Ancient Farm members, the basis of the project of l'Esquerda were established, together with the theoretical principles that would be followed in the site (Reynolds, 1988, 1996).

Fig. 3. Principles of Experimental Archaeology, by P.J.Reynolds

Thereby, in the site of l'Esquerda, experimental archaeology was directly learnt from Dr. Peter J. Reynolds who became a member of the research team. Experimental archaeology is a scientific research method to get experimental evidences by experimenting to verify or deny archaeological hypotheses. The methodology is always based in experiment - an

Romanesque art that bishop Oliba of Vic had introduced in the region. At the same time, some new stone houses were built inside the *sacraria*, a sacred space of 30 meters around the church in order to profit of its protection. They used both stone and clay for walls, with wood timbers and tiles for roofs. Archaeological works show this was a very good period for l'Esquerda: all the town was growing around the church, with a square and a long street with stone buildings in each side, a smithy, a granary, some water tanks and other structures. This low-mediaeval village expanded until last 13th century, when some problems of agricultural production began, and some fights between the feudal lord of Cabrera and the King took place. In 1314, during one of these fights l'Esquerda was absolutely destroyed and its population moved to the new parish near the bridge (Ollich et

The discovery of a 13th century granary belonging to the latest period of the mediaeval village of l'Esquerda, and the palaeocarpological data obtained from the sediment found inside opened the chance to research about experimental archaeology. The first step of the project was to get in touch with Dr. Peter J. Reynolds, director of the Butser Ancient Farm (Petersfield, England), a research centre devoted to experimental archaeology. In collaboration with Butser Ancient Farm members, the basis of the project of l'Esquerda were established, together with the theoretical principles that would be followed in the site

al., 1995)

(Reynolds, 1988, 1996).

**2. Principles of experimental archaeology** 

Fig. 3. Principles of Experimental Archaeology, by P.J.Reynolds

Thereby, in the site of l'Esquerda, experimental archaeology was directly learnt from Dr. Peter J. Reynolds who became a member of the research team. Experimental archaeology is a scientific research method to get experimental evidences by experimenting to verify or deny archaeological hypotheses. The methodology is always based in experiment - an organised in a systematic way of proving or disproving a specified hypothesis- that must be previously planned, and capable of replication. Hypotheses from archaeological data must be proved only by empirical data obtained through experimentation. In 1991, a long-term project of experimental archaeology was started in l'Esquerda. We named it LEAF Project. Since then, five three-year research projects have been carried, all of them funded by Spanish *Ministerio de Educación y Cultura (DGICYT Projects)*.

All the research works are carried on in the AREA (Archaeological Research Experimentation Area), a land in front of the site, specially consecrated to experiment in archaeology, that was gently given to us by the Town-Council of Roda de Ter. There is also a laboratory to work in. All together is used as an Open Air Area to research, to learn and to teach about experimental archaeology.

The first project, *Experimental archaeology, application to mediaeval Mediterranean agriculture*  (DGICYT, PB90-0430*),* aimed to establish the basis of a long-term agricultural study. The design of the experiments consisted on four fields where 3 year and 2 year rotation were studied, together with autumn and spring sawn. In the same project a haystack was built, and also two ditch-and-bank structures to study the processes of erosion and sedimentation.

The second project, carried out simultaneously with the agricultural one, was named *Experimental Archaeology. Storage constructions in Middle Ages* (DGICYT, PB94-0842), and had the goal of building an exact real-sized replica of a 13th century granary identified at the site, and some underground silos. The aim was also to solve a lot of questions about mediaeval framework and constructive techniques.

In the third project - *Experimental archaeology: Tools and agricultural techniques in Middle-Ages*  (DGICYT, PB98-1241) - the aim was to deep insight all the necessary implements for the agricultural process, from the ploughing to the storage in granary and silos. This third project, together with the discovery of a blacksmith's in the mediaeval site, opened the need to learn more about metal craftwork. This was the most important goal in the fourth project: *Experimental Archaeology: technologies of metallurgical production in mediaeval agriculture* (DGICYT, HUM2004-5280/HIST). In this time an iron furnace was built and experimentally used, and also a bronze smelting kiln was built and tested.

Finally, the fifth project *Experimental Archaeology: ethnoarchaeological application to experimental agricultural processes in Middle Ages* (DGICYT, HAR2008-00871/HIST), wants to close the experimentation about the agricultural cycle and its ethnoarchaeological aspects. So, new experiments have been carried about building and burning haystacks, about evolution and reparation of agricultural structures, like the granary, the silos and the iron smith's, and also to food processing, with experiments of milling, and cooking bread in a hand-made bread oven.

Twenty years of experimental archaeology in l'Esquerda have given a great amount of results, and also some new solutions for the interpretation of archaeological data in the site. So, experimentation has been demonstrated as a very important way to the knowledge of some aspects of the history that otherwise would have been impossible to clarify.

#### **3. The LEAF agricultural project: 20 years of experimental crops**

Among all the experiments carried out at l'Esquerda, the growing of ancient species archaeologically registered in the site is the most important one. The origin of this

Experimental Archaeology at L'Esquerda –

1998).

11%

11%

1% 3%

3%

Crops, Storage, Metalcraft and Earthworks in Mediaeval and Ancient Times 211

experiment is related to the discovery, in 1986, of a mediaeval granary with a lot of evidences of the kind of seeds that were cultivated in the zone during Middle Ages. The experiment reproduces in the AREA the three-field rotation system (cereals-fallow-beans) in winter (Field 1) and spring sawn (Field 2), the two-field rotation system (cereals-fallow) (Field 4), and crop production in manured-fertilized and non-fertilized soil (field 3 A & B). All the cereals planted were detected within the palaeocarpological analysis of the granary soil. The main species identified, and consequently plated in the experimental fields, are: emmer wheat (*Triticum dicoccum),* einkorn wheat (*Triticum monococcum)*, spelt (*Triticum spelta)*, rye (*Secale cereale)* and barley (*Hordeum vulgare)*. In the three-field rotation system, emmer wheat, einkorn wheat and barley are combined with beans (*Vicia faba* var.

During the crop's season a set of controls are developed: the ploughing of the soil has eventually made by a traditional plough pulled by a mare. In these cases we studied how the soil was removed and how deep reaches the plough into the soil. Then the same kind of

There are two ways for planting, both of them registered in ancient agriculture. One is throwing the seed, like is shown, for example, in the Bible (Mt, 13); the other is planting the seeds in 30 cm a part furrows. This last technique is widely registered in medieval times, especially in areas and periods with difficult life conditions. Planting in furrows, even though requires a longer time for planting, requires much less expertise and allows saving a lot of seed. In l'Esquerda planting is made in this second way that allows, in addition, being more precise in the yield analysis (Ollich-Rocafiguera-Reynolds-Ocaña,

During the growing of the plants, their average measurement and eventual information

**Material paleocarpològic del contingut del graner**

1% 1% 1%

38%

*Avena sp. Hordeum vulgare Triticum dicoccum Triticum aestivum / durum Triticum monococcum Triticum sp. Secale cereale Panicum miliaceum Setaria sp. Ervum ervilia Vicia sativa Vicisa sativa var. abovata Vicia sp. Cicer arietinum Lens sp. Vitis vinifera Prunus amygdalus Altres taxons*

*major)*, together with fallow (Cubero et al., 2008; Ollich-Cubero, 1989, 1990).

ploughing has been usually reproduced by mechanic means.

about insects, weeds and meteorological events are weekly controlled.

9% 6% 3%

Fig. 5. Palaeocarpological seeds identified at the mediaeval granary

12%

Fig. 4. View and map of the AREA (Archaeological Research Experimental Area) at l'Esquerda

Fig. 4. View and map of the AREA (Archaeological Research Experimental Area) at l'Esquerda

experiment is related to the discovery, in 1986, of a mediaeval granary with a lot of evidences of the kind of seeds that were cultivated in the zone during Middle Ages. The experiment reproduces in the AREA the three-field rotation system (cereals-fallow-beans) in winter (Field 1) and spring sawn (Field 2), the two-field rotation system (cereals-fallow) (Field 4), and crop production in manured-fertilized and non-fertilized soil (field 3 A & B).

All the cereals planted were detected within the palaeocarpological analysis of the granary soil. The main species identified, and consequently plated in the experimental fields, are: emmer wheat (*Triticum dicoccum),* einkorn wheat (*Triticum monococcum)*, spelt (*Triticum spelta)*, rye (*Secale cereale)* and barley (*Hordeum vulgare)*. In the three-field rotation system, emmer wheat, einkorn wheat and barley are combined with beans (*Vicia faba* var. *major)*, together with fallow (Cubero et al., 2008; Ollich-Cubero, 1989, 1990).

During the crop's season a set of controls are developed: the ploughing of the soil has eventually made by a traditional plough pulled by a mare. In these cases we studied how the soil was removed and how deep reaches the plough into the soil. Then the same kind of ploughing has been usually reproduced by mechanic means.

There are two ways for planting, both of them registered in ancient agriculture. One is throwing the seed, like is shown, for example, in the Bible (Mt, 13); the other is planting the seeds in 30 cm a part furrows. This last technique is widely registered in medieval times, especially in areas and periods with difficult life conditions. Planting in furrows, even though requires a longer time for planting, requires much less expertise and allows saving a lot of seed. In l'Esquerda planting is made in this second way that allows, in addition, being more precise in the yield analysis (Ollich-Rocafiguera-Reynolds-Ocaña, 1998).

During the growing of the plants, their average measurement and eventual information about insects, weeds and meteorological events are weekly controlled.

Fig. 5. Palaeocarpological seeds identified at the mediaeval granary

Experimental Archaeology at L'Esquerda –

Crops, Storage, Metalcraft and Earthworks in Mediaeval and Ancient Times 213

A further set of measurements is made before the harvest. The most important one is the average stand heights of a statistical part of the plants (500 or 300 per field). These data allow comparing the annual process of growing, and contrasting this process with the meteorological data in order to obtain also information about the process of soil depletion. At the same time a survey of weeds growing into the fields and around is made in order to obtain information about variations in the weather and correlations with some weeds and good harvests or crop failures. An average extension of 5 m² is harvested separately from the rest of the field. For each squared metre of planting, all the ears are cut, counted and weighed. A sample of them will be chosen for a more fine analysis to recover the amount of

Harvest is made in a traditional way. The ears and the straw are cut together with a sickle. They are put together in sheaves that allow the grain becoming completely dry. Then, at the threshing hall they are threshed with a wooden engine named *batolles* in Catalan –similar to a flail- that permits to put apart the straw from the grain. In l'Esquerda straw has been used for building haystacks and to experiment with them, and the grain is analysed and is used

Emmer wheat in autumn sawn in a three field system is the most regular species that has a better yield (between 1:9 and 1:18); in contrast, barley in winter sawn has totally

Fig. 7. Seeding, growing and harvesting process in the fields of l'Esquerda

fruiting heads, and the net weight of the production.

for the next season planting.


Fig. 6. List of plants at the AREA of l'Esquerda

Fig. 6. List of plants at the AREA of l'Esquerda

Fig. 7. Seeding, growing and harvesting process in the fields of l'Esquerda

A further set of measurements is made before the harvest. The most important one is the average stand heights of a statistical part of the plants (500 or 300 per field). These data allow comparing the annual process of growing, and contrasting this process with the meteorological data in order to obtain also information about the process of soil depletion. At the same time a survey of weeds growing into the fields and around is made in order to obtain information about variations in the weather and correlations with some weeds and good harvests or crop failures. An average extension of 5 m² is harvested separately from the rest of the field. For each squared metre of planting, all the ears are cut, counted and weighed. A sample of them will be chosen for a more fine analysis to recover the amount of fruiting heads, and the net weight of the production.

Harvest is made in a traditional way. The ears and the straw are cut together with a sickle. They are put together in sheaves that allow the grain becoming completely dry. Then, at the threshing hall they are threshed with a wooden engine named *batolles* in Catalan –similar to a flail- that permits to put apart the straw from the grain. In l'Esquerda straw has been used for building haystacks and to experiment with them, and the grain is analysed and is used for the next season planting.

Emmer wheat in autumn sawn in a three field system is the most regular species that has a better yield (between 1:9 and 1:18); in contrast, barley in winter sawn has totally

Experimental Archaeology at L'Esquerda –

temperature were placed there (Reynolds, 1998).

December 1994, after 12 months of storage with similar results.

respectively.

microfauna attacks.

cleaned and reused.

be used again.

Crops, Storage, Metalcraft and Earthworks in Mediaeval and Ancient Times 215

order to check the evolution of the grain in a six month period and 12 month period

Silos were excavated in the soil in a depth of 90 cm and 1 meter until reaching the bed-rock. Two different layers were dig out; the first one was arable soil, and the second one contained a great deal of marl – eroded calcareous rock- fragments. They have a pear-shape, with the shore narrower than the bottom. No kind of plastering has been applied around edges. Both were filled up with grain, covered with a round-shape thin rocky cap, and they were sealed with clay and topped with soil. Some engines to measure the inside

The first silo was filled up with 275 Kg of barley. It was opened in june 1994, after 6 months of storage. The grain was in excellent conditions with a post-germinability of 90% in the central sample of the silo, and of a 87,8% in a side sample, nearer to the edge. The calculated lost index is lower than 4%. The grain is only lost when it is directly in touch with the silo edges, the soil and the cover. There were no evidences of microflora contamination, except for the interficies between the grain and the silo edge; nor were they evidence of rodents or

The second silo was filled up with 400 kg of barley and was opened and emptied in

After that, a new experiment was planned, in order to clean the silo of grain remaining in the inside wall after being emptied, and to prepare it for further uses. The aim was to burn it. During that June we were suffering a really hot summer and so was a very dangerous period for firing, so this operation was delayed until September. This experiment was planned because in the surroundings of archaeological excavated silos and inside them, a test of magnetic susceptibility suggested that these structures could have been submitted to high temperatures. Consequently we presumed that silos migt have been burned to be

The result of this burning process has been also very interesting to see how fire behaves inside a silo. The fuel was made with little bits of dry grass and small tree branches in the bottom. After some half an hour, the husks of the seeds start to carbonize, and only some

When fire stopped, all the rests of grains were completely burned, and so did the possible insects and microorganisms. In a few hours the pit could be completely cleaned, giving it a scrape around the entire wall and throwing away the ashes. And then the silo was ready to

Many other experiments have been carried in the silos after this one. They have been refilled many times, in different durations, different periods and different species. One of the silos was filled up and left *ad infinitum*; another one was emptied after 1 year and a half. This time ashes coming from the burning were put over the barley seeds together with topsoil, in a 5-6 cm layer. They also remain ash evidences in the edge of the silo. This could be the explanation of this kind of remains inside the archaeological silos, which are often

After ten years of the abandonment *ad infinitum* of the silo, in June 2004, it accidentally collapsed under a person's weight. The silo appears totally empty, with very clean edges.

quarter of an hour later fire explodes inside the silo, with some meters high blazes.

interpreted as a preparation of the silo's walls before a new storing.

disappeared. Spelt and rye used to grow properly when other crops have been fallen, and spring sawn, even though has a minor return, helps to strengthen the annual harvest when winter has been too dry or too cold for the autumn sawn crops.

Fig. 8. Growing of *Triticum dicoccum* per months

Nowadays, after 20 years of crops, we have obtaining promising results that supply some lacking information about crop yields, the process of soil depletion, and the total link between agriculture and climatology in ancient times. The most important conclusion is that there is an absolute correlation between meteorological data and production crops, especially with variation in rainfall and temperatures during a 20-years-long period; besides, depletion of the soil is not significant during the same period. The annual yields are very variable and no regular pattern has been observed. There are many crop failures, in different species; that makes totally necessary the polyculture. Some total crop failures have been obtained in 2005 and 2006, not for any particular cataclysm occurred, only due to a bad storm before harvesting.

#### **4. The building and storage experiments in silos and in a granary**

In the archaeological site of l'Esquerda two storage systems have been documented: in silos -underground pits- and in a built granary. The granary found in the site dates back to middle ages, in 12th-13th centuries AD, and the silos mostly belong to 6th-7th century AD, in Visigothic times. Some Iberian silos are also found in the far end of the meander.

In order to know better how those grain stores were built, how they were working, and how much efficiently their function was, some replica of them have been made in the Area of Experimental Archaeological Research at l'Esquerda. In 1993 two silos were excavated in the soil and the rock and they were filled with modern barley. These silos have been submitted to different tests: they were filled, emptied, cleaned, burnt, etc. In 1997 the building of a fullscale granary was started, following the hypotheses generated by archaeological data.

#### **4.1 The underground silos**

The first storage experiment in the area took place between November 1993 and December 1994. It was a storage experiment with modern barley in two silos excavated in the soil, in

disappeared. Spelt and rye used to grow properly when other crops have been fallen, and spring sawn, even though has a minor return, helps to strengthen the annual harvest when

Nowadays, after 20 years of crops, we have obtaining promising results that supply some lacking information about crop yields, the process of soil depletion, and the total link between agriculture and climatology in ancient times. The most important conclusion is that there is an absolute correlation between meteorological data and production crops, especially with variation in rainfall and temperatures during a 20-years-long period; besides, depletion of the soil is not significant during the same period. The annual yields are very variable and no regular pattern has been observed. There are many crop failures, in different species; that makes totally necessary the polyculture. Some total crop failures have been obtained in 2005 and 2006, not for any particular cataclysm occurred, only due to a bad

**weekly control**

In the archaeological site of l'Esquerda two storage systems have been documented: in silos -underground pits- and in a built granary. The granary found in the site dates back to middle ages, in 12th-13th centuries AD, and the silos mostly belong to 6th-7th century AD, in

In order to know better how those grain stores were built, how they were working, and how much efficiently their function was, some replica of them have been made in the Area of Experimental Archaeological Research at l'Esquerda. In 1993 two silos were excavated in the soil and the rock and they were filled with modern barley. These silos have been submitted to different tests: they were filled, emptied, cleaned, burnt, etc. In 1997 the building of a fullscale granary was started, following the hypotheses generated by archaeological data.

The first storage experiment in the area took place between November 1993 and December 1994. It was a storage experiment with modern barley in two silos excavated in the soil, in

**4. The building and storage experiments in silos and in a granary** 

Visigothic times. Some Iberian silos are also found in the far end of the meander.

winter has been too dry or too cold for the autumn sawn crops.

**F1- Winter sawn** *Triticum dicoccum*

Fig. 8. Growing of *Triticum dicoccum* per months

storm before harvesting.

**cm**

**4.1 The underground silos** 

order to check the evolution of the grain in a six month period and 12 month period respectively.

Silos were excavated in the soil in a depth of 90 cm and 1 meter until reaching the bed-rock. Two different layers were dig out; the first one was arable soil, and the second one contained a great deal of marl – eroded calcareous rock- fragments. They have a pear-shape, with the shore narrower than the bottom. No kind of plastering has been applied around edges. Both were filled up with grain, covered with a round-shape thin rocky cap, and they were sealed with clay and topped with soil. Some engines to measure the inside temperature were placed there (Reynolds, 1998).

The first silo was filled up with 275 Kg of barley. It was opened in june 1994, after 6 months of storage. The grain was in excellent conditions with a post-germinability of 90% in the central sample of the silo, and of a 87,8% in a side sample, nearer to the edge. The calculated lost index is lower than 4%. The grain is only lost when it is directly in touch with the silo edges, the soil and the cover. There were no evidences of microflora contamination, except for the interficies between the grain and the silo edge; nor were they evidence of rodents or microfauna attacks.

The second silo was filled up with 400 kg of barley and was opened and emptied in December 1994, after 12 months of storage with similar results.

After that, a new experiment was planned, in order to clean the silo of grain remaining in the inside wall after being emptied, and to prepare it for further uses. The aim was to burn it. During that June we were suffering a really hot summer and so was a very dangerous period for firing, so this operation was delayed until September. This experiment was planned because in the surroundings of archaeological excavated silos and inside them, a test of magnetic susceptibility suggested that these structures could have been submitted to high temperatures. Consequently we presumed that silos migt have been burned to be cleaned and reused.

The result of this burning process has been also very interesting to see how fire behaves inside a silo. The fuel was made with little bits of dry grass and small tree branches in the bottom. After some half an hour, the husks of the seeds start to carbonize, and only some quarter of an hour later fire explodes inside the silo, with some meters high blazes.

When fire stopped, all the rests of grains were completely burned, and so did the possible insects and microorganisms. In a few hours the pit could be completely cleaned, giving it a scrape around the entire wall and throwing away the ashes. And then the silo was ready to be used again.

Many other experiments have been carried in the silos after this one. They have been refilled many times, in different durations, different periods and different species. One of the silos was filled up and left *ad infinitum*; another one was emptied after 1 year and a half. This time ashes coming from the burning were put over the barley seeds together with topsoil, in a 5-6 cm layer. They also remain ash evidences in the edge of the silo. This could be the explanation of this kind of remains inside the archaeological silos, which are often interpreted as a preparation of the silo's walls before a new storing.

After ten years of the abandonment *ad infinitum* of the silo, in June 2004, it accidentally collapsed under a person's weight. The silo appears totally empty, with very clean edges.

Experimental Archaeology at L'Esquerda –

**4.2 Building and using the granary** 

the room into compartments.

Fig. 10. The granary of 13th century in process of excavation

Concerning the building framework, archaeological remains showed a structure built with stone base walls, measuring about 1 metre high and 70 cm width. As in other medieval structures, the rest of the wall would have been built with adobe wall (Cat. *Tàpia;* Fr. *pisé-deterre*), and the covering would be made by oak wooden timbers and tiles. Inside, the building presented a plastered soil and stone wall, and a set of compartments or containers

Crops, Storage, Metalcraft and Earthworks in Mediaeval and Ancient Times 217

The construction of a full scale replica of the granary is based upon the archaeological excavation, done in 1986, of a building identified as a mediaeval granary. It had an initial rectangular plant that, after a fire, had been transformed into a squared plant. The result was a 5 x 5 m building. The excavation gave light about its function, features and contents, and the stratigraphy was very clear: (1) the upper part showed the arable soil on the top; (2) under the topsoil there was a demolition layer from the walls with freestones and clay, and with remains of burned wooden timbers and tiles from the roof; (3) under this layer, a 5-10 cm thick burnt level was found, situated over the soil rock (4). There was also a very thin layer of plaster over all the inside walls, and a lack of common domestic material, like pottery or animal bones, was observed (Ollich-Cubero, 1990). All the sediment samples were kept separately by sectors to be analised, and up to 32 different plant species have been identified (Ollich-Cubero, 1992).The soil was also protected by plaster and in the doorway there was a clay mortar 5 cm thick layer. In the rock soil there were many little carved holes, put in a strict order which were limiting rectangular spaces (1 x 1,50 m approx.) to divide

Fig. 9. Silos's opening process after six months of experimental storage

The covering stones and soil had totally disappeared. Some samples of the sediment have been taken, in order to check if there are still remains of seeds. This datum is especially interesting, because Peter J. Reynolds assumes that the life of a silo can be around 10 years. Even though this assessment is not demonstrated, the author uses economical reasons to this statement (Reynolds, 1988: 111). He rather refers the deterioration that silos can experiment after continuous processes of filling and emptying, that has also been demonstrated experimentally. Silo number 2 was filled in 2005 and in 2007 in one-year storage process. Both experiments failed. Probably the silo has ended its life. It is, however, very interesting that a long-term abandoned silo and a continuously used one were lost in the same period of time.

#### **4.2 Building and using the granary**

216 Archaeology, New Approaches in Theory and Techniques

Fig. 9. Silos's opening process after six months of experimental storage

of time.

The covering stones and soil had totally disappeared. Some samples of the sediment have been taken, in order to check if there are still remains of seeds. This datum is especially interesting, because Peter J. Reynolds assumes that the life of a silo can be around 10 years. Even though this assessment is not demonstrated, the author uses economical reasons to this statement (Reynolds, 1988: 111). He rather refers the deterioration that silos can experiment after continuous processes of filling and emptying, that has also been demonstrated experimentally. Silo number 2 was filled in 2005 and in 2007 in one-year storage process. Both experiments failed. Probably the silo has ended its life. It is, however, very interesting that a long-term abandoned silo and a continuously used one were lost in the same period The construction of a full scale replica of the granary is based upon the archaeological excavation, done in 1986, of a building identified as a mediaeval granary. It had an initial rectangular plant that, after a fire, had been transformed into a squared plant. The result was a 5 x 5 m building. The excavation gave light about its function, features and contents, and the stratigraphy was very clear: (1) the upper part showed the arable soil on the top; (2) under the topsoil there was a demolition layer from the walls with freestones and clay, and with remains of burned wooden timbers and tiles from the roof; (3) under this layer, a 5-10 cm thick burnt level was found, situated over the soil rock (4). There was also a very thin layer of plaster over all the inside walls, and a lack of common domestic material, like pottery or animal bones, was observed (Ollich-Cubero, 1990). All the sediment samples were kept separately by sectors to be analised, and up to 32 different plant species have been identified (Ollich-Cubero, 1992).The soil was also protected by plaster and in the doorway there was a clay mortar 5 cm thick layer. In the rock soil there were many little carved holes, put in a strict order which were limiting rectangular spaces (1 x 1,50 m approx.) to divide the room into compartments.

Fig. 10. The granary of 13th century in process of excavation

Concerning the building framework, archaeological remains showed a structure built with stone base walls, measuring about 1 metre high and 70 cm width. As in other medieval structures, the rest of the wall would have been built with adobe wall (Cat. *Tàpia;* Fr. *pisé-deterre*), and the covering would be made by oak wooden timbers and tiles. Inside, the building presented a plastered soil and stone wall, and a set of compartments or containers

Experimental Archaeology at L'Esquerda –

near the adobe wall

Crops, Storage, Metalcraft and Earthworks in Mediaeval and Ancient Times 219

Fig. 12. Building the experimental granary at l'Esquerda in 1998, with P.J. Reynolds standing

Fig. 13. The experimental mediaeval granary and haystack real size at l'Esquerda

In 1996 a mediaeval blacksmith's was discovered in the archaeological site of l'Esquerda, which provided a lot of information about the mediaeval process of metallurgy; in the Iberian part of the site, also a blacksmith's had been found (Ollich-Rocafiguera, 2000). Moreover, the site has provided a great number of iron instruments and artifacts used in the agricultural tasks (sickles, hoes, billhooks, knives) and in agrarian construction (nails, bolts,

**5. Metallurgy and production of agricultural tools** 

separated each other by a vegetal fence sustained by posts and post-holes carved in the rock. These containers were covered with chalk to protect and isolate them. This kind of fence has been deduced from post-holes, little burnt branches, and also from the wooden prints left in the burnt clay, that have been conserved inside the granary. The door opened to the south and it was protected by a clay step of 30 cm width and 5 cm high. This step had 3 little squared holes that seemed to correspond to a closing-system for the door. No wooden remains have been found into them.

Fig. 11. Hypothetical restitution of the mediaeval granary (drawing: F. Riart)

In 1997 the full-scale replica of the granary was started. The full process ended in 2000. Ten years later, in 2010, different reparations have been needed. During the experiment, the amounts of stone used and the chalk and sand needed for mortar could be evaluated. Wooden formworks, in Catalan called *tapieres*, were made in order to build the *tàpia* or adobe walls, using local clay soil, after a deep research in traditional architecture. The appropriate kind of roof needed also to be discussed, because, apart from materials that appeared in archaeological levels, the final shape of the roof is based in hypotheses.

Once the granary was finished, one of the containers was filled up with modern barley in order to start the experiments of storage in an aerial structure. The first container was emptied in 2003, and the loss and conservation of seed were analysed. The data obtained could be compared with the storage's experiments in underground silos.

separated each other by a vegetal fence sustained by posts and post-holes carved in the rock. These containers were covered with chalk to protect and isolate them. This kind of fence has been deduced from post-holes, little burnt branches, and also from the wooden prints left in the burnt clay, that have been conserved inside the granary. The door opened to the south and it was protected by a clay step of 30 cm width and 5 cm high. This step had 3 little squared holes that seemed to correspond to a closing-system for the door. No wooden

Fig. 11. Hypothetical restitution of the mediaeval granary (drawing: F. Riart)

appeared in archaeological levels, the final shape of the roof is based in hypotheses.

could be compared with the storage's experiments in underground silos.

In 1997 the full-scale replica of the granary was started. The full process ended in 2000. Ten years later, in 2010, different reparations have been needed. During the experiment, the amounts of stone used and the chalk and sand needed for mortar could be evaluated. Wooden formworks, in Catalan called *tapieres*, were made in order to build the *tàpia* or adobe walls, using local clay soil, after a deep research in traditional architecture. The appropriate kind of roof needed also to be discussed, because, apart from materials that

Once the granary was finished, one of the containers was filled up with modern barley in order to start the experiments of storage in an aerial structure. The first container was emptied in 2003, and the loss and conservation of seed were analysed. The data obtained

remains have been found into them.

Fig. 12. Building the experimental granary at l'Esquerda in 1998, with P.J. Reynolds standing near the adobe wall

Fig. 13. The experimental mediaeval granary and haystack real size at l'Esquerda

#### **5. Metallurgy and production of agricultural tools**

In 1996 a mediaeval blacksmith's was discovered in the archaeological site of l'Esquerda, which provided a lot of information about the mediaeval process of metallurgy; in the Iberian part of the site, also a blacksmith's had been found (Ollich-Rocafiguera, 2000). Moreover, the site has provided a great number of iron instruments and artifacts used in the agricultural tasks (sickles, hoes, billhooks, knives) and in agrarian construction (nails, bolts,

Experimental Archaeology at L'Esquerda –

Crops, Storage, Metalcraft and Earthworks in Mediaeval and Ancient Times 221

Fig. 15. Iron sickle found at the mediaeval site of l'Esquerda and its metallographic analysis

Fig. 16. Experimental process of an iron sickle forging and production

0 4 cm

etc.). All of these findings present a very interesting research line in experimental archaeology in order to know the infrastructure, the workshop, the materials and techniques to made metallic implements.

Archaeometallurgical study of agricultural tools found in the site has allowed knowing the composition or the techniques of working with metals, by means of metallographical analysis. For instance, the metallographical observation of a small sickle found in the blacksmith's confirms that it was in transformation process (Amblàs-Molera-Ollich, 2008).

In the experimental Area of l'Esquerda, the inner structures of the 13th century mediaeval blacksmith's have been reproduced: a smith furnace for forging iron and a bucket furnace for smelting bronze and other metals.

The smith's furnace is very simple: it is made by a small depression surrounded by coarse stones, where charcoal is placed. In one edge there is place for a bellows that will allow reach the right temperature for heating iron to be worked (800-1000ºC). An anvil to hammer the hot iron and a water tank for tempering the iron, are all infrastructure that is needed for making iron tools.

The bucket furnace is made of clay mixed up with grog (Fr. *chamotte)*, in order to reach high temperatures without cracking. It has a tubular shape, with a small entrance on the low front part and a hole in the top for the smoke. Its fuel is also vegetal charcoal. Bronze, copper or lead are shattered in small bits and put in a stone crucible. Furnace reaches the 1000-1100ºC necessary for smelting the metals. The liquid metal is poured into a mold, and polished after cooling.

Fig. 14. Experimental smith's furnace and bucket furnace at l'Esquerda

All these experiments on ancient metallurgy, largely reproduced, have allowed us verifying archaeological hypotheses about production process of metallic instruments, and they have evidenced the little infrastructure that is needed for the forge of agricultural tools and for the production of smelt copper alloy objects. Data supplied from experimental archaeology and archaeometallurgy must be completed with an ethnoarchaeological study, paying special attention in the use of the tools: the moves, the techniques and the work organization. All this information can be compared with archaeological remains.

etc.). All of these findings present a very interesting research line in experimental archaeology in order to know the infrastructure, the workshop, the materials and techniques

Archaeometallurgical study of agricultural tools found in the site has allowed knowing the composition or the techniques of working with metals, by means of metallographical analysis. For instance, the metallographical observation of a small sickle found in the blacksmith's confirms that it was in transformation process (Amblàs-Molera-Ollich, 2008). In the experimental Area of l'Esquerda, the inner structures of the 13th century mediaeval blacksmith's have been reproduced: a smith furnace for forging iron and a bucket furnace

The smith's furnace is very simple: it is made by a small depression surrounded by coarse stones, where charcoal is placed. In one edge there is place for a bellows that will allow reach the right temperature for heating iron to be worked (800-1000ºC). An anvil to hammer the hot iron and a water tank for tempering the iron, are all infrastructure that is needed for

The bucket furnace is made of clay mixed up with grog (Fr. *chamotte)*, in order to reach high temperatures without cracking. It has a tubular shape, with a small entrance on the low front part and a hole in the top for the smoke. Its fuel is also vegetal charcoal. Bronze, copper or lead are shattered in small bits and put in a stone crucible. Furnace reaches the 1000-1100ºC necessary for smelting the metals. The liquid metal is poured into a mold, and

All these experiments on ancient metallurgy, largely reproduced, have allowed us verifying archaeological hypotheses about production process of metallic instruments, and they have evidenced the little infrastructure that is needed for the forge of agricultural tools and for the production of smelt copper alloy objects. Data supplied from experimental archaeology and archaeometallurgy must be completed with an ethnoarchaeological study, paying special attention in the use of the tools: the moves, the techniques and the work organization. All this information can be compared with

Fig. 14. Experimental smith's furnace and bucket furnace at l'Esquerda

to made metallic implements.

for smelting bronze and other metals.

making iron tools.

polished after cooling.

archaeological remains.

Fig. 15. Iron sickle found at the mediaeval site of l'Esquerda and its metallographic analysis

Fig. 16. Experimental process of an iron sickle forging and production

Experimental Archaeology at L'Esquerda –

(Reynolds, 1998: 154).

stratigraphy has been formed.

site at the river (Reynolds, 1998c).

**6.2 The wooden fence** 

Crops, Storage, Metalcraft and Earthworks in Mediaeval and Ancient Times 223

Fig. 18. Experimental earthwork at l'Esquerda, with the ditch-and-bank (Reynolds 1998)

The aim of this experiment is to check if this kind of defensive structures, which are very common in northern Europe, could also work in the Mediterranean areas. The *a priori* thought was that, because of the Mediterranean variable climate and the stronger rainstorms, ditches would be quickly filled up in a little time, so the structure would be unusable. The experiment was designed in order to be compared with the ditch-and-bank structures built by Dr. Reynolds in England: one in the grounds of the National Science Museum Reserve Collection at Wroughton, near Swindon in 1985; a second one in the grounds of Fishbourne Roman Palace, Chichester, Sussex in the same year; and a third one was built at Butser Ancient Farm at Bascomb Down (Charlton, Hampshire) in 1992

Since 1994 a study of plant colonization is carried every year in spring, and a profile of the erosion of the ditch into the bank is outlined. The fact is that even though the weather is less stable in Catalonia than in England, plant colonization is much faster, so plants are ready to contain the soil erosion much earlier. Fourteenth years later earthworks were totally stable and fully colonized by plants. The last part of experiment is still to be done. In the near future, the two ditches will be surveyed and fully excavated in order to recognize how their

In 1995 a wooden fence of 6,60 m long and 1,20 m high has been built in the experimental area of l'Esquerda, as a long-term experiment. Twelve post-holes of 10 cm depth have been carved in the rock,following a serial of post/holes found near the castle of Savassona, a site near l-Esquerda. New experimental posts were made of oak (*Quercus pubescens)* timber, and the fence with hazelnut (*Corylus avellana)* outbreaks cut in early spring in a place near the

Since its building, the fence has been under control, in order to study its degradation process. No reparations and no maintaining works have been done. After three years of

#### **6. Other experiments about erosion, sedimentation and burning**

Many other experiments are carried in the Area of l'Esquerda. Since 1991 a set of experiments about erosion, sedimentation and destruction of structures are in process.

#### **6.1 The earthworks**

The earthworks at l'Esquerda are two ditch-and-bank structures built between 1993 and 1994, one in North-South direction and the other one in East-West, that have been built to control their own process of erosion and sedimentation. Both of them are divided in four parts, in order to control the erosion under all conditions. The East-West ditch measures 16 m long per 1,50 m wide per 1,50 m deep (Ollich-Reynolds-Rocafiguera, 1993), and was carved into the rock, so its soil level was the bedrock itself. The eastern part has the bank in the south, made of soil and the broken rocks obtained from the ditch. A half of its part has a berm, and in the other one the bank lies directly in the edge of the ditch. The western part has the bank in the north and it is also divided in two parts, one with a berm and other without it. The North-South ditch was carved into the soil and has the same structure and the same measures of East-West one. The bank in the northern part is in the East and it is also divided in two, and the southern part has the bank in the West.

Fig. 17. Ditch-and-bank East-West

Many other experiments are carried in the Area of l'Esquerda. Since 1991 a set of experiments about erosion, sedimentation and destruction of structures are in process.

The earthworks at l'Esquerda are two ditch-and-bank structures built between 1993 and 1994, one in North-South direction and the other one in East-West, that have been built to control their own process of erosion and sedimentation. Both of them are divided in four parts, in order to control the erosion under all conditions. The East-West ditch measures 16 m long per 1,50 m wide per 1,50 m deep (Ollich-Reynolds-Rocafiguera, 1993), and was carved into the rock, so its soil level was the bedrock itself. The eastern part has the bank in the south, made of soil and the broken rocks obtained from the ditch. A half of its part has a berm, and in the other one the bank lies directly in the edge of the ditch. The western part has the bank in the north and it is also divided in two parts, one with a berm and other without it. The North-South ditch was carved into the soil and has the same structure and the same measures of East-West one. The bank in the northern part is in the East and it is

**6. Other experiments about erosion, sedimentation and burning** 

also divided in two, and the southern part has the bank in the West.

**6.1 The earthworks** 

Fig. 17. Ditch-and-bank East-West

Fig. 18. Experimental earthwork at l'Esquerda, with the ditch-and-bank (Reynolds 1998)

The aim of this experiment is to check if this kind of defensive structures, which are very common in northern Europe, could also work in the Mediterranean areas. The *a priori* thought was that, because of the Mediterranean variable climate and the stronger rainstorms, ditches would be quickly filled up in a little time, so the structure would be unusable. The experiment was designed in order to be compared with the ditch-and-bank structures built by Dr. Reynolds in England: one in the grounds of the National Science Museum Reserve Collection at Wroughton, near Swindon in 1985; a second one in the grounds of Fishbourne Roman Palace, Chichester, Sussex in the same year; and a third one was built at Butser Ancient Farm at Bascomb Down (Charlton, Hampshire) in 1992 (Reynolds, 1998: 154).

Since 1994 a study of plant colonization is carried every year in spring, and a profile of the erosion of the ditch into the bank is outlined. The fact is that even though the weather is less stable in Catalonia than in England, plant colonization is much faster, so plants are ready to contain the soil erosion much earlier. Fourteenth years later earthworks were totally stable and fully colonized by plants. The last part of experiment is still to be done. In the near future, the two ditches will be surveyed and fully excavated in order to recognize how their stratigraphy has been formed.

#### **6.2 The wooden fence**

In 1995 a wooden fence of 6,60 m long and 1,20 m high has been built in the experimental area of l'Esquerda, as a long-term experiment. Twelve post-holes of 10 cm depth have been carved in the rock,following a serial of post/holes found near the castle of Savassona, a site near l-Esquerda. New experimental posts were made of oak (*Quercus pubescens)* timber, and the fence with hazelnut (*Corylus avellana)* outbreaks cut in early spring in a place near the site at the river (Reynolds, 1998c).

Since its building, the fence has been under control, in order to study its degradation process. No reparations and no maintaining works have been done. After three years of

Experimental Archaeology at L'Esquerda –

structures like haystacks.

Crops, Storage, Metalcraft and Earthworks in Mediaeval and Ancient Times 225

In July 2010 a third haystack was built with straw. It measured 2,50 m high per 3m diameter, and 600 kg straw was used to build it. Seven months after its building, in February 2011, this haystack was burnt in order to study the complete combustion process and the archaeological evidences remaining in the soil. All of the registers about the process have been taken. In November 2011, burnt soil has been surveyed by geo-radar. Then the half south part of the haystack surface has been excavated. The other half part will be excavated in the future, when it would be more degradated (Ollich/Rocafiguera/Ocana 2011& 2012). The study and comparison of all these data will allow us to recognize some little archaeological burned evidences or some post-holes in relationship with perishable

Fig. 20. The haystak n.3 in process of building and burning

stability, the degradation process has started by plant colonization, mostly by blackberry plants. Now most of the long hazelnut timbers have disappeared, and also have done some oak posts. In a few years, when the process of destruction will be completed, this area will be surveyed and excavated. All the data obtained will be useful to research perishable structures in archaeological sites.

Fig. 19. The wooden fence at l'Esquerda in process of erosion

#### **6.3 The haystacks**

Haystacks are organic and perishable structures which take part of any cereal agrarian landscape, even though mechanization has made them disappear from modern fields. Inside the experimental archaeology project developed in the AREA of l'Esquerda, some of these structures have been built with a double purpose: first, as a necessary part of the agrarian storage project, second, to recognize the evidences of these structures in the archaeological soil.

An experiment about destruction is been carried with haystacks. Two of them have been built in 1992 and 2000, the first one made with hay and the second one with straw. After building, they have been abandoned and the degradation process has been under control (Ollich, 1998). Nowadays, the first one is almost disappeared, due to organic decomposition. The other one is still in putrefaction process.

stability, the degradation process has started by plant colonization, mostly by blackberry plants. Now most of the long hazelnut timbers have disappeared, and also have done some oak posts. In a few years, when the process of destruction will be completed, this area will be surveyed and excavated. All the data obtained will be useful to research perishable

structures in archaeological sites.

Fig. 19. The wooden fence at l'Esquerda in process of erosion

The other one is still in putrefaction process.

Haystacks are organic and perishable structures which take part of any cereal agrarian landscape, even though mechanization has made them disappear from modern fields. Inside the experimental archaeology project developed in the AREA of l'Esquerda, some of these structures have been built with a double purpose: first, as a necessary part of the agrarian storage project, second, to recognize the evidences of these structures in the archaeological

An experiment about destruction is been carried with haystacks. Two of them have been built in 1992 and 2000, the first one made with hay and the second one with straw. After building, they have been abandoned and the degradation process has been under control (Ollich, 1998). Nowadays, the first one is almost disappeared, due to organic decomposition.

**6.3 The haystacks** 

soil.

In July 2010 a third haystack was built with straw. It measured 2,50 m high per 3m diameter, and 600 kg straw was used to build it. Seven months after its building, in February 2011, this haystack was burnt in order to study the complete combustion process and the archaeological evidences remaining in the soil. All of the registers about the process have been taken. In November 2011, burnt soil has been surveyed by geo-radar. Then the half south part of the haystack surface has been excavated. The other half part will be excavated in the future, when it would be more degradated (Ollich/Rocafiguera/Ocana 2011& 2012). The study and comparison of all these data will allow us to recognize some little archaeological burned evidences or some post-holes in relationship with perishable structures like haystacks.

Fig. 20. The haystak n.3 in process of building and burning

Experimental Archaeology at L'Esquerda –

l'Esquerda. Roda de Ter 2006, 191 p.

*Española.* Oviedo. p 73-85.

*d'arqueologia d'Andorra),* Andorra, 1990, p. 33-47.

*later Archaeology (Basel 2002)*. (pre-printed papers)

*of Medieval Archaeology* 8 , York, p. 131-138.

*Banyoles- Girona, 17-19 octubre 2011* [in press]

*Middle Ages (VIth.- XVIth. Century).* 

(+ PÒSTER).

Crops, Storage, Metalcraft and Earthworks in Mediaeval and Ancient Times 227

Ollich, I.; Amblàs O.; Ocaña. M.; Rocafiguera, M.; Goula, C. (2006): *Desperta ferro! Vida* 

Ollich, I.; Cubero, C. (1990 ): El graner de l'Esquerda: un conjunt tecnològic agrari a la

Ollich, I.; Cubero, C. (1992): Paleocarpologia i agricultura a l'Edat Mitjana: l'excavació i

Ollich, I.; Ocaña, M.; Ramisa, M.; Rocafiguera, M.(1995): *A banda i banda del Ter, Història de Roda.* Ajuntament de Roda de Ter / Eumo Editorial (L'Entorn, 30), Vic 1995, 271 p. Ollich, I.; Reynolds, P.J.; Rocafiguera, M. (1993): L' Earthwork de l'Esquerda. Un experiment

*Postdeposicionales,* Teruel, Colegio Universitario de Teruel, pàg. 341-352. Ollich, I.; Rocafiguera, M. (2002 a): El treball del ferro al jaciment de l'Esquerda, des de

Universitat de Vic- Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya. Vic, octubre 2002. Ollich, I.; Rocafiguera, M. (2002b): Ironworking in the mediaeval site of L'Esquerda.

Ollich, I.; Rocafiguera, M. (2002c): Ancient Patterns in Settlement and Urbanism. The

Ollich, I.; Rocafiguera, M.; Amblàs, O. (2004): Metalcraftwork in the rural settlement of

Ollich, I.; Rocafiguera, M.; Ocaña, M. (2012): Experimentation about building and burning a

*Experimental Archaeology Conference (York, 6th to 7th January 2012)* [in press] Ollich, I.; Rocafiguera, M.; Ocaña,M. (2011): El paller experimental de l'Esquerda,

Ollich, I.; Rocafiguera, M.; Ocaña,M.; Cubero, C. (2011): L'àrea de recerca experimental

Ollich, I.; Rocafiguera,M.; Reynolds, P.J.; Ocaña, M. (1998): *Experimentació arqueològica sobre* 

Ollich, I; Rocafiguera, M. (2000): L'Esquerda: de la sembra a l'emmagatzematge:

d'arqueologia medieval i post-medieval, 3. Barcelona, 1998, 234 p.

*quotidiana, treball, comerç i guerra a l'Esquerda. Catàleg dels metalls del Museu Arqueològic de l'Esquerda,* Berikars 1. Publicacions del Museu Arqueològic de

Catalunya Medieval, in: *La Vida Medieval a les dues vessants del Pirineu* (*1r i 2n curs* 

estudi d'un graner medieval a Catalunya, in: *III Congreso de Arqueología Medieval* 

en processos de formació, in*: IV Congreso de Arqueología Espacial (Procesos* 

l'època ibèrica a la medieval, in: *JORNADES DE LA FARGA CATALANA*.

Technology for an agrarian economy, in: *3rd. International Conference of Medieval and* 

Medieval site of L'Esquerda, Catalonia, in: *Medieval Europe. International Conference* 

l'Esquerda, Catalonia (11th-13th. centuries). An experiment on mediaeval metallurgy, in: *Xth. CONGRES OF THE EUROPEAN ASSOCIATION OF ARCHAEOLOGISTS,* Lyon, 8-12 sept. 2004: *Craftwork in the rural settlements in* 

haystack at the AREA of l'Esquerda (Roda de Ter, Catalonia), poster in: *The 6th* 

construcció i crema, (poster) in: *III Congrés Internacional d'Arqueologia Experimental,* 

arqueològica de l'Esquerda–AREA. 20 anys de conreu experimental, in: *III Congrés Internacional d'Arqueologia Experimental, Banyoles-Girona, 17-19 octubre 2011* [in press]

*conreus medievals a l'Esquerda. 1991-1994*. Universitat de Barcelona. Monografies

Experimentació arqueològica sobre tècniques agrícoles medievals, in: *IV JORNADES D'HISTÒRIA DE LA CIÈNCIA I DE LA TÈCNICA*.- Vic, Octubre 2000.

#### **7. A perspective of future**

The LEAF project about Experimental Archaeology carried out at l'Esquerda since 1991 until nowadays allowed us to obtain a lot of data that can be compared with archaeological remains. So in the next future, we will carry on with new experiments.

The results of the experiments about ancient crops, storage and earthworks are very useful to understand how and what did ancient people for building, planting and storing. After twenty years of experimental research, we know a little bit more about the field production and its relationship with meteorological conditions, the people's diet, their techniques to work wood, stone and metal, and the framework and organisation of their living. It is critical for the research to understand that Experimental Archaeology allows us a good empirical tool to verify archaeological hypothesis and, at last, to understand History better. As Dr. Reynolds wrote some years ago in his book, experimental archaeology is a perspective of future.

#### **8. References**


The LEAF project about Experimental Archaeology carried out at l'Esquerda since 1991 until nowadays allowed us to obtain a lot of data that can be compared with archaeological

The results of the experiments about ancient crops, storage and earthworks are very useful to understand how and what did ancient people for building, planting and storing. After twenty years of experimental research, we know a little bit more about the field production and its relationship with meteorological conditions, the people's diet, their techniques to work wood, stone and metal, and the framework and organisation of their living. It is critical for the research to understand that Experimental Archaeology allows us a good empirical tool to verify archaeological hypothesis and, at last, to understand History better. As Dr. Reynolds wrote some years ago in his book, experimental archaeology is a

Amblàs, O.- Molera, J.- Ollich, I. (2008): Estudio arqueometalúrgico: la herrería medieval de

Cubero, C.; Ollich, I.; Rocafiguera, M.; Ocaña, M. (2008): From the granary to the field.

Mestres, J.S. (2004): Datació per Radiocarboni de material osteològic i carbonós procedent de

Ocaña, M.; Ollich, I.; Rocafiguera M. (2011), L'església de Roda ciutat (segle V al X) al

Ollich, I. (2000): Roda: l'Esquerda. La ciutat carolíngia, in: *Art i cultura als segles IX-X, catàleg* 

Ollich, I. (2003): Roda Ciutat (l'Esquerda) i la defensa de la línea del Ter al comtat d'Osona

Ollich, I. (2010): Arqueologia de la Catalunya feudal i prefeudal: poblament i territori. El

Ollich, I.- Rocafiguera, M. (2001): *L'Esquerda: 2500 anys d'història, 25 anys de recerca. Roda de* 

medieval i post-medieval, 3), Barcelona, 1998, p. 140-141.

*Ter.* Fundació Privada l'Esquerda- Eumo Ed., Vic 2001, 54 p.

l'Esquerda, siglos XII-XIII (Roda de Ter, Catalunya), in: *VII CONGRESO IBÉRICO DE ARQUEOMETRÍA* (Madrid, Museo Arqueológico Nacional, 8-10 octubre 2007),

Palaeobotany and experimental archaeology at l'Esquerda (Catalonia, Spain), in: *Vegetation History and Archaeobotay*. *Hommage to Dr. C. Bakels*. Ed. Springer, Berlin

l'Esquerda (Les Masies de Roda de Ter, Osona).- Universitat de Barcelona 2004, in: *ROCAFIGUERA et al. (2004): L'Esquerda, àrea ibérica. Memòria de les excavacions* 

jaciment arqueològic de l'Esquerda (Masies de Roda- Roda de Ter, Osona), in: *Taula rodona: Esglésies rurals a Catalunya entre l'Antiguitat i l'Edat Mitjana 30(segles V- X).* Esparreguera-Montserrat, octubre 2007. Bradypus s.a., Bologna (IT), p. 243-252. Ollich, I. (1998): El paller de l'Esquerda, in: *Experimentació arqueològica sobre conreus medievals* 

*a l'Esquerda. 1991-1994,* Universitat de Barcelona (Monografies d'arqueologia

(s. VIII-X), in: *Actes del Congrés Els Castells Medievals a la Mediterrània Nord-*

model teòric de la comarca d'Osona, in: *Territori i societat: el paisatge històric, V*,

remains. So in the next future, we will carry on with new experiments.

**7. A perspective of future** 

perspective of future.

p. 500-508.

*arqueològiques 2000-2001 (unpublished).*

*de l'exposició al MNAC,* Barcelona, p. 84-88.

Universitat de Lleida, p. 299-346.

*Occidental, Arbúcies 5-6-7 març 2003*, p. 179-194.

2007.

**8. References** 


**9** 

*Mexico* 

Adrián Velázquez-Castro

**The Study of Shell Object Manufacturing** 

**Experimental Archaeology and Work Traces** 

The techniques employed to manufacture mollusk shell objects in pre-Hispanic Mexico have been little studied to date. This may in part to be attributed to the fact that, as in the case of the majority of precious materials, these pieces are found as already finished pieces in funerary or votive offerings in construction; the discovery of evidence of their production—such as rejected pieces, workshop waste, or discarded tools—is rare; only occasionally is such material found in trash deposits, construction fill, or sometimes where the shell objects were actually produced. Given this general scarcity of information, two research projects devoted to shell object manufacturing techniques have been conducted at the Templo Mayor Museum in Mexico City. To overcome the lack of information stemming from the paucity of direct indicators of production, researchers have turned to experimental archaeology and the characterization and comparison of manufacturing traces. The present article describes the theoreticalmethodological foundations of these projects and presents the principal results obtained to date

A review of research on shell object production techniques for societies that did not use metal tools in different parts of the world (Oceania, Asia, Europe, South America, the Caribbean, North America, and more specifically Northern Mexico and Mesoamerica)1 has made it clear that the identification of instruments utilized in making shell objects has been based on their association with production evidence in the archaeological contexts of the respective discoveries. The result of this method has been the reconstruction of different steps in the production sequence, which are occasionally based on historical or ethnographic information. Rarely is any attempt made to corroborate the inferences arising from contextual relationships, which is a problematical approach because often the deposits where the objects were found were not production zones, but rather trash heaps that might

1 See Allen et al., 1997; Dacal, 1978; Dales & Kenoyer, 1977; Di Peso, 1974; Fash, 1991; Feinman, 1999; Feinman & Nicholas, 1995; Flannery & Winter, 1976; Gómez, 2000; Hartzell, 1991; Haury, 1976; Hocquenghem & Peña, 1994; Hohmann, 2002; Kenoyer, 1989; Mayer, 1997; Miller, 1996; Suárez, 1977;

Turner, 1987; Vargas et al., 1993; Villalpando & Pastrana, 2003; Woodford, 1908; Yerkes, 1983.

concerning shell pieces found in offerings in the sacred precinct of Tenochtitlan.

**1. Introduction** 

**2. Background** 

**Techniques from the Perspective of** 

*Museo del Templo Mayor-Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia* 


### **The Study of Shell Object Manufacturing Techniques from the Perspective of Experimental Archaeology and Work Traces**

Adrián Velázquez-Castro *Museo del Templo Mayor-Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia Mexico* 

#### **1. Introduction**

228 Archaeology, New Approaches in Theory and Techniques

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Reynolds, P.J. (1997): Mediaeval Cereal yields in Catalonia & England: an empirical

Reynolds, P.J. (1998a): The experimental storage of grain in simulated mediaeval

Reynolds, P.J. (1998b): The Experimental Earthwork at l'Esquerda, in: *Experimentació* 

Reynolds, P.J. (1998c): The mediaeval fence, in: *Experimentació arqueològica sobre conreus* 

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d'arqueologia medieval i post-medieval, 3), Barcelona, 1998, p. 174-179. Reynolds, P.J.; Shaw, Ch.E. (1999b): The third Harvest of the First Millenium in the Plana de

medieval i post-medieval,3), Barcelona, 1998, p. 131-139.

*Oriental (Puigcerdà 17-19 novembre* 2011) [in press].

2001.

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challenge, in: *Acta Historica et Archaeologica Mediaevalia*, 18, Universitat de

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*arqueològica sobre conreus medievals a l'Esquerda. 1991-1994,* Universitat de Barcelona (Monografies d'arqueologia medieval i post-medieval, 3). Barcelona, 1998, p. 152-

*medievals a l'Esquerda. 1991-1994*, Universitat de Barcelona (Monografies

Vic, in: *Congrés Internacional Gerbert d'Orlhac i el seu temps: Catalunya i Europa a la fi del 1r. mil·lenni (Vic-Ripoll 10-13 nov. 1999)*, Universitat de Vic (Documents, 31), p.

*Archaeological studies in honour of John Coles,* AF.Harding, Oxford&Oakville, Oxbow

bronze final a l'ibèric antic. Primeres hipòtesis, in: *XV Col·loqui Internacional d'Arqueologia de Puigcerdà. La transició del Bronze Final a la 1a. Edat del Ferro al Pirineu*  The techniques employed to manufacture mollusk shell objects in pre-Hispanic Mexico have been little studied to date. This may in part to be attributed to the fact that, as in the case of the majority of precious materials, these pieces are found as already finished pieces in funerary or votive offerings in construction; the discovery of evidence of their production—such as rejected pieces, workshop waste, or discarded tools—is rare; only occasionally is such material found in trash deposits, construction fill, or sometimes where the shell objects were actually produced. Given this general scarcity of information, two research projects devoted to shell object manufacturing techniques have been conducted at the Templo Mayor Museum in Mexico City. To overcome the lack of information stemming from the paucity of direct indicators of production, researchers have turned to experimental archaeology and the characterization and comparison of manufacturing traces. The present article describes the theoreticalmethodological foundations of these projects and presents the principal results obtained to date concerning shell pieces found in offerings in the sacred precinct of Tenochtitlan.

#### **2. Background**

A review of research on shell object production techniques for societies that did not use metal tools in different parts of the world (Oceania, Asia, Europe, South America, the Caribbean, North America, and more specifically Northern Mexico and Mesoamerica)1 has made it clear that the identification of instruments utilized in making shell objects has been based on their association with production evidence in the archaeological contexts of the respective discoveries. The result of this method has been the reconstruction of different steps in the production sequence, which are occasionally based on historical or ethnographic information. Rarely is any attempt made to corroborate the inferences arising from contextual relationships, which is a problematical approach because often the deposits where the objects were found were not production zones, but rather trash heaps that might

<sup>1</sup> See Allen et al., 1997; Dacal, 1978; Dales & Kenoyer, 1977; Di Peso, 1974; Fash, 1991; Feinman, 1999; Feinman & Nicholas, 1995; Flannery & Winter, 1976; Gómez, 2000; Hartzell, 1991; Haury, 1976; Hocquenghem & Peña, 1994; Hohmann, 2002; Kenoyer, 1989; Mayer, 1997; Miller, 1996; Suárez, 1977; Turner, 1987; Vargas et al., 1993; Villalpando & Pastrana, 2003; Woodford, 1908; Yerkes, 1983.

The Study of Shell Object Manufacturing Techniques

from the Perspective of Experimental Archaeology and Work Traces 231

Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire, and its nearby structures. The basic assumption was that the use of a specific tool, made from the same material as used in ancient times, employed in a specific way should project characteristic and differentiable features (Ascher, 1961). In this way, determining the traces produced by the different techniques and implements tested could be identified in archaeological materials. Therefore, the analysis and comparison of manufacturing traces was defined as the principal uniformitarian criterion.

The materials for experimentation were the same shell species that were used to make the objects from the Aztec offerings. The tools used were those that were typical in the Basin of Mexico at the time of the Mexicas (i.e., Aztecs), based on archaeological finds and information from documentary sources. The entire range of modifications (abrasion, cutting, perforation, incision, and openwork) based on typological analysis and known to have been

The project began with a phase of exploratory experimentation (Gibaja Bao, 1993:12), which permitted determining the diverse factors that had to be systematically taken into account in all of the experiments, which resulted in the creation of a format. It consisted of a progressive number for each experiment, its name, its objective, the materials utilized, their initial and final measurements, the time it took and the processes carried out, in addition to observations. Furthermore, photos were taken of the materials prior to the start of the

used to transform the raw material into the objects studied were performed.

Fig. 1. Work process of abrasion of outer and middle layers of *Pinctada mazatlanica*: unmodified material (a), abrasion process (b & c), final result (d). Photos: SOMTPM.

experiments, the work phase(s), and the final result (figure 1).

contain waste material from many different types of activities. In exceptional cases, experiments have been conducted to test hypotheses concerning production processes, which although they might increase the probability that these were indeed carried out, they in no way conclusively confirm these processes. Seldom are work traces present on the pieces examined, even though they might in fact constitute the best evidence to propose or reject the use of specific manufacturing techniques.

Given these reservations, several general conclusions can be reached concerning the processes and tools reported for working shell in societies based on a lithic technology. In many of the cases reviewed, reference is made to percussion—understood as the action of striking one material with another, generally of greater hardness—as the first step in the manufacturing process, which, according to different authors was carried out with hammers and stone anvils. This same technique was sometimes employed to produce preforms. Different forms of abrasion were then used to shape irregular pieces of shell, to correct irregular edges, to smooth and polish surfaces, to cut, perforate, and even work decorations. The tools used for these purposes were passive surfaces for abrasion (stone slabs, rounded rocks, grinding stones) and active stone instruments; and lithic implements made of flint, obsidian, or slate, such as flakes, blades, knives, and points. Occasionally the use of sand as an abrasive and water is mentioned, together with the above-mentioned utensils, as well as cords for cutting and incising, reed perforators, and cactus spines. Noteworthy is the research conducted at the Inca site of Tumbes, Peru, where evidence suggests that surface abrasion of the valves was the first step in the manufacturing process and apparently no type of percussion was used to produce the objects (Hocquenghem & Peña, 1994). Information on other specific techniques includes heating shells of the *Olivella* genus in Davies, California, a treatment used to turn them uniformly white and to facilitate cutting, abrasion, and perforation in bead production (Hartzell, 1991); and decoration engraved with acid that was practiced in Snake Town, Arizona (Haury, 1976).

#### **3. Experimental archaeology projects**

Experimental archaeology, together with ethno-archaeology, form part of so-called middle range theories, which make it possible to infer the social dynamics of the past from archaeological contexts, which are static moments of the present and that have undergone changes resulting from diverse factors, from their formation to the moment of their excavation (Binford, 1977:6; Gándara, 1990:74). Experimental archaeology is based on replicating past events, which can range from producing a tool to the simulation of a way of life, under controlled conditions (Callender, 1976:174). To design experiments, numerous factors should be considered, such as the utilization of the materials and tools characteristic of the society and the historical moment that is being studied. Particular importance should be given to "uniformitarian suppositions", which makes it possible to infer that what is happening in the present was what occurred in the past (Binford, 1991:22).

#### **3.1 The conchological material experimental archaeology project**

In 1997 the first experimental archaeology project on shell materials was begun at the Templo Mayor Museum; its principal objective was to augment knowledge of the manufacturing techniques employed in the production of almost 2,300 conchological objects found in the offerings excavated by the Templo Mayor Project in the central religious building in

contain waste material from many different types of activities. In exceptional cases, experiments have been conducted to test hypotheses concerning production processes, which although they might increase the probability that these were indeed carried out, they in no way conclusively confirm these processes. Seldom are work traces present on the pieces examined, even though they might in fact constitute the best evidence to propose or

Given these reservations, several general conclusions can be reached concerning the processes and tools reported for working shell in societies based on a lithic technology. In many of the cases reviewed, reference is made to percussion—understood as the action of striking one material with another, generally of greater hardness—as the first step in the manufacturing process, which, according to different authors was carried out with hammers and stone anvils. This same technique was sometimes employed to produce preforms. Different forms of abrasion were then used to shape irregular pieces of shell, to correct irregular edges, to smooth and polish surfaces, to cut, perforate, and even work decorations. The tools used for these purposes were passive surfaces for abrasion (stone slabs, rounded rocks, grinding stones) and active stone instruments; and lithic implements made of flint, obsidian, or slate, such as flakes, blades, knives, and points. Occasionally the use of sand as an abrasive and water is mentioned, together with the above-mentioned utensils, as well as cords for cutting and incising, reed perforators, and cactus spines. Noteworthy is the research conducted at the Inca site of Tumbes, Peru, where evidence suggests that surface abrasion of the valves was the first step in the manufacturing process and apparently no type of percussion was used to produce the objects (Hocquenghem & Peña, 1994). Information on other specific techniques includes heating shells of the *Olivella* genus in Davies, California, a treatment used to turn them uniformly white and to facilitate cutting, abrasion, and perforation in bead production (Hartzell, 1991); and decoration engraved with

Experimental archaeology, together with ethno-archaeology, form part of so-called middle range theories, which make it possible to infer the social dynamics of the past from archaeological contexts, which are static moments of the present and that have undergone changes resulting from diverse factors, from their formation to the moment of their excavation (Binford, 1977:6; Gándara, 1990:74). Experimental archaeology is based on replicating past events, which can range from producing a tool to the simulation of a way of life, under controlled conditions (Callender, 1976:174). To design experiments, numerous factors should be considered, such as the utilization of the materials and tools characteristic of the society and the historical moment that is being studied. Particular importance should be given to "uniformitarian suppositions", which makes it possible to infer that what is

In 1997 the first experimental archaeology project on shell materials was begun at the Templo Mayor Museum; its principal objective was to augment knowledge of the manufacturing techniques employed in the production of almost 2,300 conchological objects found in the offerings excavated by the Templo Mayor Project in the central religious building in

reject the use of specific manufacturing techniques.

acid that was practiced in Snake Town, Arizona (Haury, 1976).

happening in the present was what occurred in the past (Binford, 1991:22).

**3.1 The conchological material experimental archaeology project** 

**3. Experimental archaeology projects** 

Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire, and its nearby structures. The basic assumption was that the use of a specific tool, made from the same material as used in ancient times, employed in a specific way should project characteristic and differentiable features (Ascher, 1961). In this way, determining the traces produced by the different techniques and implements tested could be identified in archaeological materials. Therefore, the analysis and comparison of manufacturing traces was defined as the principal uniformitarian criterion.

The materials for experimentation were the same shell species that were used to make the objects from the Aztec offerings. The tools used were those that were typical in the Basin of Mexico at the time of the Mexicas (i.e., Aztecs), based on archaeological finds and information from documentary sources. The entire range of modifications (abrasion, cutting, perforation, incision, and openwork) based on typological analysis and known to have been used to transform the raw material into the objects studied were performed.

The project began with a phase of exploratory experimentation (Gibaja Bao, 1993:12), which permitted determining the diverse factors that had to be systematically taken into account in all of the experiments, which resulted in the creation of a format. It consisted of a progressive number for each experiment, its name, its objective, the materials utilized, their initial and final measurements, the time it took and the processes carried out, in addition to observations. Furthermore, photos were taken of the materials prior to the start of the experiments, the work phase(s), and the final result (figure 1).

Fig. 1. Work process of abrasion of outer and middle layers of *Pinctada mazatlanica*: unmodified material (a), abrasion process (b & c), final result (d). Photos: SOMTPM.

The Study of Shell Object Manufacturing Techniques

from the Perspective of Experimental Archaeology and Work Traces 233

Fig. 3. Archaeological *Pinctada mazatlanica* piece with surface scratches visible to the naked eye (a), magnified 10x (b), experimental scratches produced by abrasion with basalt

Fig. 4. Traces produced by abrasion with basalt and sand on a *Pinctada mazatlanica* valve

magnified 10x (c). Photos: G. Zúñiga & J.L. Alvarado

magnified 10x (a) magnified 30x (b). Photos: J.L. Alvarado.

Analysis of manufacturing traces was conducted at both a macroscopic level (the naked eye) as well as with the help of low amplification microscopy; 10x and 20x magnifiers were used, as well as an Olympus stereoscopic microscope, model TLZ S2-STS, yielding photos with a magnification of 10x, 30x, and 63x. The results of this first phase were encouraging. For example, it was possible to determine that for the identification of techniques such as percussion, it was not necessary to employ any sort of magnifying device, because the characteristic irregular edges that it produced were clearly visible to the naked eye (figure 2). It was determined that the use of lithic tools to perform abrasion on surfaces or edges, cuts, perforations, and incisions produced clearly marked scratched patterns that could even be identified without magnification (figure 3); these traces differed considerably from the traces left by the use of abrasives, whose fine lines are imperceptible on a macroscopic level, barely distinguishable at a magnification at 10x or 30x (figure 4). However, it was also evident that with the means of observation employed it was not possible to differentiate between the traces left by similar tools made of different materials. This was the case of obsidian and flint instruments, which indistinctly produced similar patterns of straight, parallel lines on cuts, or else concentric linear patters on perforations (figure 5).

Fig. 2. Process of removing spire from an *Oliva sayana* shell (a), experimental result (b), archaeological piece (c). Photos: G. Zúñiga.

Analysis of manufacturing traces was conducted at both a macroscopic level (the naked eye) as well as with the help of low amplification microscopy; 10x and 20x magnifiers were used, as well as an Olympus stereoscopic microscope, model TLZ S2-STS, yielding photos with a magnification of 10x, 30x, and 63x. The results of this first phase were encouraging. For example, it was possible to determine that for the identification of techniques such as percussion, it was not necessary to employ any sort of magnifying device, because the characteristic irregular edges that it produced were clearly visible to the naked eye (figure 2). It was determined that the use of lithic tools to perform abrasion on surfaces or edges, cuts, perforations, and incisions produced clearly marked scratched patterns that could even be identified without magnification (figure 3); these traces differed considerably from the traces left by the use of abrasives, whose fine lines are imperceptible on a macroscopic level, barely distinguishable at a magnification at 10x or 30x (figure 4). However, it was also evident that with the means of observation employed it was not possible to differentiate between the traces left by similar tools made of different materials. This was the case of obsidian and flint instruments, which indistinctly produced similar patterns of straight, parallel lines on cuts, or else concentric linear

Fig. 2. Process of removing spire from an *Oliva sayana* shell (a), experimental result (b),

patters on perforations (figure 5).

archaeological piece (c). Photos: G. Zúñiga.

Fig. 3. Archaeological *Pinctada mazatlanica* piece with surface scratches visible to the naked eye (a), magnified 10x (b), experimental scratches produced by abrasion with basalt magnified 10x (c). Photos: G. Zúñiga & J.L. Alvarado

Fig. 4. Traces produced by abrasion with basalt and sand on a *Pinctada mazatlanica* valve magnified 10x (a) magnified 30x (b). Photos: J.L. Alvarado.

The Study of Shell Object Manufacturing Techniques

having to resort to the intervention of any type of tool.

from the Perspective of Experimental Archaeology and Work Traces 235

parts of them that had been previously corroded by immersion in acetic acid were observed for this purpose; this allowed for discovery of the inner layers of the material without

At the start of the project, a number of archaeological pieces were taken to the SEM lab; this presented certain complications, because to move the material it was necessary to request special permission and the samples had to be escorted by security guards. In addition, the size and shape of some of the pieces hindered their analysis, because the microscope's sample chamber is relatively small (approximately 10 x 10 cm) and it is not possible to produce a clear focus on elements that are not flat (i.e., that are curved or three-dimensional). Therefore, tests were made to produce replicas in polymers softened with acetone, which were pressed onto the zones of the objects to be analyzed (figure 6) and later they were covered with gold ions for their observation in a high vacuum. The replica method, typical of metallography, avoided having to move the archaeological materials, because the polymer samples were produced in the repositories where the original material was kept; it made it possible to examine pieces that would not have fit into the microscope's sample chamber and also to produce high-quality images of modifications that did not conform to a flat plane, such as perforations; finally, it facilitated work sessions in which up to twenty samples could be examined in a two-hour session. Based on the experience of these initial analyses, the decision was made to undertake systematic observations of manufacturing traces at 100x, 300x, 600x, and 1000x, because at higher magnification the crystalline structure of the material dominated the image. For

Fig. 6. Obtaining polymer replicas of manufacturing traces: cutting the polymer (a), moistening it with acetone (b), pressing it against the object (c), obtaining the replica (d).

Phtos: A. Velázquez.

Fig. 5. Process of cutting a *Pinctada mazatlanica* valve with flint tools (a) with obsidian tools (b); traces of the cut magnified 30x worked with flint flake (c) and obsidian flake (d). Photos G. Zúñiga & J.L. Alvarado.

#### **3.2 The Shell Object Manufacturing Techniques in Pre-Hispanic Mexico project (SOMTPMP)**

The need for observation techniques that would allow for greater precision in analysis led to establishing contact with the Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Nucleares (ININ), specifically with Dr. Demetrio Mendoza Anaya, who works with high- and low-vacuum scanning electronic microscopy (SEM). SEM is an ideal technique for the analysis of the surface characteristics of materials. For this technique a high-energy beam is aimed at the sample, which produces electrons and other signals that are captured by special detectors; based on this process it is possible to form a highly detailed digital image of the surface of the material, permitting characterization of its topology, texture, porosity, and other features. In early microscopes it was necessary for the sample chamber to be in a high vacuum, so the samples had to be conductors of electricity; and for those that were not conductors, they had to be coated with a fine layer of metal. However, in recent models it is possible to make observations in a low vacuum and even at environmental pressure, which has made it possible to analyze moist, organic materials without any coating. SEM permits extremely high magnification (theoretically as high as 300,000x), also enabling semiquantitative analyses of the elemental composition of the samples. Prior to the observation of manufacturing traces, it was necessary to become familiar with the structural characteristics of shells; the surfaces of various modern biological specimens, as well as

Fig. 5. Process of cutting a *Pinctada mazatlanica* valve with flint tools (a) with obsidian tools (b); traces of the cut magnified 30x worked with flint flake (c) and obsidian flake (d). Photos

The need for observation techniques that would allow for greater precision in analysis led to establishing contact with the Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Nucleares (ININ), specifically with Dr. Demetrio Mendoza Anaya, who works with high- and low-vacuum scanning electronic microscopy (SEM). SEM is an ideal technique for the analysis of the surface characteristics of materials. For this technique a high-energy beam is aimed at the sample, which produces electrons and other signals that are captured by special detectors; based on this process it is possible to form a highly detailed digital image of the surface of the material, permitting characterization of its topology, texture, porosity, and other features. In early microscopes it was necessary for the sample chamber to be in a high vacuum, so the samples had to be conductors of electricity; and for those that were not conductors, they had to be coated with a fine layer of metal. However, in recent models it is possible to make observations in a low vacuum and even at environmental pressure, which has made it possible to analyze moist, organic materials without any coating. SEM permits extremely high magnification (theoretically as high as 300,000x), also enabling semiquantitative analyses of the elemental composition of the samples. Prior to the observation of manufacturing traces, it was necessary to become familiar with the structural characteristics of shells; the surfaces of various modern biological specimens, as well as

**3.2 The Shell Object Manufacturing Techniques in Pre-Hispanic Mexico project** 

G. Zúñiga & J.L. Alvarado.

**(SOMTPMP)** 

parts of them that had been previously corroded by immersion in acetic acid were observed for this purpose; this allowed for discovery of the inner layers of the material without having to resort to the intervention of any type of tool.

At the start of the project, a number of archaeological pieces were taken to the SEM lab; this presented certain complications, because to move the material it was necessary to request special permission and the samples had to be escorted by security guards. In addition, the size and shape of some of the pieces hindered their analysis, because the microscope's sample chamber is relatively small (approximately 10 x 10 cm) and it is not possible to produce a clear focus on elements that are not flat (i.e., that are curved or three-dimensional). Therefore, tests were made to produce replicas in polymers softened with acetone, which were pressed onto the zones of the objects to be analyzed (figure 6) and later they were covered with gold ions for their observation in a high vacuum. The replica method, typical of metallography, avoided having to move the archaeological materials, because the polymer samples were produced in the repositories where the original material was kept; it made it possible to examine pieces that would not have fit into the microscope's sample chamber and also to produce high-quality images of modifications that did not conform to a flat plane, such as perforations; finally, it facilitated work sessions in which up to twenty samples could be examined in a two-hour session. Based on the experience of these initial analyses, the decision was made to undertake systematic observations of manufacturing traces at 100x, 300x, 600x, and 1000x, because at higher magnification the crystalline structure of the material dominated the image. For

Fig. 6. Obtaining polymer replicas of manufacturing traces: cutting the polymer (a), moistening it with acetone (b), pressing it against the object (c), obtaining the replica (d). Phtos: A. Velázquez.

The Study of Shell Object Manufacturing Techniques

not been studied before.

experimental work traces.

Cuts

Finishes

to establish a methodology that consists of the following steps:

naked eye and with the help of 20x magnification.

uncommon features in the archaeological collection.

Modifications Tools

and occasionally sand

Incisions Flint and obsidian lithic tools

The use of both finishes Table 1. Modifications and tools used in the experiments

5. Observation of the replicas with SEM (100x, 300x, 600x, and 1000x).

percussion: scrapers, knives, and blades)

objects from which replicas will be made.

from the Perspective of Experimental Archaeology and Work Traces 237

As its name indicates, this project—which was formally instituted in 2000, when the specific collaboration agreement between the INAH (Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia) and ININ was signed—has studied and continues to research shell materials from different sites and periods of pre-Hispanic Mexico. The researchers have included the present author, as well as undergraduate and graduate students in Archaeology; the project has grown by increasing the materials and tools used in experimentation. Therefore, it has been necessary

1. Analysis of the material, which consists of the biological identification of the species and the characterization of its morphological and functional typology. During this phase, it is necessary to research the type of materials and tools that appear at the site or in the region of study and it is useful to conduct experiments with materials that have

2. Parallel to this phase, observations are made of the manufacturing traces with the

3. Selection of a sample to obtain photos at low magnification with a stereoscopic microscope (10x, 30x, and 63x). Specimens should include recurrent traits as well as

4. Based on the results of the preceding phase, the selection is made of the sample of

6. Analysis of the micrographs and comparison with the project's database of

To date more than 700 experiments (table 1) have been carried out and archaeological collections spanning roughly 2700 years of the pre-Hispanic history of Mexico (1250 BC to AD 1521) have been studied. The experiments include material from sites in the Maya zone (Moral-Reforma, Tabasco; Calakmul, Campeche; Oxkintok and Xuenkal, Yucatán; CALICA, Oxtankáh, Ichpaatun and Kohunlich, Quintana Roo), from the Central Highlands of Mexico

Abrasion Basalt, andesite, rhyolite, granite, sandstone and limestone, adding water

Perforations Abrasives (sand, volcanic ash, and powdered obsidian and flint) used with reed stalks, adding water. Flint and obsidian lithic tools Openwork Abrasives (sand, volcanic ash, and powdered flint) used with reed stalks wide in diameter, adding water. Flint and obsidian lithic tools

> Polished with abrasives (sand and volcanic ash), water and pieces of leather; polished with flint nodules. Burnished with pieces of dry leather.

Abrasives (sand and powdered obsidian), water and strips of leather; flint and obsidian lithic tools (flakes with sharp edge reworked by pressure and

purposes of characterizing work traces, it was necessary to describe their shape (lines, bands, particles), their thickness, their tendency to form larger elements (agglomerations of lines or bands), the appearance of surfaces (smooth, rough, porous), among other traits. As a result of this technique, it has been possible to find patterns of work traces that permit the establishment of clear distinctions between materials, which permit their identification in archaeological objects (figure 7); now traits that seemed undifferentiated at low magnifications can be distinguished with SEM (figure 8).

Fig. 7. Abrasion traces on *Pinctada mazatlanica* valves seen with SEM at 100x: basalt (a), archaeological piece from Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan (b), rhyolite (c), and limestone (d). Photos: SOMTPMP.

Fig. 8. Traces of cutting on *Pinctada mazatlanica* valves seen with SEM at 600X: obsidian flake (a) and flint flake (b).

purposes of characterizing work traces, it was necessary to describe their shape (lines, bands, particles), their thickness, their tendency to form larger elements (agglomerations of lines or bands), the appearance of surfaces (smooth, rough, porous), among other traits. As a result of this technique, it has been possible to find patterns of work traces that permit the establishment of clear distinctions between materials, which permit their identification in archaeological objects (figure 7); now traits that seemed undifferentiated at low

Fig. 7. Abrasion traces on *Pinctada mazatlanica* valves seen with SEM at 100x: basalt (a), archaeological piece from Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan (b), rhyolite (c), and limestone (d).

Fig. 8. Traces of cutting on *Pinctada mazatlanica* valves seen with SEM at 600X: obsidian flake

magnifications can be distinguished with SEM (figure 8).

Photos: SOMTPMP.

(a) and flint flake (b).

As its name indicates, this project—which was formally instituted in 2000, when the specific collaboration agreement between the INAH (Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia) and ININ was signed—has studied and continues to research shell materials from different sites and periods of pre-Hispanic Mexico. The researchers have included the present author, as well as undergraduate and graduate students in Archaeology; the project has grown by increasing the materials and tools used in experimentation. Therefore, it has been necessary to establish a methodology that consists of the following steps:


To date more than 700 experiments (table 1) have been carried out and archaeological collections spanning roughly 2700 years of the pre-Hispanic history of Mexico (1250 BC to AD 1521) have been studied. The experiments include material from sites in the Maya zone (Moral-Reforma, Tabasco; Calakmul, Campeche; Oxkintok and Xuenkal, Yucatán; CALICA, Oxtankáh, Ichpaatun and Kohunlich, Quintana Roo), from the Central Highlands of Mexico


Table 1. Modifications and tools used in the experiments

The Study of Shell Object Manufacturing Techniques

from the Perspective of Experimental Archaeology and Work Traces 239

predating stage IV of the Templo Mayor, which corresponds to the reign of Moctezuma I—a time of the conquest of settlements in the region of the Gulf Coast of Mexico—have not been found to date, there does not seem to be a direct relationship between the presence of this type of materials and Mexica imperial expansion. It should be pointed out in this regard that the large quantity of specimens from the Pacific in the above-mentioned architectural expansion, as well as in stages IVb and V, predate the conquest of settlements on the Pacific

As a result of the bellicose nature of Mexica society, one of its principal motivations for its expansionism was the collection of tribute. Little attention has been given to the effects of tribute on Aztec material culture, much of which has traditionally been regarded as foreign in nature (i.e., not produced in the capital). For example, it has been posited that the majority of the manufactured objects from the Templo Mayor offerings were acquired through tribute, trade, gift-giving, or looting (López, 1993:137). Specifically in terms of shell objects, Matos does not regard them as Mexica products (Matos, 1988:92-101) and there is a deeply rooted idea in academic circles that shell objects were produced on the coasts. However, despite the non-local character of the raw materials, what is puzzling is that many of these objects represent iconographic elements characteristic of Nahua deities from Central Mexico. This is the case of the ring-shaped *anahuatl* pectorals, associated with Tezcatlipoca (Smoking Mirror) and bellicose stellar deities; the droplet-shaped *oyohualli* pendants of Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli (Venus as the Morning Star) and divinities of music and dance; the crescent *yacametztlti* noseplug of goddesses of the moon and pulque, to name only a few (Velázquez, 2000) (figure 9). It is important to emphasize that many of these objects are

Fig. 9. *Pinctada mazatlanica* objects found in Mexica offerings: *epcololli* ear ornaments (a),

*anahuatl* pectorals (b), and *oyohualli* pendants (c). Photos: G. Zúñiga.

coast, which took place during the rule of Ahuizotl, who is linked to stage VI.

(Las Bocas and Cantona, Puebla; Teotihuacan and Xaltocan, State of Mexico; Xochicalco, Morelos; Tula and Tizayuca, Hidalgo; and Tenochtitlan, Mexico City), from the state of Guerrero (Teopantecuanitlán, Pezuapan and Malinaltepec), Oaxaca (Monte Albán), the Gulf of Mexico (Tlacojalpan, Veracruz; Tamtoc, San Luis Potosí, and sites in the valleys of the Sierra Gorda in Querétaro); West Mexico (La Presa del Cajón, Nayarit, and sites in the Sayula Basin, Jalisco), Northern Mexico (Chalchihuites, Altavista, Pajones, and Cerro Moctehuma, Zacatecas, and sites in northern Sinaloa and Nuevo León).

#### **4. Results from the study of Aztec shell objects**

The Mexicas or Tenochca, as the Aztecs are also known, established the largest empire in Mesoamerica during the Late Postclassic period. According to sources written in Spanish from the time of the conquest, in a lapse of less than two hundred years (1325–1521), they went from being a semi-nomadic group of recent arrivals in the Basin of Mexico to a tributary of the Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco, to ultimately forge a vast empire conquered by force, which extended as far north as the Huastec region, and as far south as Soconusco, encompassing settlements from Atlantic to Pacific coasts of the territory today comprising Mexico. Their capital, Tenochtitlan, located in the heart of modern-day Mexico City, inspired awe among the Spanish conquerors for its magnificence, scale, and order (Díaz, 1986:160 & 173). From 1978 to the present, the Templo Mayor Project has been in charge of the excavation and study of all the archaeological vestiges found in the area occupied by the ceremonial center of the Aztec capital (Matos, 1990:27). Seven construction stages or phases of major architectural expansion have been identified at the Templo Mayor (Great Temple) and in the surrounding ceremonial precinct (Matos, 1988:176), which have served as the basis for a chronology. Based on this sequencing, the first stage corresponds to the foundation of Tenochtitlan, which occurred in 1325; the second, to the first three Mexica rulers (Acamapichtli, Huitzilihuitl, and Chimalpopoca); and the following, to successive kings (*tlatoque,* "great speakers" as the emperors were known [*tlatoani* in singular]) (Itzcoatl, Moctezuma I, Tizoc, Ahuizotl, and Moctezuma II), with the exception of a partial expansion known as stage IVb, which was attributed to Axayacatl (Matos, 1988:64, 70, 73, 74 & 176).

What stand out among the vast quantities of discoveries made by the Templo Mayor Project are the ritual deposits composed of objects, referred to as offerings, which were buried in and around the structure of the Templo Mayor and the buildings in the sacred precinct; they now number almost 200 offerings in total. These deposits display striking variability in terms of their arrangement, the type of receptacle containing them, their composition, and the placement of their diverse contents. The study of forty-eight offerings buried in the Templo Mayor and the nearby structures dealt with a total of 2,245 complete shell pieces and 745 fragments (Velázquez, 1999:117). The materials employed for the production of these elements came from both Atlantic and Pacific coasts of Mexico, and the corpus yielded the identification of three classes (Gastropoda, Bivalvia, and Polyplacophora), 14 families, 16 genera, and 15 species (Velázquez, 1999:116). The collection of shell objects is comprised of ornamental pieces (pendants, pectorals, inlays, beads, earflares, noseplugs, and lipplugs), musical instruments (trumpets), and what seem to be purely votive elements (an anthropomorphic plaque, a disk with an incised spiral, the representation of spearthrowers, slightly flaring rectangular objects, a disk with four perforations, a pigmented gastropod, worked valves, and a section of a columella) (Velázquez, 1999). Although shell objects

(Las Bocas and Cantona, Puebla; Teotihuacan and Xaltocan, State of Mexico; Xochicalco, Morelos; Tula and Tizayuca, Hidalgo; and Tenochtitlan, Mexico City), from the state of Guerrero (Teopantecuanitlán, Pezuapan and Malinaltepec), Oaxaca (Monte Albán), the Gulf of Mexico (Tlacojalpan, Veracruz; Tamtoc, San Luis Potosí, and sites in the valleys of the Sierra Gorda in Querétaro); West Mexico (La Presa del Cajón, Nayarit, and sites in the Sayula Basin, Jalisco), Northern Mexico (Chalchihuites, Altavista, Pajones, and Cerro

The Mexicas or Tenochca, as the Aztecs are also known, established the largest empire in Mesoamerica during the Late Postclassic period. According to sources written in Spanish from the time of the conquest, in a lapse of less than two hundred years (1325–1521), they went from being a semi-nomadic group of recent arrivals in the Basin of Mexico to a tributary of the Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco, to ultimately forge a vast empire conquered by force, which extended as far north as the Huastec region, and as far south as Soconusco, encompassing settlements from Atlantic to Pacific coasts of the territory today comprising Mexico. Their capital, Tenochtitlan, located in the heart of modern-day Mexico City, inspired awe among the Spanish conquerors for its magnificence, scale, and order (Díaz, 1986:160 & 173). From 1978 to the present, the Templo Mayor Project has been in charge of the excavation and study of all the archaeological vestiges found in the area occupied by the ceremonial center of the Aztec capital (Matos, 1990:27). Seven construction stages or phases of major architectural expansion have been identified at the Templo Mayor (Great Temple) and in the surrounding ceremonial precinct (Matos, 1988:176), which have served as the basis for a chronology. Based on this sequencing, the first stage corresponds to the foundation of Tenochtitlan, which occurred in 1325; the second, to the first three Mexica rulers (Acamapichtli, Huitzilihuitl, and Chimalpopoca); and the following, to successive kings (*tlatoque,* "great speakers" as the emperors were known [*tlatoani* in singular]) (Itzcoatl, Moctezuma I, Tizoc, Ahuizotl, and Moctezuma II), with the exception of a partial expansion known as stage IVb, which was attributed to Axayacatl (Matos, 1988:64, 70, 73, 74 & 176).

What stand out among the vast quantities of discoveries made by the Templo Mayor Project are the ritual deposits composed of objects, referred to as offerings, which were buried in and around the structure of the Templo Mayor and the buildings in the sacred precinct; they now number almost 200 offerings in total. These deposits display striking variability in terms of their arrangement, the type of receptacle containing them, their composition, and the placement of their diverse contents. The study of forty-eight offerings buried in the Templo Mayor and the nearby structures dealt with a total of 2,245 complete shell pieces and 745 fragments (Velázquez, 1999:117). The materials employed for the production of these elements came from both Atlantic and Pacific coasts of Mexico, and the corpus yielded the identification of three classes (Gastropoda, Bivalvia, and Polyplacophora), 14 families, 16 genera, and 15 species (Velázquez, 1999:116). The collection of shell objects is comprised of ornamental pieces (pendants, pectorals, inlays, beads, earflares, noseplugs, and lipplugs), musical instruments (trumpets), and what seem to be purely votive elements (an anthropomorphic plaque, a disk with an incised spiral, the representation of spearthrowers, slightly flaring rectangular objects, a disk with four perforations, a pigmented gastropod, worked valves, and a section of a columella) (Velázquez, 1999). Although shell objects

Moctehuma, Zacatecas, and sites in northern Sinaloa and Nuevo León).

**4. Results from the study of Aztec shell objects** 

predating stage IV of the Templo Mayor, which corresponds to the reign of Moctezuma I—a time of the conquest of settlements in the region of the Gulf Coast of Mexico—have not been found to date, there does not seem to be a direct relationship between the presence of this type of materials and Mexica imperial expansion. It should be pointed out in this regard that the large quantity of specimens from the Pacific in the above-mentioned architectural expansion, as well as in stages IVb and V, predate the conquest of settlements on the Pacific coast, which took place during the rule of Ahuizotl, who is linked to stage VI.

As a result of the bellicose nature of Mexica society, one of its principal motivations for its expansionism was the collection of tribute. Little attention has been given to the effects of tribute on Aztec material culture, much of which has traditionally been regarded as foreign in nature (i.e., not produced in the capital). For example, it has been posited that the majority of the manufactured objects from the Templo Mayor offerings were acquired through tribute, trade, gift-giving, or looting (López, 1993:137). Specifically in terms of shell objects, Matos does not regard them as Mexica products (Matos, 1988:92-101) and there is a deeply rooted idea in academic circles that shell objects were produced on the coasts. However, despite the non-local character of the raw materials, what is puzzling is that many of these objects represent iconographic elements characteristic of Nahua deities from Central Mexico. This is the case of the ring-shaped *anahuatl* pectorals, associated with Tezcatlipoca (Smoking Mirror) and bellicose stellar deities; the droplet-shaped *oyohualli* pendants of Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli (Venus as the Morning Star) and divinities of music and dance; the crescent *yacametztlti* noseplug of goddesses of the moon and pulque, to name only a few (Velázquez, 2000) (figure 9). It is important to emphasize that many of these objects are

Fig. 9. *Pinctada mazatlanica* objects found in Mexica offerings: *epcololli* ear ornaments (a), *anahuatl* pectorals (b), and *oyohualli* pendants (c). Photos: G. Zúñiga.

The Study of Shell Object Manufacturing Techniques

flint perforators was detected (table 3).

Modification

Surface abrasion with stone

Abrasion of edge with stone

restricted.

from the Perspective of Experimental Archaeology and Work Traces 241

(32 of the former and 35 of the latter), and they are the only shells that were present in all construction stages of the Templo Mayor and the sacred precinct of Tenochtitlan in which shell objects are present (stages IV–VII). Similarly, there is a diversity of forms and modifications of the specimens (Velázquez, 1999:110–117). In addition, it is important to mention that the *Pinctada mazatlanica* objects are exclusive to offerings found at the Templo Mayor, because they are absent in votive deposits from the neighboring structures and from any other location in the Basin of Mexico. Furthermore, shell pendants in general, including those manufactured from specimens of the *Oliva* genus, show a broader distribution, because they are even found in other Late Postclassic period dominions in the Basin of Mexico. This suggests two spheres of circulation for shell objects: one free and the other

Through the analysis of manufacturing traces, the objects made of *Pinctada mazatlanica* revealed strong standardization of production techniques. In all cases the pieces displayed traces of abrasion with basalt tools on surfaces and edges; the use of obsidian tools for cutting and incised designs, and of flint perforators in round borings. The few elements that show evidence of surface finishes reveal a combination of polishing with a still-unidentified abrasive and of burnishing with a soft material, similar to leather (table 2). In the case of the *Oliva* shell pendants, although it was possible to detect a tendency toward standardization, groups of objects were also found with specific modifications, made with unique procedures and tools. One of the most frequent work processes—the removal of the shell's spire—was evidently done in most cases through abrasion with passive tools made of basalt; in fewer cases was this performed through direct percussion; and in an intermediate number of cases combining both procedures; in only one piece was the use of powdered obsidian detected as an abrasive to cut this part of the shell. The second most important modification numerically was the making of a grooved perforation in the dorsal zone of the shell; in all cases it was done with obsidian tools. In the few examples of conical boring the use of a sand abrasive or

Present Not

Perforation with lithic tools 92 29 85 206 Flint

Table 2. Manufacturing traces identified on *Pinctada mazatlanica* pieces

Openwork with lithic tools 32 34 140 206 Obsidian and

tools 151 54 1 206 Basalt tool 5 (IVb & VI) Cut with lithic tools 76 36 94 206 Obsidian tool 6 (IVb, VI &

tools 157 49 206 Basalt tool 4 (IVb & VI)

Incision with lithic tools 42 16 148 206 Obsidian tool 5 (IVb, VI &

Stereoscopic microscopy Scanning electronic

identifiable Absent Total Identified

microscopy

VII)

VII)

basalt tool 6 (IVb & VII)

perforator 6 (IVb)

Pieces analyzed

material

found almost exclusively in the offerings found in the Templo Mayor itself and are absent in many of the neighboring buildings; significantly, no specimens identical in shape or raw material have been found at any other site in the Basin of Mexico. An interesting example is the spiral-shaped *ehecacozcatl* (wind jewel) found at Hualquila, Iztapalapa, which differs noticeably from specimens from Tenochtitlan, because the former was made of *Strombus gracilior* and displays perforations for suspension, while the latter are invariably made of *Turbinella angulata* and bears no bored holes (Mancha, 2002:212-215; Velázquez and Melgar, 2006). Therefore, many of the shell pieces appear to be exclusive, not only to Tenochtitlan, but to its most hermetic and elite ritual practice, namely the interment of offerings in the empire's principal temple. This in itself strongly suggests their manufacture must have been local and controlled by the state apparatus.

The study of manufacturing techniques employed in shell objects from Tenochtitlan offerings was carried out initially on a representative sample composed of pieces of the Pacific, *Pinctada mazatlanica* pearly bivalves and shell pendants of the *Oliva* genus, whose different species come from both the Pacific and Atlantic (figure 10). These elements were selected because they were the most numerous in the collection; together they form 61.46% of the complete pieces in the overall research corpus: 595 complete objects and 605 fragments of *Pinctada mazatlanica and* 785 pendants and 106 fragments of *Oliva* shells (1380 complete pieces and 711 fragments in total). They appear in the largest number of offerings

Fig. 10. Shell pendants of the *Oliva* genus from offering in the sacred precinct of Tenochtitlan. Photo: G. Zúñiga

found almost exclusively in the offerings found in the Templo Mayor itself and are absent in many of the neighboring buildings; significantly, no specimens identical in shape or raw material have been found at any other site in the Basin of Mexico. An interesting example is the spiral-shaped *ehecacozcatl* (wind jewel) found at Hualquila, Iztapalapa, which differs noticeably from specimens from Tenochtitlan, because the former was made of *Strombus gracilior* and displays perforations for suspension, while the latter are invariably made of *Turbinella angulata* and bears no bored holes (Mancha, 2002:212-215; Velázquez and Melgar, 2006). Therefore, many of the shell pieces appear to be exclusive, not only to Tenochtitlan, but to its most hermetic and elite ritual practice, namely the interment of offerings in the empire's principal temple. This in itself strongly suggests their manufacture must have been

The study of manufacturing techniques employed in shell objects from Tenochtitlan offerings was carried out initially on a representative sample composed of pieces of the Pacific, *Pinctada mazatlanica* pearly bivalves and shell pendants of the *Oliva* genus, whose different species come from both the Pacific and Atlantic (figure 10). These elements were selected because they were the most numerous in the collection; together they form 61.46% of the complete pieces in the overall research corpus: 595 complete objects and 605 fragments of *Pinctada mazatlanica and* 785 pendants and 106 fragments of *Oliva* shells (1380 complete pieces and 711 fragments in total). They appear in the largest number of offerings

Fig. 10. Shell pendants of the *Oliva* genus from offering in the sacred precinct of

Tenochtitlan. Photo: G. Zúñiga

local and controlled by the state apparatus.

(32 of the former and 35 of the latter), and they are the only shells that were present in all construction stages of the Templo Mayor and the sacred precinct of Tenochtitlan in which shell objects are present (stages IV–VII). Similarly, there is a diversity of forms and modifications of the specimens (Velázquez, 1999:110–117). In addition, it is important to mention that the *Pinctada mazatlanica* objects are exclusive to offerings found at the Templo Mayor, because they are absent in votive deposits from the neighboring structures and from any other location in the Basin of Mexico. Furthermore, shell pendants in general, including those manufactured from specimens of the *Oliva* genus, show a broader distribution, because they are even found in other Late Postclassic period dominions in the Basin of Mexico. This suggests two spheres of circulation for shell objects: one free and the other restricted.

Through the analysis of manufacturing traces, the objects made of *Pinctada mazatlanica* revealed strong standardization of production techniques. In all cases the pieces displayed traces of abrasion with basalt tools on surfaces and edges; the use of obsidian tools for cutting and incised designs, and of flint perforators in round borings. The few elements that show evidence of surface finishes reveal a combination of polishing with a still-unidentified abrasive and of burnishing with a soft material, similar to leather (table 2). In the case of the *Oliva* shell pendants, although it was possible to detect a tendency toward standardization, groups of objects were also found with specific modifications, made with unique procedures and tools. One of the most frequent work processes—the removal of the shell's spire—was evidently done in most cases through abrasion with passive tools made of basalt; in fewer cases was this performed through direct percussion; and in an intermediate number of cases combining both procedures; in only one piece was the use of powdered obsidian detected as an abrasive to cut this part of the shell. The second most important modification numerically was the making of a grooved perforation in the dorsal zone of the shell; in all cases it was done with obsidian tools. In the few examples of conical boring the use of a sand abrasive or flint perforators was detected (table 3).


Table 2. Manufacturing traces identified on *Pinctada mazatlanica* pieces

The Study of Shell Object Manufacturing Techniques

Fig. 11. Process of making an *anahuatl* pectoral. Drawing: J. Romero.

Type of piece Number of

*Epcololli* ear ornament

Droplet-shaped

construction stage IVb

from the Perspective of Experimental Archaeology and Work Traces 243

specimens Production time for each piece Total time

*Anahuatl* pectoral 35 39 hours 29 minutes 1381 hours 55 minutes

pendant 10 24 hours 59 minutes 249 hours 50 minutes

Table 4. Production times for *Pinctada mazatlanica* objects from offerings in Templo Mayor

As for the *Oliva* shells, a similar calculation was made by multiplying the production times obtained in the experiments by the number of archaeological pieces displaying these features. It is worth noting that in the cases in which the deteriorated condition of the objects made it impossible to determine the specific techniques used in their production, they were

Discerning the processes and tools used to manufacture Mexica shell objects makes it possible to draw inferences regarding specialized production, in which specialization is understood as an institutionalized form of organizing production, in which certain groups are at least partially removed from subsistence activities, by receiving remuneration, in money or in specie, for work or knowledge that is exclusively theirs (Clark & Parry, 1990:297; Costin, 1991:3-4; Evans, 1987: 113; Longacre, 1999:44). The striking homogeneity detected in tools and techniques, in the case of *Pinctada mazatlanica* pieces, makes it possible

regarded as the product of the more efficient processes and tools (table 5).

11 91 hours 32 minutes 1006 hours 52 minutes

TOTAL 2638 hours 37 minutes


Table 3. Manufacturing traces identified on *Oliva* genus pieces

After determining the specific procedures and tools used in the manufacture of shell objects, some of the *Pinctada mazatlanica* objects that occurred in standardized forms and that appeared in several offerings and construction stages of the Templo Mayor were experimentally replicated. In addition to the opportunity to focus on particular issues related to the production of certain pieces, this made it possible to calculate, although only hypothetically, a portion of the production time that the workshop(s) must have devoted to preparing for an important ritual event: the inauguration of construction stage IVb, when ten sumptuous offerings, among the richest found to date (López, 1993:237), were interred. In this regard, suffice it to say that among the different types of objects and materials contained in these deposits, 731 pieces of shell were found, including the three types of replicated elements: the droplet-shaped pendant (*oyohualli*), the ear ornament with a volute (*epcololli*), and the round, incised, openwork pectoral (*anahuatl*). The steps to produce these pieces were as follows:


Producing two concentric incised lines with an obsidian instrument on the *anahuatl* pectoral (figure 11, table 4).

Modification Stereoscopic microscopy Scanning electronic microscopy

Abrasion with passive

Abrasion with active

Abrasion with lithic

Abrasion with lithic

Table 3. Manufacturing traces identified on *Oliva* genus pieces

Abrasion and

Percussion 94

percussion <sup>188</sup>

Spire cut

Grooved perforation

Conical perforation

Total pieces analyzed: 652

pieces were as follows:

(figure 11, table 4).

obsidian bladed tools.

abrasion with obsidian implements.

pendant and the *epcololli* ear ornament.

Technique No. of pieces Material Pieces analyzed

VII)

VII)

tool 339 Basalt 9 (IVa, IVb, VI &

tools 430 Obsidian tool 10 (IVb, V, VI &

tool Powdered obsidian 1 (IVb)

Abrasion with abrasives 23 Abrasive sand 1 (IVb)

perforator Flint perforator 1 (VII)

After determining the specific procedures and tools used in the manufacture of shell objects, some of the *Pinctada mazatlanica* objects that occurred in standardized forms and that appeared in several offerings and construction stages of the Templo Mayor were experimentally replicated. In addition to the opportunity to focus on particular issues related to the production of certain pieces, this made it possible to calculate, although only hypothetically, a portion of the production time that the workshop(s) must have devoted to preparing for an important ritual event: the inauguration of construction stage IVb, when ten sumptuous offerings, among the richest found to date (López, 1993:237), were interred. In this regard, suffice it to say that among the different types of objects and materials contained in these deposits, 731 pieces of shell were found, including the three types of replicated elements: the droplet-shaped pendant (*oyohualli*), the ear ornament with a volute (*epcololli*), and the round, incised, openwork pectoral (*anahuatl*). The steps to produce these

1. Removal of outer and middle layers of the shells through abrasion with a basalt tool. 2. Producing a preform, making straight cuts on the contour of elements with sharp

shape the specific parts of the object, cutting it with obsidian tools.

3. Correcting the preform, smoothing the edges with basalt tools. In the case of the *epcololli*  ear ornament, the preform had to be made thin through friction with the rock to later

4. Producing the openwork parts in the middle for the *oyohualli* pendant and the *anahuatl*  pendants, cutting with sharp-edged obsidian tools and correcting the edges through

5. Making the biconical perforations, smoothed with sharpened flint tools in the *oyohualli* 

Producing two concentric incised lines with an obsidian instrument on the *anahuatl* pectoral

Fig. 11. Process of making an *anahuatl* pectoral. Drawing: J. Romero.


Table 4. Production times for *Pinctada mazatlanica* objects from offerings in Templo Mayor construction stage IVb

As for the *Oliva* shells, a similar calculation was made by multiplying the production times obtained in the experiments by the number of archaeological pieces displaying these features. It is worth noting that in the cases in which the deteriorated condition of the objects made it impossible to determine the specific techniques used in their production, they were regarded as the product of the more efficient processes and tools (table 5).

Discerning the processes and tools used to manufacture Mexica shell objects makes it possible to draw inferences regarding specialized production, in which specialization is understood as an institutionalized form of organizing production, in which certain groups are at least partially removed from subsistence activities, by receiving remuneration, in money or in specie, for work or knowledge that is exclusively theirs (Clark & Parry, 1990:297; Costin, 1991:3-4; Evans, 1987: 113; Longacre, 1999:44). The striking homogeneity detected in tools and techniques, in the case of *Pinctada mazatlanica* pieces, makes it possible

The Study of Shell Object Manufacturing Techniques

value.

from the Perspective of Experimental Archaeology and Work Traces 245

workshops, each of which could have had its own way of working objects, which would explain their relative diversity. Hypothetically, one might propose that the objects that display the most recurrent techniques (removal of spire by abrasion with a passive basalt tool, percussion, or a combination of both techniques, as well as the production of a grooved perforation with obsidian tools) might be pieces produced in the Basin of Mexico—perhaps even in Tenochtitlan itself—while the less numerous groups of pieces (those that display cutting of the spire through abrasion with active tools and conical perforations) might be non-locally made pieces. Another explanation for this lack of standardization might reside in the wider circulation of these ornaments, with which the Mexican state could have recognized plebeians who excelled in warfare; therefore, they might have been elements of lesser status than the *Pinctada mazatlanica* objects, produced in greater volumes, perhaps sacrificing uniformity and quality of production for the sake of greater technological efficiency. Suffice it to compare the hour and a half of work spent manufacturing an *Oliva* shell pendant, removing its spire through abrasion with a passive basalt tool, and producing a grooved perforation at its base with an obsidian tool, with the twenty-four hours fifty-nine minutes that it took to make an *oyohualli* pendant, which is the least laborious *Pinctada mazatlanica* piece from the technological standpoint. Although information available at this moment is not sufficient to draw conclusions regarding centralization, context, and intensity of *Oliva* genus pendant production, it is difficult to imagine the Mexica state did not have direct control of the manufacture of an important element of social mobility. It is tantalizing to suppose that in the workshops located in the ruler's palace, artists with greater expertise performed the most delicate production processes on the most complex pieces, while apprentices were responsible for carrying out the more monotonous work and the manufacture of simpler objects of lesser

As mentioned above, the study of the production technology of shell pieces in Mexica offerings has contributed information for further discussion of the origin of their manufacture. In the case of *Pinctada mazatlanica* objects, the fact they are exclusive to Tenochtitlan and specifically to its most important religious and political building, together with their strong technological standardization have made it possible to posit not only the local character of their production, but even the existence of a technological style characteristic of the Aztec capital (Velázquez, 2007:182-183). The concept of technological style is based on the fact that in the different phases of the technical processes—also known as operational chains (Leroi-Gourhan, 1943, 1945)— producers have to make decisions when faced with a variable array of choices, restricted by environmental, historical, social, and cultural factors (Lemmonier, 1986:153; Schiffer, 1992:51). There are no external limiting factors for a sufficiently powerful human group to be the only causal factors in the entire decision-making process in the operational chains (Pfaffenberger, 1988:241), which according to ethno-archaeological research tend to be systematic and consistent, dictated to a large extent by custom (Sackett, 1990:33), in which technological limits coincide with those of communities. Therefore, the notion of technological style has been proposed as the group of choices a human groups makes, which constitute knowledge of a manufacturing tradition (Stark, 1990:27). When it comes to *Oliva* gastropod pendants, their relative heterogeneity suggests they are the product of different technological traditions, a principal one in which two techniques (abrasion and percussion) are used and the combination of them to remove the shell spires, as well as abrasion with an obsidian tool to produce grooved perforations,


Table 5. Production times for *Oliva* genus shell pendants from offerings in Templo Mayor construction stage IVb

to infer a concentration of productive activities, because it has been proposed that standardization is indicative of large-scale production in few locations, while variability attests to production in low volumes in multiple independent workshops (Costin, 1991:35- 36). This idea, together with the exclusiveness of the objects, not only in the sacred precinct of Tenochtitlan, but also in its supreme religious building, gives rise to the notion that production was local and must have been carried out under the strict supervision of the upper echelons of the priesthood—possibly in a context of dependency or patronage (Costin, 1991:5, 7 & 12)—within workshops located in the very palace of the Mexica ruler. From documentary sources we know these workshops were devoted to producing luxury goods made of feathers, lapidary stone, silver and gold (Sahagún, 1989:521). Based on the reconstruction of the hypothetical time required to make some of the most important pearly shell objects, and multiplying it by the number of elements produced for the consecration of architectural stage IVb, it has been possible to calculate the number of hours employed to produce a small part of the total number of pieces of shell buried on that occasion. Although it was an event of singular importance, for which there must have been an exceptional investment of labor, the above-mentioned calculation gives us an idea of the intensive activity that must have involved workshops producing luxury objects; it should also be recalled their production was not only intended to be buried in offerings for special events, but also for other celebrations scheduled throughout the year, public ritual, as well as elite ostentation and use. Therefore, it seems highly probable that the specialists responsible for producing these pieces worked full-time in this activity.

In contrast to the strong standardization of the *Pinctada mazatlanica* pieces, the shell pendants made from the *Oliva* genus display a generalized tendency to homogeneity in their manufacturing techniques, in which some pieces with particular variants stand out, suggesting a certain dispersion of production groups. Perhaps there were several

basalt <sup>76</sup> 50 minutes 63 hours 20 minutes Removal of spire by percussion 21 18 minutes 6 hours 18 minutes

abrasion 39 35 minutes 22 hours 45 minutes

tools 113 41 minutes 77 hours 13 minutes

unidentified means 66 41 minutes 45 hours 6 minutes

flakes 3 1 hour 30 minutes 2 hours 30 minutes Total modifications 368 Total time 234 hours 12 minutes Table 5. Production times for *Oliva* genus shell pendants from offerings in Templo Mayor

to infer a concentration of productive activities, because it has been proposed that standardization is indicative of large-scale production in few locations, while variability attests to production in low volumes in multiple independent workshops (Costin, 1991:35- 36). This idea, together with the exclusiveness of the objects, not only in the sacred precinct of Tenochtitlan, but also in its supreme religious building, gives rise to the notion that production was local and must have been carried out under the strict supervision of the upper echelons of the priesthood—possibly in a context of dependency or patronage (Costin, 1991:5, 7 & 12)—within workshops located in the very palace of the Mexica ruler. From documentary sources we know these workshops were devoted to producing luxury goods made of feathers, lapidary stone, silver and gold (Sahagún, 1989:521). Based on the reconstruction of the hypothetical time required to make some of the most important pearly shell objects, and multiplying it by the number of elements produced for the consecration of architectural stage IVb, it has been possible to calculate the number of hours employed to produce a small part of the total number of pieces of shell buried on that occasion. Although it was an event of singular importance, for which there must have been an exceptional investment of labor, the above-mentioned calculation gives us an idea of the intensive activity that must have involved workshops producing luxury objects; it should also be recalled their production was not only intended to be buried in offerings for special events, but also for other celebrations scheduled throughout the year, public ritual, as well as elite ostentation and use. Therefore, it seems highly probable that the specialists responsible for

In contrast to the strong standardization of the *Pinctada mazatlanica* pieces, the shell pendants made from the *Oliva* genus display a generalized tendency to homogeneity in their manufacturing techniques, in which some pieces with particular variants stand out, suggesting a certain dispersion of production groups. Perhaps there were several

Individual production time

50 18 minutes 15 hours

Total production time

pieces

Modification No. of

producing these pieces worked full-time in this activity.

Removal of spire by abrasion using

Removal of spire by percussion and

Removal of spire by unidentified

Grooved perforation with obsidian

2DRC perforation with obsidian

Grooved perforation with

construction stage IVb

means

workshops, each of which could have had its own way of working objects, which would explain their relative diversity. Hypothetically, one might propose that the objects that display the most recurrent techniques (removal of spire by abrasion with a passive basalt tool, percussion, or a combination of both techniques, as well as the production of a grooved perforation with obsidian tools) might be pieces produced in the Basin of Mexico—perhaps even in Tenochtitlan itself—while the less numerous groups of pieces (those that display cutting of the spire through abrasion with active tools and conical perforations) might be non-locally made pieces. Another explanation for this lack of standardization might reside in the wider circulation of these ornaments, with which the Mexican state could have recognized plebeians who excelled in warfare; therefore, they might have been elements of lesser status than the *Pinctada mazatlanica* objects, produced in greater volumes, perhaps sacrificing uniformity and quality of production for the sake of greater technological efficiency. Suffice it to compare the hour and a half of work spent manufacturing an *Oliva* shell pendant, removing its spire through abrasion with a passive basalt tool, and producing a grooved perforation at its base with an obsidian tool, with the twenty-four hours fifty-nine minutes that it took to make an *oyohualli* pendant, which is the least laborious *Pinctada mazatlanica* piece from the technological standpoint. Although information available at this moment is not sufficient to draw conclusions regarding centralization, context, and intensity of *Oliva* genus pendant production, it is difficult to imagine the Mexica state did not have direct control of the manufacture of an important element of social mobility. It is tantalizing to suppose that in the workshops located in the ruler's palace, artists with greater expertise performed the most delicate production processes on the most complex pieces, while apprentices were responsible for carrying out the more monotonous work and the manufacture of simpler objects of lesser value.

As mentioned above, the study of the production technology of shell pieces in Mexica offerings has contributed information for further discussion of the origin of their manufacture. In the case of *Pinctada mazatlanica* objects, the fact they are exclusive to Tenochtitlan and specifically to its most important religious and political building, together with their strong technological standardization have made it possible to posit not only the local character of their production, but even the existence of a technological style characteristic of the Aztec capital (Velázquez, 2007:182-183). The concept of technological style is based on the fact that in the different phases of the technical processes—also known as operational chains (Leroi-Gourhan, 1943, 1945)— producers have to make decisions when faced with a variable array of choices, restricted by environmental, historical, social, and cultural factors (Lemmonier, 1986:153; Schiffer, 1992:51). There are no external limiting factors for a sufficiently powerful human group to be the only causal factors in the entire decision-making process in the operational chains (Pfaffenberger, 1988:241), which according to ethno-archaeological research tend to be systematic and consistent, dictated to a large extent by custom (Sackett, 1990:33), in which technological limits coincide with those of communities. Therefore, the notion of technological style has been proposed as the group of choices a human groups makes, which constitute knowledge of a manufacturing tradition (Stark, 1990:27). When it comes to *Oliva* gastropod pendants, their relative heterogeneity suggests they are the product of different technological traditions, a principal one in which two techniques (abrasion and percussion) are used and the combination of them to remove the shell spires, as well as abrasion with an obsidian tool to produce grooved perforations,

The Study of Shell Object Manufacturing Techniques

their assessment.

from the Perspective of Experimental Archaeology and Work Traces 247

homogeneity or heterogeneity, the basis for discussion of the origin of shell artifacts and regarding some parameters of specialization; in this work, the use of the scanning electronic microscope (SEM) has been invaluable. Nevertheless, it is important to mention that SEM analysis of manufacturing traces is not an easy, mechanical task, because it is necessary to know the material that is being studied and to be familiar with it, to avoid confusing aspects of its structural characteristics with human modifications or with deterioration processes. For the characterization and identification of work traces, characteristics of relief, texture, bands, lines, and particles visible in micrographs on four magnification settings (100x, 300x, 600x, and 1000x), which seem to be the most adequate for present purposes, are taken into account. One cannot overlook the fact that characterization and identification of the micrographs implies interpretational work in which training and experience play a crucial role; this is an especially delicate matter in the case of archaeological objects, which almost always display some degree of deterioration, even when their condition might appear to be optimum. In this way, although it is possible to define clear parameters to distinguish to a certain degree the different materials and tools, there is always an element of subjectivity in

The information obtained from the analysis of work traces on archaeological materials from the sacred precinct of Tenochtitlan has made it possible to discuss aspects such as their origin and specialized production. The discovery of strong formal and technological standardization in *Pinctada mazatlanica* pieces and of a general tendency toward standardization in the case of *Oliva* genus shell pendants have made it possible to propose their production pertains to a style that can be regarded as identified with Tenochtitlan. Other groups of objects that display different forms of production have also been found that seem to represent non-local styles. This is the case of the shell pendants of genera other than *Oliva* that can hypothetically be proposed as pieces of Huastec production. The high degree of technological standardization in the *Pinctada mazatlanica* pieces might suggest a strong concentration of production units, which were possibly in the very palace of the ruler and where the artisans worked and resided, sponsored by the elites. The elitist character of these pieces and their major symbolic and ritual importance support this idea. On the other hand, their lengthy production times, the skill necessary to produce them, and their high demand in Mexica ceremonial life strongly suggest the individuals in charge of their production

On the other hand, the relative variability of manufacturing features of *Oliva* shells, pertaining to the style posited as Mexica, suggests the dispersion of groups of artisans responsible for their production. The low production time for these elements, compared to *Pinctada mazatlanica* pieces, are congruent with their lesser status, because they were circulated among lower social groups as a means of recognition for services rendered to the state in warfare. Therefore, their production seems to have taken into account technological efficiency for the sake of the high volume of production and in lieu of optimum results. The preceding provides an alternative explanation for the heterogeneity of the pieces, which might have been produced in the same workshops as the pearly objects, but by less

In closing, the purpose of this text has been to show the potential of the study of manufacturing traces through scanning electronic microscopy in elucidating different

were full-time artists, expert in the production of divine attributes.

experienced artisans or perhaps apprentices.

aspects of ancient societies.

which is displayed by the greatest number of pieces and appears from construction stages IV to VII; and others that are represented by few examples and that appear dispersed in different offerings or else concentrated in particular votive deposits. Again, the principal style is tentatively proposed to pertain to Tenochtitlan itself, while the techniques and tools that appear sporadically might be indicative of non-local traditions, whether from the Basin of Mexico, tribute-rendering provinces in the Aztec Empire, or regions beyond their sphere of domination (Velázquez, 2007:183–184).

Recently another group of shell pendants also found in Mexica offerings was studied. These belonged to genera other than *Oliva* (*Nerita*, *Neritina*, *Cassis*, *Polinices*, *Columbella*, *Nitidella*, *Olivella*, *Agaronia*, *Marginella,* and *Conus*). In these cases, the use of sandstone, not found in the Basin of Mexico, was identified as the material used to remove the spire of some examples, abrade the surface of others, and produce irregular perforations. The fact that the majority of the species identified come from the Atlantic littoral makes it highly likely that these objects came from the Gulf Coast, perhaps from the Huasteca region, where there is an abundance of sedimentary rock and which was conquered by the Aztec Empire during the reign of Moctezuma Xocoyotzin (1440–1469), and remained a subject of the empire until the rule of Moctezuma Ilhuicamina (1502–1520) (Velázquez et al., 2010; Velázquez & Zúñiga, 2010). Six *Olivella volutella* pendants found in Burial 1 of Building 1 in Tancama, Querétaro, a Postclassic period site pertaining to the Huastec culture, are relevant to the case in point. These objects are identical to those found in the offerings in the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan and the study of their manufacturing traces made it possible to identify sandstone as the material employed to make the irregular perforations by abrasion (Velázquez et al., 2010) (figure 12).

Fig. 12. Shell pendants of the *Olivella* genus from the sacred precinct of Tenochtitlan (a) and from Tancama, Querétaro (b). Photos: G. Zúñiga.

#### **5. Conclusion**

The analysis of experimentally replicated manufacturing traces has shown that the different processes and tools produced different features with distinctive characteristics that make it possible to differentiate them and identify them with archaeological materials; this can be conducted on several levels (macroscopic and microscopic), depending on the extent of fineness that one requires. In the specific case of the present research project, it was of vital importance to distinguish between tools and materials with the greatest degree of precision possible, because it provided the key to obtaining important information on technological

which is displayed by the greatest number of pieces and appears from construction stages IV to VII; and others that are represented by few examples and that appear dispersed in different offerings or else concentrated in particular votive deposits. Again, the principal style is tentatively proposed to pertain to Tenochtitlan itself, while the techniques and tools that appear sporadically might be indicative of non-local traditions, whether from the Basin of Mexico, tribute-rendering provinces in the Aztec Empire, or regions beyond their sphere

Recently another group of shell pendants also found in Mexica offerings was studied. These belonged to genera other than *Oliva* (*Nerita*, *Neritina*, *Cassis*, *Polinices*, *Columbella*, *Nitidella*, *Olivella*, *Agaronia*, *Marginella,* and *Conus*). In these cases, the use of sandstone, not found in the Basin of Mexico, was identified as the material used to remove the spire of some examples, abrade the surface of others, and produce irregular perforations. The fact that the majority of the species identified come from the Atlantic littoral makes it highly likely that these objects came from the Gulf Coast, perhaps from the Huasteca region, where there is an abundance of sedimentary rock and which was conquered by the Aztec Empire during the reign of Moctezuma Xocoyotzin (1440–1469), and remained a subject of the empire until the rule of Moctezuma Ilhuicamina (1502–1520) (Velázquez et al., 2010; Velázquez & Zúñiga, 2010). Six *Olivella volutella* pendants found in Burial 1 of Building 1 in Tancama, Querétaro, a Postclassic period site pertaining to the Huastec culture, are relevant to the case in point. These objects are identical to those found in the offerings in the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan and the study of their manufacturing traces made it possible to identify sandstone as the material employed to make the irregular perforations by abrasion

Fig. 12. Shell pendants of the *Olivella* genus from the sacred precinct of Tenochtitlan (a) and

The analysis of experimentally replicated manufacturing traces has shown that the different processes and tools produced different features with distinctive characteristics that make it possible to differentiate them and identify them with archaeological materials; this can be conducted on several levels (macroscopic and microscopic), depending on the extent of fineness that one requires. In the specific case of the present research project, it was of vital importance to distinguish between tools and materials with the greatest degree of precision possible, because it provided the key to obtaining important information on technological

of domination (Velázquez, 2007:183–184).

(Velázquez et al., 2010) (figure 12).

from Tancama, Querétaro (b). Photos: G. Zúñiga.

**5. Conclusion** 

homogeneity or heterogeneity, the basis for discussion of the origin of shell artifacts and regarding some parameters of specialization; in this work, the use of the scanning electronic microscope (SEM) has been invaluable. Nevertheless, it is important to mention that SEM analysis of manufacturing traces is not an easy, mechanical task, because it is necessary to know the material that is being studied and to be familiar with it, to avoid confusing aspects of its structural characteristics with human modifications or with deterioration processes. For the characterization and identification of work traces, characteristics of relief, texture, bands, lines, and particles visible in micrographs on four magnification settings (100x, 300x, 600x, and 1000x), which seem to be the most adequate for present purposes, are taken into account. One cannot overlook the fact that characterization and identification of the micrographs implies interpretational work in which training and experience play a crucial role; this is an especially delicate matter in the case of archaeological objects, which almost always display some degree of deterioration, even when their condition might appear to be optimum. In this way, although it is possible to define clear parameters to distinguish to a certain degree the different materials and tools, there is always an element of subjectivity in their assessment.

The information obtained from the analysis of work traces on archaeological materials from the sacred precinct of Tenochtitlan has made it possible to discuss aspects such as their origin and specialized production. The discovery of strong formal and technological standardization in *Pinctada mazatlanica* pieces and of a general tendency toward standardization in the case of *Oliva* genus shell pendants have made it possible to propose their production pertains to a style that can be regarded as identified with Tenochtitlan. Other groups of objects that display different forms of production have also been found that seem to represent non-local styles. This is the case of the shell pendants of genera other than *Oliva* that can hypothetically be proposed as pieces of Huastec production. The high degree of technological standardization in the *Pinctada mazatlanica* pieces might suggest a strong concentration of production units, which were possibly in the very palace of the ruler and where the artisans worked and resided, sponsored by the elites. The elitist character of these pieces and their major symbolic and ritual importance support this idea. On the other hand, their lengthy production times, the skill necessary to produce them, and their high demand in Mexica ceremonial life strongly suggest the individuals in charge of their production were full-time artists, expert in the production of divine attributes.

On the other hand, the relative variability of manufacturing features of *Oliva* shells, pertaining to the style posited as Mexica, suggests the dispersion of groups of artisans responsible for their production. The low production time for these elements, compared to *Pinctada mazatlanica* pieces, are congruent with their lesser status, because they were circulated among lower social groups as a means of recognition for services rendered to the state in warfare. Therefore, their production seems to have taken into account technological efficiency for the sake of the high volume of production and in lieu of optimum results. The preceding provides an alternative explanation for the heterogeneity of the pieces, which might have been produced in the same workshops as the pearly objects, but by less experienced artisans or perhaps apprentices.

In closing, the purpose of this text has been to show the potential of the study of manufacturing traces through scanning electronic microscopy in elucidating different aspects of ancient societies.

The Study of Shell Object Manufacturing Techniques

Mexico City, Mexico.

7495.

8686.

0278-4165.

France.

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ISBN 9780816504459, Tucson, Arizona, USA.

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Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Mexico City, Mexico.

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**Section 4** 

**Sharing Knowledge – Some Proposals** 

**Concerning Heritage and Education** 


## **Section 4**

**Sharing Knowledge – Some Proposals Concerning Heritage and Education** 

250 Archaeology, New Approaches in Theory and Techniques

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Mexico.

**10** 

Tamás Molnár

*Hungary* 

**Heritage Protection in Pécs/Sopianae** 

*University of Pécs, Pollack Mihály Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology* 

Pécs is a historic city. A unique symbiosis of four important historical ages, namely the Roman Age, the Middle Ages, Turkish times and the late Baroque Age is present in the city. The topography of Pécs, together with the large green areas in the downtown, forms a

The Late Roman, Early Christian cemetery of Pécs had already been discovered by 1780. Since then, preservation and exhibition of the cemetery has been of continuous importance for everybody. As a reflection of several hundred years work on the Early Christian cemetery of

Over the last 40 years, research and planning works of the burial site has been carried out by Prof. Dr. Zoltán Bachman and his colleagues from the University of Pécs, Pollack Mihály Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology. Over this time a university course was established in the field of architecture, and later the Marcel Breuer Doctoral School was founded, where the main research field is heritage protection. With the foundation of the

Several important projects were carried out over the last few years. The Cathedral Museum was built to provide a place to house the original stonework of the Cathedral, originating from the 12-13th century. The northern and the western walkways along the town walls were constructed as important green areas of the downtown. Preservation of the Early Christian Mausoleum and of the burial sites in Apáca Street, together with the construction of the Cella Septichora Visitors' Centre, represented a great challenge for the architects and engineers. During the archaeological works of the Cella Septichora, the seven burial chambers located around it were also preserved. Nowadays all of these chambers and burial

The City of Pécs has two main squares. The religious main square, in front of the cathedral is connected to the civil main square by a promenade that was reconstructed during the works of the Cella Septichora Visitors' Centre. The moving bell-tower of St. Bartholomew and the

The question was the same at every archaeological site: how to start the works. Foreign projects were studied but did not provide much insight because in Italy the conditions were

building of the Archaeology Museum mark the beginning of the promenade.

Sopianae (Roman name of Pécs), the site was awarded World Heritage status in 2000.

doctoral school, an important research base of heritage protection was established.

**1. Introduction** 

special architectural neighbourhood.

objects can be visited from the visitors' centre.

**2. Methodology** 

## **Heritage Protection in Pécs/Sopianae**

### Tamás Molnár

*University of Pécs, Pollack Mihály Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology Hungary* 

#### **1. Introduction**

Pécs is a historic city. A unique symbiosis of four important historical ages, namely the Roman Age, the Middle Ages, Turkish times and the late Baroque Age is present in the city. The topography of Pécs, together with the large green areas in the downtown, forms a special architectural neighbourhood.

The Late Roman, Early Christian cemetery of Pécs had already been discovered by 1780. Since then, preservation and exhibition of the cemetery has been of continuous importance for everybody. As a reflection of several hundred years work on the Early Christian cemetery of Sopianae (Roman name of Pécs), the site was awarded World Heritage status in 2000.

Over the last 40 years, research and planning works of the burial site has been carried out by Prof. Dr. Zoltán Bachman and his colleagues from the University of Pécs, Pollack Mihály Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology. Over this time a university course was established in the field of architecture, and later the Marcel Breuer Doctoral School was founded, where the main research field is heritage protection. With the foundation of the doctoral school, an important research base of heritage protection was established.

Several important projects were carried out over the last few years. The Cathedral Museum was built to provide a place to house the original stonework of the Cathedral, originating from the 12-13th century. The northern and the western walkways along the town walls were constructed as important green areas of the downtown. Preservation of the Early Christian Mausoleum and of the burial sites in Apáca Street, together with the construction of the Cella Septichora Visitors' Centre, represented a great challenge for the architects and engineers. During the archaeological works of the Cella Septichora, the seven burial chambers located around it were also preserved. Nowadays all of these chambers and burial objects can be visited from the visitors' centre.

The City of Pécs has two main squares. The religious main square, in front of the cathedral is connected to the civil main square by a promenade that was reconstructed during the works of the Cella Septichora Visitors' Centre. The moving bell-tower of St. Bartholomew and the building of the Archaeology Museum mark the beginning of the promenade.

#### **2. Methodology**

The question was the same at every archaeological site: how to start the works. Foreign projects were studied but did not provide much insight because in Italy the conditions were

Heritage Protection in Pécs/Sopianae 255

being taken to various locations several times. A Cathedral Museum was really needed to

In the 1880s a find of stone-sculptures and architectural carvings was made in Pécs, the largest one that had ever come to light in Central Europe. In the course of the reconstruction of the Cathedral more than a thousand stone carvings were uncovered, providing evidence of a stunningly rich church decoration; it was unique in Romanesque Hungary and was rarely matched in the neighbouring countries. The exceptional discovery created a nation-wide sensation at the time and generated an international interest in scholarly circles. These decorations were made in the second half of the 12th century, an exceptionally prolific period of Romanesque sculpture. They embellished the church interior, primarily the central area between sanctuary and nave. It was precisely in this zone that the most outstanding sculptural ensembles were uncovered in the late 19th century. The ruins found at the centre proved to be the remains of a lavishly adorned small edifice, while the stairs descending from the nave to the crypt were framed by

The Altar of the Holy Cross (see Fig. 2) stood on a separate platform in the very centre of the Romanesque church, a place determined by its liturgical significance. The altar was enclosed in a vaulted structure gorgeously decorated both inside and outside with carved ornamental reliefs, gilding and polychromy; placed in the church's interior, this small building must have looked like a large jewellery box. The masters who accomplished them imported the

Fig. 1. The Cathedral and next to it the Cathedral Museum

unusually high walls with relief decorations.

establish a suitable place to display the original stone sculptures.

so favourable that they only had to ask for an admission fee at similar archaeological findings. The Bulgarians replicated the artefacts for the public and the Romanians simply blocked access of the archaeological sites. However, it was a Bulgarian building engineer who helped the team of Prof. Bachman. This expert achieved great results in the field of treating the air. His expertise opened new paths in the approach of the planners.

#### **2.1 Basic questions**

Three basic questions needed to be solved to save the archaeological sites in Pécs:

Firstly the painted burial chambers had to be isolated from the earth surrounding them, so they could no longer get contaminated by micro organisms breeding in the moisture which destroy the frescos. The solution was the establishment of a buffer zone, that is, a system of corridors surrounding the archaeological artefacts, the burial chambers. Secondly, constant air quality had to be secured as this is optimal for the frescos. In the special climate the temperature should be 13°C and relative humidity should be 55%. Special glass structures had to be designed to protect the frescos. Thirdly, the question was how to work securely but efficiently underground. The answer was given by miners, by Swabian excavation crews from the Mining Company in Dunaszekcső. They were brave and comfortable in at least four different trades, most of them were real artists of manual labour. They had intelligent hands (Bachman, 1989).

#### **2.2 Problem of understandable presentation**

Maybe the hardest question for each project was how to present the protected archaeological site to the visitors in a way that they can also understand what they are seeing. The solutions came through special views, natural light, transparency or clear visibility from different angles for the architects. The most important point at the world heritage site of Pécs was to make it clear for visitors that this cemetery was above the ground in the 4th century AD and this is what differentiates it from any other Early Christian archaeological site of the world.

#### **3. The Cathedral Museum**

The Cathedral Museum can be found in front of the vaulted passageway leading towards Pécs' Cathedral. It was sunk into the area of a former moat, between the walls of the bishop's castle and the contrascarpa, which was then filled up, in the Baroque Age. This considerable building was turned into an almost hidden, subterranean anti-building, providing a spacious interior to house the collection of the Cathedral (Bachmann, 2010).

#### **3.1 Stone findings of the cathedral**

The Cathedral of Pécs, founded in 1009, preserved outstanding architectural and sculptural elements from the 12th and 13th centuries even on a European scale. In the 19th century it was reconstructed following Purist principles according to the plans of Frigyes Schmidt, a German architect. The original stone sculptures were replaced by new, reconstructed elements (see Fig. 1).

Because of the reinterpretation, frequent reconstruction and completion of the Romanesque and Gothic architectural elements, the original stones were forced to wander for decades,

so favourable that they only had to ask for an admission fee at similar archaeological findings. The Bulgarians replicated the artefacts for the public and the Romanians simply blocked access of the archaeological sites. However, it was a Bulgarian building engineer who helped the team of Prof. Bachman. This expert achieved great results in the field of

Firstly the painted burial chambers had to be isolated from the earth surrounding them, so they could no longer get contaminated by micro organisms breeding in the moisture which destroy the frescos. The solution was the establishment of a buffer zone, that is, a system of corridors surrounding the archaeological artefacts, the burial chambers. Secondly, constant air quality had to be secured as this is optimal for the frescos. In the special climate the temperature should be 13°C and relative humidity should be 55%. Special glass structures had to be designed to protect the frescos. Thirdly, the question was how to work securely but efficiently underground. The answer was given by miners, by Swabian excavation crews from the Mining Company in Dunaszekcső. They were brave and comfortable in at least four different trades, most of them were real artists of manual labour. They had intelligent

Maybe the hardest question for each project was how to present the protected archaeological site to the visitors in a way that they can also understand what they are seeing. The solutions came through special views, natural light, transparency or clear visibility from different angles for the architects. The most important point at the world heritage site of Pécs was to make it clear for visitors that this cemetery was above the ground in the 4th century AD and this is

The Cathedral Museum can be found in front of the vaulted passageway leading towards Pécs' Cathedral. It was sunk into the area of a former moat, between the walls of the bishop's castle and the contrascarpa, which was then filled up, in the Baroque Age. This considerable building was turned into an almost hidden, subterranean anti-building, providing a spacious interior to house the collection of the Cathedral (Bachmann, 2010).

The Cathedral of Pécs, founded in 1009, preserved outstanding architectural and sculptural elements from the 12th and 13th centuries even on a European scale. In the 19th century it was reconstructed following Purist principles according to the plans of Frigyes Schmidt, a German architect. The original stone sculptures were replaced by new, reconstructed

Because of the reinterpretation, frequent reconstruction and completion of the Romanesque and Gothic architectural elements, the original stones were forced to wander for decades,

what differentiates it from any other Early Christian archaeological site of the world.

treating the air. His expertise opened new paths in the approach of the planners.

Three basic questions needed to be solved to save the archaeological sites in Pécs:

**2.1 Basic questions** 

hands (Bachman, 1989).

**3. The Cathedral Museum** 

**3.1 Stone findings of the cathedral** 

elements (see Fig. 1).

**2.2 Problem of understandable presentation** 

Fig. 1. The Cathedral and next to it the Cathedral Museum

being taken to various locations several times. A Cathedral Museum was really needed to establish a suitable place to display the original stone sculptures.

In the 1880s a find of stone-sculptures and architectural carvings was made in Pécs, the largest one that had ever come to light in Central Europe. In the course of the reconstruction of the Cathedral more than a thousand stone carvings were uncovered, providing evidence of a stunningly rich church decoration; it was unique in Romanesque Hungary and was rarely matched in the neighbouring countries. The exceptional discovery created a nation-wide sensation at the time and generated an international interest in scholarly circles. These decorations were made in the second half of the 12th century, an exceptionally prolific period of Romanesque sculpture. They embellished the church interior, primarily the central area between sanctuary and nave. It was precisely in this zone that the most outstanding sculptural ensembles were uncovered in the late 19th century. The ruins found at the centre proved to be the remains of a lavishly adorned small edifice, while the stairs descending from the nave to the crypt were framed by unusually high walls with relief decorations.

The Altar of the Holy Cross (see Fig. 2) stood on a separate platform in the very centre of the Romanesque church, a place determined by its liturgical significance. The altar was enclosed in a vaulted structure gorgeously decorated both inside and outside with carved ornamental reliefs, gilding and polychromy; placed in the church's interior, this small building must have looked like a large jewellery box. The masters who accomplished them imported the

Heritage Protection in Pécs/Sopianae 257

beautiful angel (see Fig. 3), escaped the usual fate that befell most of the stone carvings in Pécs during the Ottoman occupation, since it had been incorporated into the Gothic

In the opinion of the 19th century restorers of the Cathedral, the uncovered remains of the once so splendid Romanesque decoration were too fragmented to be incorporated into the new church. The only acceptable solution seemed to be replacing them with copies reflecting the tastes of the time; the entrance to the crypt is now decorated with such copies. Detached from their original contexts, the carvings became pieces in a sculpture collection. During the one hundred-year history of the collection, periods of exhibitions alternated with spells of confinement in storerooms. Owing to the dampness of its walls, the last venue of the stone carvings, the Romanesque Lapidary Museum closed its doors more than twenty years ago. That was the time when the collection's confinement to storerooms began eventually ending up in a cinema in a village near Pécs, the eighth station in the calvary of the stone carvings. In the meantime a generation grew up for whom these splendid relics of

Having been made homeless, the stones of Pécs' cathedral were almost added to the long list of Hungarian cultural losses. The decisive turn in their fate came as a result of the concerted efforts and financial support of central and local authorities - the Ministry of Culture and Education, the Hungarian Bureau for the Protection of Historical Monuments, the City

medieval Hungarian art and European culture simply do not exist.

triumphal arch of the sanctuary.

Fig. 3. The figure of the angel

Fig. 2. The Altar of the Holy Cross

traditions of Northern Italian ornamental stone carving to Pécs. In the process they created a unique work of art: such a lavishly decorated altar baldachin in the shape of a building is unparalleled in the whole of Europe. As indicated by a further series of carvings, decoration of this kind was not absent in the area around the altar either.

The abundance of ornaments and colours were integrated within the narrative framework of large-scale relief cycles, which covered the walls of the entrances to the crypt. Their images spanned all that medieval man considered to be his past and future: the history of Salvation, from Genesis to the Last Judgement. It was an immense and ambitious programme, paralleled by only a few similar works in contemporary Europe. To carry out the plan, a number of outstanding masters were invited from abroad, which mediated recent trends in sculpture from France and Northern Italy. The walls of the southern entrance to the crypt were decorated with parallel cycles of the life of Christ and that of Samson, a hero in the Old Testament. They rank among the greatest achievements of medieval art in Hungary, while some of their scenes, for example, the Three Magi and the Passion of Jesus or the story of Samson are also regarded as remarkable works of universal Romanesque sculpture. In the presentation of the Creation and Adam and Eve in the northern entrance to the crypt, local craftsmen were also engaged. They were equally responsible for the sculptures of the elders of the Apocalypse and the angels. One of these figures, an exceptionally well preserved and

traditions of Northern Italian ornamental stone carving to Pécs. In the process they created a unique work of art: such a lavishly decorated altar baldachin in the shape of a building is unparalleled in the whole of Europe. As indicated by a further series of carvings, decoration

The abundance of ornaments and colours were integrated within the narrative framework of large-scale relief cycles, which covered the walls of the entrances to the crypt. Their images spanned all that medieval man considered to be his past and future: the history of Salvation, from Genesis to the Last Judgement. It was an immense and ambitious programme, paralleled by only a few similar works in contemporary Europe. To carry out the plan, a number of outstanding masters were invited from abroad, which mediated recent trends in sculpture from France and Northern Italy. The walls of the southern entrance to the crypt were decorated with parallel cycles of the life of Christ and that of Samson, a hero in the Old Testament. They rank among the greatest achievements of medieval art in Hungary, while some of their scenes, for example, the Three Magi and the Passion of Jesus or the story of Samson are also regarded as remarkable works of universal Romanesque sculpture. In the presentation of the Creation and Adam and Eve in the northern entrance to the crypt, local craftsmen were also engaged. They were equally responsible for the sculptures of the elders of the Apocalypse and the angels. One of these figures, an exceptionally well preserved and

Fig. 2. The Altar of the Holy Cross

of this kind was not absent in the area around the altar either.

beautiful angel (see Fig. 3), escaped the usual fate that befell most of the stone carvings in Pécs during the Ottoman occupation, since it had been incorporated into the Gothic triumphal arch of the sanctuary.

#### Fig. 3. The figure of the angel

In the opinion of the 19th century restorers of the Cathedral, the uncovered remains of the once so splendid Romanesque decoration were too fragmented to be incorporated into the new church. The only acceptable solution seemed to be replacing them with copies reflecting the tastes of the time; the entrance to the crypt is now decorated with such copies. Detached from their original contexts, the carvings became pieces in a sculpture collection. During the one hundred-year history of the collection, periods of exhibitions alternated with spells of confinement in storerooms. Owing to the dampness of its walls, the last venue of the stone carvings, the Romanesque Lapidary Museum closed its doors more than twenty years ago. That was the time when the collection's confinement to storerooms began eventually ending up in a cinema in a village near Pécs, the eighth station in the calvary of the stone carvings. In the meantime a generation grew up for whom these splendid relics of medieval Hungarian art and European culture simply do not exist.

Having been made homeless, the stones of Pécs' cathedral were almost added to the long list of Hungarian cultural losses. The decisive turn in their fate came as a result of the concerted efforts and financial support of central and local authorities - the Ministry of Culture and Education, the Hungarian Bureau for the Protection of Historical Monuments, the City

Heritage Protection in Pécs/Sopianae 259

remained quite fragmented because of the storms of history and the reconstructions of different ages. Because of this, the cathedral's collection of stone findings is represented in a way that these priceless treasures can be seen in almost their original setting. (see Fig. 4)

The basis of the architectural concept was to place the western gate, the Altar and the two access ways in the same way as they could be found in the Cathedral. Owing to the incomprehensible and inexplicable resistance of art historians, the architects have not managed to achieve this. It was also an important architectural consideration that regarding its view, the large subterranean museum should somehow be connected to the Cathedral. It has been achieved with the help of a glass wall that was cut into the western wall of the Bishop's Castle. The glass wall continues in the form of a wedge shaped glass ceiling. Thus the view of the Cathedral meets the eyes of the visitors in the museum, helping them to identify the former location of the stone findings where the gate, the Altar and the entrance to the crypts were located in the original Cathedral. In addition to the regular planning work the architects had to struggle with two other things: to find funding for building the museum and as the construction of the museum was extremely slow, the concept had to be

The concept of the museum building follows the idea of the 'house in the house' composition. Damp-proof insulation of the building guaranteed protection from the moisture of the soil. In the construction at the museum, gypsum-concrete was applied, also known as frosted concrete, the patent of Béla Sámsondi Kis. At that time, the person responsible for the patent, István Szövényi, used to work for the Hungarian Bureau for the Protection of Historical Monuments, therefore the Bureau could also provide financial support to develop a new building under the pretext of technical improvement. The neutral appearance of the structure is perfect for establishing a museum. The structure achieved unparalleled solidity. Three centimetres of special consistency concrete is sandwiched between two 1 cm thick 60x60 cm gypsum panels with steel reinforcing. As the gypsum solidifies it absorbs water from the concrete creating the so-called 'frosted concrete' whose strength is outstanding. The longest span is 12 meters which is loaded in the middle. The presence of gypsum regulates the humidity in a natural way. Hans Hollein had already applied this material in a museum in Mönchengaldbach. The structure had another great advantage: the site was so narrow that it was impossible to use cranes to build the structure. When constructing the building, migrant workers from Romania worked on the project under the leadership of a project supervisor. The potential provided by these traditional tradesmen could be utilized, who even made the tools for the technology themselves. The facades provided great opportunities. The subterranean building emerges with two facades: the western façade whose main constituting element is the wall of the Bishop's Castle. The large glass wall was concealed here, interrupting the castle wall for didactic purposes and also continuing it as this joins the 'new castle wall' that follows the path of the former wall. This new wall is made of sandstone similar to the stone of the Cathedral. An emergency exit, a castle gate has also been built into the wall. The southern façade stimulates viewers with its strong colours. This was a conscious decision, as strong and vivid colours were popular in the Middle Ages. The dead and tired colours of its surrounding allow, what is more,

demand the appearance of a bright red facade. (Bachman & Bachmann, 2010)

The interior of the museum has a simple double-deck arrangement. The way the gate, the altar and the passageways leading to the crypt dominated by stonework are displayed,

created according to the most modern principles.

Council of Pécs, the County Council of Baranya, and the Janus Pannonius Museum of Pécs as well as of the Bishopric of Pécs. On their initiative, the Pécs Cathedral Museum Foundation was created in 1990. Its trustees launched a dynamic action for the physical presentation and cultural survival of the collection with two objectives: the conservation of the stone carvings and the construction of a new Cathedral Museum. The conservation was the first comprehensive effort of this kind in the history of the collection. The carvings were cleaned, the condition of the stones was stabilised, and a good part of the strongly faded polychromy, along with important portions of gilding, was successfully recovered. The substantial financial support of two prestigious foundations from the United States (the Grant Program of the J. Paul Getty Trust, Los Angeles, and the World Monuments Fund, New York, administrator of the Samuel H. Kress Foundation's European Preservation Program) played a major role in the conservation, and so did the generous donations by a group of Hungarian-born American citizens.

#### **3.2 Concept and structure of the museum**

The two castle walls provided the western and the eastern walls of the museum. The building had to be confined with the help of a buttress from the north, while from the south a glass screen entrance was constructed. Simultaneously, visitors were given the opportunity to walk up on top of the Cathedral Museum to the exhibition, providing a modern, wonderful spectacle of the sanctuary of the Cathedral from an angle never seen before. The architectural heritage of the Middle Ages, the church architecture in this case

Fig. 4. Construction site of the Cathedral Museum in the former moat

Council of Pécs, the County Council of Baranya, and the Janus Pannonius Museum of Pécs as well as of the Bishopric of Pécs. On their initiative, the Pécs Cathedral Museum Foundation was created in 1990. Its trustees launched a dynamic action for the physical presentation and cultural survival of the collection with two objectives: the conservation of the stone carvings and the construction of a new Cathedral Museum. The conservation was the first comprehensive effort of this kind in the history of the collection. The carvings were cleaned, the condition of the stones was stabilised, and a good part of the strongly faded polychromy, along with important portions of gilding, was successfully recovered. The substantial financial support of two prestigious foundations from the United States (the Grant Program of the J. Paul Getty Trust, Los Angeles, and the World Monuments Fund, New York, administrator of the Samuel H. Kress Foundation's European Preservation Program) played a major role in the conservation, and so did the generous donations by a

The two castle walls provided the western and the eastern walls of the museum. The building had to be confined with the help of a buttress from the north, while from the south a glass screen entrance was constructed. Simultaneously, visitors were given the opportunity to walk up on top of the Cathedral Museum to the exhibition, providing a modern, wonderful spectacle of the sanctuary of the Cathedral from an angle never seen before. The architectural heritage of the Middle Ages, the church architecture in this case

Fig. 4. Construction site of the Cathedral Museum in the former moat

group of Hungarian-born American citizens.

**3.2 Concept and structure of the museum** 

remained quite fragmented because of the storms of history and the reconstructions of different ages. Because of this, the cathedral's collection of stone findings is represented in a way that these priceless treasures can be seen in almost their original setting. (see Fig. 4)

The basis of the architectural concept was to place the western gate, the Altar and the two access ways in the same way as they could be found in the Cathedral. Owing to the incomprehensible and inexplicable resistance of art historians, the architects have not managed to achieve this. It was also an important architectural consideration that regarding its view, the large subterranean museum should somehow be connected to the Cathedral. It has been achieved with the help of a glass wall that was cut into the western wall of the Bishop's Castle. The glass wall continues in the form of a wedge shaped glass ceiling. Thus the view of the Cathedral meets the eyes of the visitors in the museum, helping them to identify the former location of the stone findings where the gate, the Altar and the entrance to the crypts were located in the original Cathedral. In addition to the regular planning work the architects had to struggle with two other things: to find funding for building the museum and as the construction of the museum was extremely slow, the concept had to be created according to the most modern principles.

The concept of the museum building follows the idea of the 'house in the house' composition. Damp-proof insulation of the building guaranteed protection from the moisture of the soil. In the construction at the museum, gypsum-concrete was applied, also known as frosted concrete, the patent of Béla Sámsondi Kis. At that time, the person responsible for the patent, István Szövényi, used to work for the Hungarian Bureau for the Protection of Historical Monuments, therefore the Bureau could also provide financial support to develop a new building under the pretext of technical improvement. The neutral appearance of the structure is perfect for establishing a museum. The structure achieved unparalleled solidity. Three centimetres of special consistency concrete is sandwiched between two 1 cm thick 60x60 cm gypsum panels with steel reinforcing. As the gypsum solidifies it absorbs water from the concrete creating the so-called 'frosted concrete' whose strength is outstanding. The longest span is 12 meters which is loaded in the middle. The presence of gypsum regulates the humidity in a natural way. Hans Hollein had already applied this material in a museum in Mönchengaldbach. The structure had another great advantage: the site was so narrow that it was impossible to use cranes to build the structure. When constructing the building, migrant workers from Romania worked on the project under the leadership of a project supervisor. The potential provided by these traditional tradesmen could be utilized, who even made the tools for the technology themselves. The facades provided great opportunities. The subterranean building emerges with two facades: the western façade whose main constituting element is the wall of the Bishop's Castle. The large glass wall was concealed here, interrupting the castle wall for didactic purposes and also continuing it as this joins the 'new castle wall' that follows the path of the former wall. This new wall is made of sandstone similar to the stone of the Cathedral. An emergency exit, a castle gate has also been built into the wall. The southern façade stimulates viewers with its strong colours. This was a conscious decision, as strong and vivid colours were popular in the Middle Ages. The dead and tired colours of its surrounding allow, what is more, demand the appearance of a bright red facade. (Bachman & Bachmann, 2010)

The interior of the museum has a simple double-deck arrangement. The way the gate, the altar and the passageways leading to the crypt dominated by stonework are displayed,

Heritage Protection in Pécs/Sopianae 261

hundred tombs. Of these, a seven-celled tomb (Cella Septichora), and a three-celled pentagon shaped tomb (Cella Trichora) were excavated on two levels. The challenges of preservation were solved by isolating the tomb from the surrounding soil and creating an environment with a constant air condition. When displaying the cemetery the architects tried to retain the experience that would have greeted those first archaeologists who

The Early Christian Mausoleum was discovered during the reconstruction works of the cascade in front of the Cathedral in Pécs and was opened to the public in 1986. The Early

excavated the 1600 year old Christian cemetery.

Christian building was reconstructed in 2007 (see Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. The ground walls of the Early Christian Mausoleum

Three people positively influenced the planning process of the mausoleum. The first was Ferenc Mendele, who asked Dr. Zoltán Bachman to introduce the Early Christian Mausoleum, discovered when reconstructing the cascade in front of the cathedral (Bachman & Bachmann, 2001). The archaeologist at that time was Ferenc Fülep, who was also the director-general of the National Museum in Budapest at that time. He believed in the concept of the architect. Finally the project was further reinforced by the trust and love of

**4.1 Early Christian Mausoleum** 

compiled and made understandable, together with the technical details, are absolutely outstanding. Integrating this fragmentary collection of stonework findings has always been a problem. The stone restorer, Vilmos Osgyáni came up with an original idea. He created a steel structure similar to the shelves we can find in the pantry of our grandmother. Stainless steel "shelves" connect the superstructure and the jointing of the stones. Using this solution the stones are stabilized by their own weight. The stones were built together clearly without being damaged in any way. It is perfectly visible that the medieval gate was made of Roman tombstones (Romváry & Szilágyi, 2005).

The collection of the Cathedral Museum, which is an outstanding example of European culture, is now in a safe place. The museum (see Fig. 5) should remain a neutral architectural framework fitting in its environment, and should also be attractive. It should provide, as far as possible, an interactive museum presentation. The main block of the museum was built into the former moat, so it fits into its surroundings, the Cathedral, as a quasi anti-building: in which the brilliant stone sculptures of the medieval Cathedral play the most important role.

Fig. 5. Inside the Cathedral Museum

### **4. The Early Christian Cemetery**

The Early Christian Cemetery Complex of Sopianae was established in the 4th century A.D. The cemetery ruins, which were initially at ground level in the Late Roman Era, now lie underground in the historical city centre, near the Cathedral. Below the surface were several

compiled and made understandable, together with the technical details, are absolutely outstanding. Integrating this fragmentary collection of stonework findings has always been a problem. The stone restorer, Vilmos Osgyáni came up with an original idea. He created a steel structure similar to the shelves we can find in the pantry of our grandmother. Stainless steel "shelves" connect the superstructure and the jointing of the stones. Using this solution the stones are stabilized by their own weight. The stones were built together clearly without being damaged in any way. It is perfectly visible that the medieval gate was made of Roman

The collection of the Cathedral Museum, which is an outstanding example of European culture, is now in a safe place. The museum (see Fig. 5) should remain a neutral architectural framework fitting in its environment, and should also be attractive. It should provide, as far as possible, an interactive museum presentation. The main block of the museum was built into the former moat, so it fits into its surroundings, the Cathedral, as a quasi anti-building: in which the brilliant stone sculptures of the medieval Cathedral play the most important

The Early Christian Cemetery Complex of Sopianae was established in the 4th century A.D. The cemetery ruins, which were initially at ground level in the Late Roman Era, now lie underground in the historical city centre, near the Cathedral. Below the surface were several

tombstones (Romváry & Szilágyi, 2005).

Fig. 5. Inside the Cathedral Museum

**4. The Early Christian Cemetery** 

role.

hundred tombs. Of these, a seven-celled tomb (Cella Septichora), and a three-celled pentagon shaped tomb (Cella Trichora) were excavated on two levels. The challenges of preservation were solved by isolating the tomb from the surrounding soil and creating an environment with a constant air condition. When displaying the cemetery the architects tried to retain the experience that would have greeted those first archaeologists who excavated the 1600 year old Christian cemetery.

#### **4.1 Early Christian Mausoleum**

The Early Christian Mausoleum was discovered during the reconstruction works of the cascade in front of the Cathedral in Pécs and was opened to the public in 1986. The Early Christian building was reconstructed in 2007 (see Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. The ground walls of the Early Christian Mausoleum

Three people positively influenced the planning process of the mausoleum. The first was Ferenc Mendele, who asked Dr. Zoltán Bachman to introduce the Early Christian Mausoleum, discovered when reconstructing the cascade in front of the cathedral (Bachman & Bachmann, 2001). The archaeologist at that time was Ferenc Fülep, who was also the director-general of the National Museum in Budapest at that time. He believed in the concept of the architect. Finally the project was further reinforced by the trust and love of

Heritage Protection in Pécs/Sopianae 263

wine cellar of the Baroque parsonage, giving visitors the chance for architectural time travel,

The way the architects presented the Wine Pitcher burial chamber was relatively well paved. The principles of protection were similar to those of the Early Christian Mausoleum. The only difference lay in how the visitors could see the site. While in the case of the Mausoleum the visitors enter a glass box separating them from the regulated air-conditioned space where the frescos were, here, owing to the small size of the chamber it was impossible to achieve this. The frescos of the chamber were saved by the restorer Attila Pintér. The chamber was isolated with the surrounding corridor, which provides a space that levels off the greater air pressure inside the burial chamber and also protects it. However, the visitors, who could only look through a small door, and could not see the frescos. The vaulting of the chamber had collapsed. The architects used this opportunity to put glass vaulting over the chamber (Bachman, 1990). Through the glass structure visitors can see the mystical space of the chamber. To add the experience that the whole building was under the ground a winding staircase was needed leading the visitors from the area in front of the chamber up to the upper level, the reconstructed Roman ground level, where the ruins of the walls of the chamber are preserved in

situ (see Fig. 8). Today the chamber is connected to the Cella Septichora Visitors' Centre.

experiencing the beautiful Baroque vaulting techniques.

Fig. 8. Wine Pitcher burial chamber under the glass vault

The Peter and Paul burial chamber received its name from the portraits of the two apostles that are painted on the vault of the burial chamber. The location is really unique as the

**4.3 Peter and Paul burial chamber** 

Archbishop József Cserháti. Unfortunately over the following years, the three who played such an important role at the beginning, passed away. That was the time when a group of students joined Prof. Bachman as creative partners.

The plans were conceived under favourable circumstances: the project won a silver medal at the Architecture Biennale in Sofia, internationally confirming that the concept was right. To make the site readily comprehensible for the general public, the mausoleum, which had been below street level for centuries, had to presented in the following way: the part of the building that was originally under the ground in Roman times should remain under the surface while the part that was above the surface should recall the sunny world of the Mediterranean. Therefore the architects decided to present the remaining meter-high ground walls of the huge, one-nave building of the mausoleum in an amphitheatre-like opening so the visitors could view the site from the present surface.

The underground world of the burial site has been separated from the surrounding soil with a corridor built around the burial chamber, which makes it possible to walk around the chamber and also protects the back wall against the potential danger caused by water entering the site. (see Fig. 7.) The Early Christian Mausoleum was opened to the public in 1986. Since then the condition of the building has decayed. In 2007 the Early Christian Mausoleum was reconstructed with the help of EU funds. (Bachman et al., 1988)

Fig. 7. Frescos and a carved sarcophagus inside the mausoleum

#### **4.2 Wine pitcher burial chamber**

The wine pitcher burial chamber received its name from the wine pitcher that was painted on the wall of the chamber. It is also unique that the building can be accessed through the

Archbishop József Cserháti. Unfortunately over the following years, the three who played such an important role at the beginning, passed away. That was the time when a group of

The plans were conceived under favourable circumstances: the project won a silver medal at the Architecture Biennale in Sofia, internationally confirming that the concept was right. To make the site readily comprehensible for the general public, the mausoleum, which had been below street level for centuries, had to presented in the following way: the part of the building that was originally under the ground in Roman times should remain under the surface while the part that was above the surface should recall the sunny world of the Mediterranean. Therefore the architects decided to present the remaining meter-high ground walls of the huge, one-nave building of the mausoleum in an amphitheatre-like

The underground world of the burial site has been separated from the surrounding soil with a corridor built around the burial chamber, which makes it possible to walk around the chamber and also protects the back wall against the potential danger caused by water entering the site. (see Fig. 7.) The Early Christian Mausoleum was opened to the public in 1986. Since then the condition of the building has decayed. In 2007 the Early Christian

Mausoleum was reconstructed with the help of EU funds. (Bachman et al., 1988)

students joined Prof. Bachman as creative partners.

opening so the visitors could view the site from the present surface.

Fig. 7. Frescos and a carved sarcophagus inside the mausoleum

The wine pitcher burial chamber received its name from the wine pitcher that was painted on the wall of the chamber. It is also unique that the building can be accessed through the

**4.2 Wine pitcher burial chamber** 

wine cellar of the Baroque parsonage, giving visitors the chance for architectural time travel, experiencing the beautiful Baroque vaulting techniques.

The way the architects presented the Wine Pitcher burial chamber was relatively well paved. The principles of protection were similar to those of the Early Christian Mausoleum. The only difference lay in how the visitors could see the site. While in the case of the Mausoleum the visitors enter a glass box separating them from the regulated air-conditioned space where the frescos were, here, owing to the small size of the chamber it was impossible to achieve this. The frescos of the chamber were saved by the restorer Attila Pintér. The chamber was isolated with the surrounding corridor, which provides a space that levels off the greater air pressure inside the burial chamber and also protects it. However, the visitors, who could only look through a small door, and could not see the frescos. The vaulting of the chamber had collapsed. The architects used this opportunity to put glass vaulting over the chamber (Bachman, 1990). Through the glass structure visitors can see the mystical space of the chamber. To add the experience that the whole building was under the ground a winding staircase was needed leading the visitors from the area in front of the chamber up to the upper level, the reconstructed Roman ground level, where the ruins of the walls of the chamber are preserved in situ (see Fig. 8). Today the chamber is connected to the Cella Septichora Visitors' Centre.

Fig. 8. Wine Pitcher burial chamber under the glass vault

#### **4.3 Peter and Paul burial chamber**

The Peter and Paul burial chamber received its name from the portraits of the two apostles that are painted on the vault of the burial chamber. The location is really unique as the

Heritage Protection in Pécs/Sopianae 265

introduced pathogens on their body and breath. Möller's design included a masonry structure for the protective building. In reality however, being an excellent engineer, who was well acquainted with reinforced concrete, he decided to try this method and left the wooden formwork there, which presented another medium for microorganisms. In the end, the protective building of Möller had to be destroyed. It was a superhuman task to demolish the protective building. The more than hundred year-old concrete structures had to be demolished. It was the miners who again rose to the challenge. Using special diamond drills they drilled several holes into the reinforced concrete structure, placed steel cylinders, cut in half into them, and then put the jackhammer into these to destroy the concrete without creating any vibration. The work took half a year. As the chamber lay at the foot of the south-eastern tower of the cathedral, the architects had to unearth the foundations of the tower, too. This was only possible if the workers excavated a horizontal shaft into the unbroken soil below the level of the burial chamber. The big surprise was that the tower had no foundations. Finally soil beneath the tower was reinforced with a jet-grouting method

Fig. 10. The protective chapel of Frigyes Schulek

that solved the stabilization of the tower. (Bachman, 2009a).

burial building can be found immediately in front of the south-eastern tower of the cathedral, nowadays 8-10 meters below the ground. It was discovered in 1780 so it has suffered several intrusions (Bachmann, 2002).

Despite the experience and knowledge gained in the case of the protective buildings of the Early Christian Mausoleum and that of the Wine Pitcher burial chamber, the Peter and Paul chamber posed the most difficult challenge. Its location was already a matter of concern.

The most important exploration from earlier times took place in 1913 using the plans of István Möller (see Fig. 9). He found a brilliant concept that was similar to the idea of Frigyes Schulek who designed a protective chapel resembling the Fishermen's Bastion in Budapest (see Fig. 10). According to the concept the chamber was separated from its immediate environment, was surrounded with a protective building and the air was ventilated between them using pressure differences.

Fig. 9. The plan for the protective building of the burial chamber by Mr. Möller

Unfortunately the dampness of the air created an ideal environment for the growth of microorganisms. A further danger appeared in the form of the visitors who further

burial building can be found immediately in front of the south-eastern tower of the cathedral, nowadays 8-10 meters below the ground. It was discovered in 1780 so it has

Despite the experience and knowledge gained in the case of the protective buildings of the Early Christian Mausoleum and that of the Wine Pitcher burial chamber, the Peter and Paul chamber posed the most difficult challenge. Its location was already a matter of concern.

The most important exploration from earlier times took place in 1913 using the plans of István Möller (see Fig. 9). He found a brilliant concept that was similar to the idea of Frigyes Schulek who designed a protective chapel resembling the Fishermen's Bastion in Budapest (see Fig. 10). According to the concept the chamber was separated from its immediate environment, was surrounded with a protective building and the air was ventilated between

Fig. 9. The plan for the protective building of the burial chamber by Mr. Möller

Unfortunately the dampness of the air created an ideal environment for the growth of microorganisms. A further danger appeared in the form of the visitors who further

suffered several intrusions (Bachmann, 2002).

them using pressure differences.

Fig. 10. The protective chapel of Frigyes Schulek

introduced pathogens on their body and breath. Möller's design included a masonry structure for the protective building. In reality however, being an excellent engineer, who was well acquainted with reinforced concrete, he decided to try this method and left the wooden formwork there, which presented another medium for microorganisms. In the end, the protective building of Möller had to be destroyed. It was a superhuman task to demolish the protective building. The more than hundred year-old concrete structures had to be demolished. It was the miners who again rose to the challenge. Using special diamond drills they drilled several holes into the reinforced concrete structure, placed steel cylinders, cut in half into them, and then put the jackhammer into these to destroy the concrete without creating any vibration. The work took half a year. As the chamber lay at the foot of the south-eastern tower of the cathedral, the architects had to unearth the foundations of the tower, too. This was only possible if the workers excavated a horizontal shaft into the unbroken soil below the level of the burial chamber. The big surprise was that the tower had no foundations. Finally soil beneath the tower was reinforced with a jet-grouting method that solved the stabilization of the tower. (Bachman, 2009a).

Heritage Protection in Pécs/Sopianae 267

of the reinforced concrete protective structure of Möller was left here as a memento. The architects did not risk demolishing it because of the danger of damaging burial chamber No.

The early Christian building of the baptistery is also known as Burial Chamber No. V. This building has a single floor, an octagonal shape and an antechamber. The baptistery has the tallest Roman walls that exist in Hungary, further enhancing the importance of the Early Christian burial ground. During the excavation works a stone window was also discovered. The baptistery is another major burial chamber that is located east of the Peter and Paul chamber. Owing to its location at the bottom of the tower, Möller demolished the northwestern part of the octagonal walls so he could underpin the south-eastern tower of the Cathedral with reinforced concrete. Beautiful and mysterious architectural details were

Since the edifice is in the immediate vicinity of the Cathedral, it seemed useful to build in a skylight, so a 3mx3m glass slab was built into the surface of the Cathedral Square making it

Burial chamber No. V. lies completely under the surface of Cathedral Square so the incoming light makes people feel as if they are walking on the ground level of Roman times. The steel grid pavement is an important element because, on the one hand, hanging from the ceiling of the protective building above the floor of the edifice it seems to be floating in the air providing an ideal view for the visitors. In addition, it isolates the people from the ruins and finally, it illustrates the ground level of the former cemetery. In fact, it is the Cella Septichora Visitors' Centre that makes the pavement attached to the slab important as it

possible to see the tower. This idea also adds to the historical continuity of the site.

Fig. 12. Visitors on the steel grid structure looking up to the tower of the cathedral

revealed that will require the explanation of archaeologists in the future.

leads the visitors through the site (see Fig. 12).

III.

**4.4 Baptistery** 

The concept of protection was the same as in the case of the previous burial chambers: the painted chamber had to be isolated first, then ideal air conditions had to be established, a slight pressure had to be created inside the burial chamber to make the humidity move outwards and not condense on the surface of the frescos and because of the greater pressure a buffer zone had to be built, that is a system of corridors surrounding the chamber. The chamber had been protected this way, but unfortunately the visitors were unable to see the frescos. The architects had to do something for the chamber with the most beautiful frescos. Finally they decided to build another ground floor underneath the floor of the chamber. This was the level the workers had already traversed when the research tunnels were drilled to reveal the foundations of the tower. Walking down a winding staircase and through a corridor, visitors find themselves underneath the floor of the burial chamber that has been replaced with glass (see Fig. 11). Visitors enjoy a wonderful view as a biblical world unfolds in front of their eyes: the allure of Paradise welcomes the visitors on the frescos as the late inhabitants of the burial chamber won the grace to be in Paradise because they suffered martyrdom for their faith. People entering the Peter and Paul burial chamber become silent. Something touches the visitors' heart.

Fig. 11. View of the painted vault in the Peter and Paul burial chamber

The edifice to the east that the architects believed to also be a burial chamber was also enticing, therefore the planners built the eastern wall of the protective building in a way that could be easily demolished and would not prevent future exploration. In connection with the Peter and Paul burial chamber, also burial chamber No. III was placed under protection. This chamber is closely attached to the Peter and Paul burial chamber from the west. A part of the reinforced concrete protective structure of Möller was left here as a memento. The architects did not risk demolishing it because of the danger of damaging burial chamber No. III.

#### **4.4 Baptistery**

266 Archaeology, New Approaches in Theory and Techniques

The concept of protection was the same as in the case of the previous burial chambers: the painted chamber had to be isolated first, then ideal air conditions had to be established, a slight pressure had to be created inside the burial chamber to make the humidity move outwards and not condense on the surface of the frescos and because of the greater pressure a buffer zone had to be built, that is a system of corridors surrounding the chamber. The chamber had been protected this way, but unfortunately the visitors were unable to see the frescos. The architects had to do something for the chamber with the most beautiful frescos. Finally they decided to build another ground floor underneath the floor of the chamber. This was the level the workers had already traversed when the research tunnels were drilled to reveal the foundations of the tower. Walking down a winding staircase and through a corridor, visitors find themselves underneath the floor of the burial chamber that has been replaced with glass (see Fig. 11). Visitors enjoy a wonderful view as a biblical world unfolds in front of their eyes: the allure of Paradise welcomes the visitors on the frescos as the late inhabitants of the burial chamber won the grace to be in Paradise because they suffered martyrdom for their faith. People entering the Peter and Paul burial chamber become silent.

Something touches the visitors' heart.

Fig. 11. View of the painted vault in the Peter and Paul burial chamber

The edifice to the east that the architects believed to also be a burial chamber was also enticing, therefore the planners built the eastern wall of the protective building in a way that could be easily demolished and would not prevent future exploration. In connection with the Peter and Paul burial chamber, also burial chamber No. III was placed under protection. This chamber is closely attached to the Peter and Paul burial chamber from the west. A part The early Christian building of the baptistery is also known as Burial Chamber No. V. This building has a single floor, an octagonal shape and an antechamber. The baptistery has the tallest Roman walls that exist in Hungary, further enhancing the importance of the Early Christian burial ground. During the excavation works a stone window was also discovered.

The baptistery is another major burial chamber that is located east of the Peter and Paul chamber. Owing to its location at the bottom of the tower, Möller demolished the northwestern part of the octagonal walls so he could underpin the south-eastern tower of the Cathedral with reinforced concrete. Beautiful and mysterious architectural details were revealed that will require the explanation of archaeologists in the future.

Since the edifice is in the immediate vicinity of the Cathedral, it seemed useful to build in a skylight, so a 3mx3m glass slab was built into the surface of the Cathedral Square making it possible to see the tower. This idea also adds to the historical continuity of the site.

Burial chamber No. V. lies completely under the surface of Cathedral Square so the incoming light makes people feel as if they are walking on the ground level of Roman times. The steel grid pavement is an important element because, on the one hand, hanging from the ceiling of the protective building above the floor of the edifice it seems to be floating in the air providing an ideal view for the visitors. In addition, it isolates the people from the ruins and finally, it illustrates the ground level of the former cemetery. In fact, it is the Cella Septichora Visitors' Centre that makes the pavement attached to the slab important as it leads the visitors through the site (see Fig. 12).

Fig. 12. Visitors on the steel grid structure looking up to the tower of the cathedral

Heritage Protection in Pécs/Sopianae 269

Funding from the European Union that the architects could apply for in relation to the 'Cella Septichora' provided the financial backing to establish the architecture required by the vision. Because of the funding process, the architects had to produce an authorization plan before the archaeological excavation. This created a bizarre situation where the construction of the protective building took place at the same time as the excavation creating a lot of

During the excavation works south of burial chamber No. V, incredible new findings were discovered. Thanks to the excavations of the archaeologists, the planners managed to locate the entrances of the new chambers and clarify the way the corpses had been taken into them. It was absolutely necessary to present the new findings, as it became an indispensable connecting area in the topography of the cemetery. A completely new type of burial building was discovered, which confirmed the reason why the area should become part of a world heritage site. The ground plans of the newly discovered chapels, that are named chapels No. XIX and XX, are semi-circular. These types of chapel had never been previously found. Here in the case of Pécs, this is the only Early Christian cemetery in Europe and possibly in the world, which is above ground. If Prof. Bachman wished to express high thoughts he could say that the Early Christian architecture itself was born here as a result of the Early Christian cemetery, because before that time, when this new faith was still illegal, its believers could only bury their dead in secret and under the ground, for example in the catacombs of Rome, while in Sopianae, believers could build small chapels over the burial

It was not only the Romans who valued the area of the cemetery, the people living here in the Middle Ages also made it the centre of their bishopric. It was a great responsibility and possibly forbidden to intrude into this fantastic symbiosis of historic monuments. Therefore the architects connected the various sites under the ground with the help of steel gridstructured bridges suspended from the concrete ceiling that is meant to symbolize the original surface level of the Roman cemetery. According to the architectural concept, light is allowed to enter the underground burial sites through a glass slab that is at today's street level to make people understand that they are not walking in catacombs but among chapels that once existed above the ground. This is how the Cella Septichora Visitor Centre was born, whose entrance opens from the promenade in front of the cathedral (Baliga, 2007). The entrance has a symbolic meaning as made from a massive transparent concrete gate with a small stream flowing next to it, which refers to this Early Christian symbol, water. The transparent concrete called LiTraCon is the invention of Áron Losonczy, a Hungarian architect (see Fig. 18). The stream flows over part of the glass slab, giving light to the corridor that leads visitors to the huge hall of the Cella Septichora, the seven-apse burial chapel, which is covered by a 300 m2 glass ceiling. This is supported by a cross-shaped bridge serving as a representative pavement for the bishop. At night, when it is illuminated,

the cross lying on the glass surface further reinforces the Early Christian symbols.

From the entrance hall of the Cella Septichora Visitor Centre, west of the parsonage, a passageway was built with the help of great engineering virtuosity by excavating under the parsonage itself. This corridor leads visitors to the magical space of the Cella Septichora. Returning from underneath the parsonage we can enter the world of the Wine Pitcher burial chamber. Going north, connecting the sites of burial chambers No. XIX, XX, V, III, IV and I and that of the Peter and Paul burial chamber, that had been built earlier, walking east

tension between the archaeologists and the architects.

chambers.

#### **4.5 Cella Septichora Visitors' Centre**

Cella Septichora is the name of the Early Christian building which has a special elliptic form with seven apses around it (see Fig. 13). The centre provides a single framework for all other Roman and Early Christian wonders. The architects aimed to make the underground cemetery visible in a way that the visitor could get an impression of the cemetery when it was in the sunshine. This task was solved by building a 300 m2 walkable glass-cover over the burial chambers, which also allows Cella Septichora to be viewed from street level (Bachman, 2009b).

Great poets usually had two topics to write about: death and women. The Early Christian Cemetery – a poem of Győző Csorba, the Kossuth Award-winning poet, led Prof. Bachman to visualize the concept. The poet, who, as a librarian, used to work next to the archaeological sites, watched the excavation works of the Early Christian cemetery from the windows of the library and witnessed archaeologists digging out the skeleton of a woman.

Fig. 13. Inside the Cella Septichora Visitors' Centre

Mr. Csorba described how she was lying there and imagined her coming alive. The poet 'clad' the woman with flesh and blood and muscles and the woman stirred and got up. According to the architectural concept, the world of graves is covered with a glass ceiling where Heaven may be contemplated from underneath: looking from the graves in the hope of resurrection. However, looking down, visitors can see the dark field of graves and between them the frescos of the fall and resurrection explaining the abstract state of the other world.

Cella Septichora is the name of the Early Christian building which has a special elliptic form with seven apses around it (see Fig. 13). The centre provides a single framework for all other Roman and Early Christian wonders. The architects aimed to make the underground cemetery visible in a way that the visitor could get an impression of the cemetery when it was in the sunshine. This task was solved by building a 300 m2 walkable glass-cover over the burial chambers, which also allows Cella Septichora to be viewed from street level

Great poets usually had two topics to write about: death and women. The Early Christian Cemetery – a poem of Győző Csorba, the Kossuth Award-winning poet, led Prof. Bachman to visualize the concept. The poet, who, as a librarian, used to work next to the archaeological sites, watched the excavation works of the Early Christian cemetery from the windows of the library and witnessed archaeologists digging out the skeleton of a woman.

Mr. Csorba described how she was lying there and imagined her coming alive. The poet 'clad' the woman with flesh and blood and muscles and the woman stirred and got up. According to the architectural concept, the world of graves is covered with a glass ceiling where Heaven may be contemplated from underneath: looking from the graves in the hope of resurrection. However, looking down, visitors can see the dark field of graves and between them the frescos of the fall and resurrection explaining the abstract state of the

**4.5 Cella Septichora Visitors' Centre** 

Fig. 13. Inside the Cella Septichora Visitors' Centre

other world.

(Bachman, 2009b).

Funding from the European Union that the architects could apply for in relation to the 'Cella Septichora' provided the financial backing to establish the architecture required by the vision. Because of the funding process, the architects had to produce an authorization plan before the archaeological excavation. This created a bizarre situation where the construction of the protective building took place at the same time as the excavation creating a lot of tension between the archaeologists and the architects.

During the excavation works south of burial chamber No. V, incredible new findings were discovered. Thanks to the excavations of the archaeologists, the planners managed to locate the entrances of the new chambers and clarify the way the corpses had been taken into them. It was absolutely necessary to present the new findings, as it became an indispensable connecting area in the topography of the cemetery. A completely new type of burial building was discovered, which confirmed the reason why the area should become part of a world heritage site. The ground plans of the newly discovered chapels, that are named chapels No. XIX and XX, are semi-circular. These types of chapel had never been previously found. Here in the case of Pécs, this is the only Early Christian cemetery in Europe and possibly in the world, which is above ground. If Prof. Bachman wished to express high thoughts he could say that the Early Christian architecture itself was born here as a result of the Early Christian cemetery, because before that time, when this new faith was still illegal, its believers could only bury their dead in secret and under the ground, for example in the catacombs of Rome, while in Sopianae, believers could build small chapels over the burial chambers.

It was not only the Romans who valued the area of the cemetery, the people living here in the Middle Ages also made it the centre of their bishopric. It was a great responsibility and possibly forbidden to intrude into this fantastic symbiosis of historic monuments. Therefore the architects connected the various sites under the ground with the help of steel gridstructured bridges suspended from the concrete ceiling that is meant to symbolize the original surface level of the Roman cemetery. According to the architectural concept, light is allowed to enter the underground burial sites through a glass slab that is at today's street level to make people understand that they are not walking in catacombs but among chapels that once existed above the ground. This is how the Cella Septichora Visitor Centre was born, whose entrance opens from the promenade in front of the cathedral (Baliga, 2007). The entrance has a symbolic meaning as made from a massive transparent concrete gate with a small stream flowing next to it, which refers to this Early Christian symbol, water. The transparent concrete called LiTraCon is the invention of Áron Losonczy, a Hungarian architect (see Fig. 18). The stream flows over part of the glass slab, giving light to the corridor that leads visitors to the huge hall of the Cella Septichora, the seven-apse burial chapel, which is covered by a 300 m2 glass ceiling. This is supported by a cross-shaped bridge serving as a representative pavement for the bishop. At night, when it is illuminated, the cross lying on the glass surface further reinforces the Early Christian symbols.

From the entrance hall of the Cella Septichora Visitor Centre, west of the parsonage, a passageway was built with the help of great engineering virtuosity by excavating under the parsonage itself. This corridor leads visitors to the magical space of the Cella Septichora. Returning from underneath the parsonage we can enter the world of the Wine Pitcher burial chamber. Going north, connecting the sites of burial chambers No. XIX, XX, V, III, IV and I and that of the Peter and Paul burial chamber, that had been built earlier, walking east

Heritage Protection in Pécs/Sopianae 271

bishop's palace, the buildings of the Middle Ages, Turkish times and the Baroque, which form quite an eclectic group, are built upon and next to one another, architects had to integrate this colourful and valuable historic mixture. The task was complimented with another task of making a connection between Széchenyi Square, which is the town's main square, and Cathedral Square. The promenade has been reconstructed and walkways were built along the inside of the western and northern town walls. Therefore, in addition to the uniqueness of the various historic periods built upon each other, there is another specialty offered to the citizens of Pécs: a chain of lush, green parks. In 2009, the bishopric of Pécs became 1000 years old. It celebrated this occasion with a great present: the façade of the buildings of the Cathedral Square, the Cathedral, the Bishop's Palace and the parsonage were all renovated. Today's Bishop's Palace, the walkways along the town walls and the world-class Early Christian cemetery all offer great experiences for both locals and international visitors, too. The north-western quarter of the historic town centre has never been so integrated and impressive as today. The establishment of the gardens adjoining the walkways along the northern and western town wall, the reconstruction of the Roman graves in Apáca Street and the renovation of the Civil Community House have all come true

To complete the complex of buildings around the Bishop's Palace in all their splendour, one thing remains to be built. The task of saving the Cella Trichora plays a unique role in the history of Hungarian architecture. It represents the continuity between the Roman times and

The concept of the architects was for the reconstruction of the museum, preservation and establishment of connections. The mosque of Ghazi Kasim was built on the site of the former Saint Bartholomew church, whose ruins - according to an archaeological excavation carried out at the beginning of the 20th century - can be found partly under the mosque and partly north of it, in front of the museum. With the reconstruction of a museum these unique

The Janus Pannonius Archaeology Museum is located on the main square of Pécs, at the eastern end of the reconstructed promenade (see Fig. 15). By walking west from the building, pedestrians can approach the buildings of the Early Christian burial ground. The building of the Archaeology Museum received its present form after a history of many centuries. According to the first land register, in 1687 the house of Ibrahim Csór, a janissary agha, was given to the Jesuits to be used for education purposes and it became a grammar school. In 1725 the building functions as a school of the Jesuits. From 1752 it became the house of a wine-merchant then in 1773, the house of the chamber. Between 1774 and 1822 the house was owned by the Országh family. Later it also functioned as an orphanage. In 1871 the Baranya County Savings and Credit Bank owned it and operated its bank there. In 1877 the building came into the possession of Kálmán Nádasdy who built the stone fence that can be seen today along the western side of the garden. In 1898 a new storey was added to the house that was designed and constructed by Imre Schlauch. The county purchased the house in 1941 in order to use it as a museum. Finally, in 1951 the house became

the Middle Ages because it still functioned as a church in the 11th century.

as part of this EU programme.

**5. The Archaeology Museum** 

artefacts could be presented to visitors.

**5.1 History of the museum building** 

inside the cellar and among the historic stones of the parsonage, the visitors reach a northsouth corridor that ends in the courtyard of the Cathedral Museum. North of it people can recall the Middle Ages by opening a sliding roof and entering the museum. Walking to the south we return to the upper level of the Cella Septichora and reach the entrance.

It is interesting to study the reactions of visitors to the site. Especially the common labourers are those who confirm the vision: they are moved by the spaces that had previously been unknown to them and understand the message of this 1600 year old new faith. They are not only interested in the children walking and playing on the glass ceiling, but they are also impressed by the prettier shapes. The well-travelled intellectual (who has never come across this type of site before), appreciate the uniqueness of this new protective building: the symbiosis of the antique culture and the new faith. Most importantly, the citizens of Pécs feel that this space is theirs. The Cella Septichora Visitors' Centre turned into a cultural meeting place. Concerts take place here, art exhibitions are organized, new books are launched, wedding ceremonies are held, etc. So this place is alive, it has become part of the promenade. The people of the 21st century may travel in time through the exhibition of a 20th century artist, under the baroque barrel vault and over the medieval walls into the Cathedral Museum where they can listen to an organ concert and end the journey in the shady park next to the town wall.

Fig. 14. The entrance of the Cella Septichora Visitors' Centre

It was a great step forward on this project that the architects managed to combine several smaller sites, however this is still insufficient. As the Early Christian burial ground, the

inside the cellar and among the historic stones of the parsonage, the visitors reach a northsouth corridor that ends in the courtyard of the Cathedral Museum. North of it people can recall the Middle Ages by opening a sliding roof and entering the museum. Walking to the

It is interesting to study the reactions of visitors to the site. Especially the common labourers are those who confirm the vision: they are moved by the spaces that had previously been unknown to them and understand the message of this 1600 year old new faith. They are not only interested in the children walking and playing on the glass ceiling, but they are also impressed by the prettier shapes. The well-travelled intellectual (who has never come across this type of site before), appreciate the uniqueness of this new protective building: the symbiosis of the antique culture and the new faith. Most importantly, the citizens of Pécs feel that this space is theirs. The Cella Septichora Visitors' Centre turned into a cultural meeting place. Concerts take place here, art exhibitions are organized, new books are launched, wedding ceremonies are held, etc. So this place is alive, it has become part of the promenade. The people of the 21st century may travel in time through the exhibition of a 20th century artist, under the baroque barrel vault and over the medieval walls into the Cathedral Museum where they can listen to an organ concert and end the journey in the

south we return to the upper level of the Cella Septichora and reach the entrance.

shady park next to the town wall.

Fig. 14. The entrance of the Cella Septichora Visitors' Centre

It was a great step forward on this project that the architects managed to combine several smaller sites, however this is still insufficient. As the Early Christian burial ground, the bishop's palace, the buildings of the Middle Ages, Turkish times and the Baroque, which form quite an eclectic group, are built upon and next to one another, architects had to integrate this colourful and valuable historic mixture. The task was complimented with another task of making a connection between Széchenyi Square, which is the town's main square, and Cathedral Square. The promenade has been reconstructed and walkways were built along the inside of the western and northern town walls. Therefore, in addition to the uniqueness of the various historic periods built upon each other, there is another specialty offered to the citizens of Pécs: a chain of lush, green parks. In 2009, the bishopric of Pécs became 1000 years old. It celebrated this occasion with a great present: the façade of the buildings of the Cathedral Square, the Cathedral, the Bishop's Palace and the parsonage were all renovated. Today's Bishop's Palace, the walkways along the town walls and the world-class Early Christian cemetery all offer great experiences for both locals and international visitors, too. The north-western quarter of the historic town centre has never been so integrated and impressive as today. The establishment of the gardens adjoining the walkways along the northern and western town wall, the reconstruction of the Roman graves in Apáca Street and the renovation of the Civil Community House have all come true as part of this EU programme.

To complete the complex of buildings around the Bishop's Palace in all their splendour, one thing remains to be built. The task of saving the Cella Trichora plays a unique role in the history of Hungarian architecture. It represents the continuity between the Roman times and the Middle Ages because it still functioned as a church in the 11th century.

#### **5. The Archaeology Museum**

The concept of the architects was for the reconstruction of the museum, preservation and establishment of connections. The mosque of Ghazi Kasim was built on the site of the former Saint Bartholomew church, whose ruins - according to an archaeological excavation carried out at the beginning of the 20th century - can be found partly under the mosque and partly north of it, in front of the museum. With the reconstruction of a museum these unique artefacts could be presented to visitors.

#### **5.1 History of the museum building**

The Janus Pannonius Archaeology Museum is located on the main square of Pécs, at the eastern end of the reconstructed promenade (see Fig. 15). By walking west from the building, pedestrians can approach the buildings of the Early Christian burial ground. The building of the Archaeology Museum received its present form after a history of many centuries. According to the first land register, in 1687 the house of Ibrahim Csór, a janissary agha, was given to the Jesuits to be used for education purposes and it became a grammar school. In 1725 the building functions as a school of the Jesuits. From 1752 it became the house of a wine-merchant then in 1773, the house of the chamber. Between 1774 and 1822 the house was owned by the Országh family. Later it also functioned as an orphanage. In 1871 the Baranya County Savings and Credit Bank owned it and operated its bank there. In 1877 the building came into the possession of Kálmán Nádasdy who built the stone fence that can be seen today along the western side of the garden. In 1898 a new storey was added to the house that was designed and constructed by Imre Schlauch. The county purchased the house in 1941 in order to use it as a museum. Finally, in 1951 the house became

Heritage Protection in Pécs/Sopianae 273

to the original architectural concept the planners would not only create cellars under the periphery of the building to establish new exhibition halls, but this work would also have been extended to the south, towards the mosque. This way the ruins of the St. Bartholomew

Unfortunately, this southern extension did not fit into the financial framework provided by the investor. The architectural concept was thus limited to using the present cellars of the building and also to making new cellars under the periphery of the building. This does not mean that in the case of a future reconstruction of the building, the architects will not be able to use this underground world offering many great opportunities for improvement. As part of the building's reconstruction, the inner yard will have a glass ceiling, making it a multifunctional exhibition hall. By reconstructing the building of the museum, the planners can also make it accessible for disabled people, although within the limitations a historic building may have. The concept of the museum is also adjusted to the preservingconnecting philosophy of the architectural concept. Széchenyi square and the area west of it formed the historic centre of the town of Pécs. During the reconstruction works of the main square of Pécs in 2010, a burial chamber was found in front of the museum. For financial reasons this chamber was documented by the archaeologist and then reburied. It is quite probable that in the course of excavating the cellars, archaeologists could find several artefacts from the Roman period, which could then make the museum even more attractive. If there are interesting finds under the building then these could be displayed 'in situ' so the museum itself could become part of the exhibition. In this connection the museum, the exhibits, the attraction and its framework are all united. The various ages could also mean a further point of connection in the concept of the museum, as visitors will take a journey in time in the museum. Starting from the 21st century show rooms on the first floor, visitors will be able to reach the time of the Roman Empire in the cellars through the Baroque period and the Middle Ages. A museum concept of this kind helps visitors connect the various archaeological finds to their periods and also understand them. In addition to these ideas, the architects wished to give the museum yet another role. Owing to its location and

Fig. 16. The ruins of the St. Barholomew church in front of the Archaeology Museum

church could be presented (see Fig. 16).

Fig. 15. Building of the Archaeology Museum in Pécs

government-owned and in addition to a department of archaeology, the Directorate of the Baranya County Museums was also located in the building. At the beginning of the 1960s a new wing was built along the northern part of the garden to house the Anthropology Collection. Towards the end of the 1970s, part of the attic was converted and the ceiling on the first floor was strengthened and the storerooms were modernized. The Anthropology Collection was placed into the storeroom in the attic while the Archaeology Collection was placed in the storeroom on the first floor of the east wing. The history of the house shows the various functions the building filled over the centuries when all of them played an important role in the life of Pécs for some reason or other.

#### **5.2 Concept for the reconstruction**

Over time the building of the Archaeology Museum has fallen into a derelict state. The overall superstructure is in a very good condition but it was obvious that this protected historic building needed renovation. The concept the architects had has always been about preservation and making connections. Preservation in the course of planning, the architects wanted to preserve everything possible and that which had not been added to the building arbitrarily. The word connection may have several meanings as roads, walkways, ages, buildings and underground spaces also intersect here. Underneath the museum there are ramifying tunnels connected to the cellars still existing under Széchenyi square. According

government-owned and in addition to a department of archaeology, the Directorate of the Baranya County Museums was also located in the building. At the beginning of the 1960s a new wing was built along the northern part of the garden to house the Anthropology Collection. Towards the end of the 1970s, part of the attic was converted and the ceiling on the first floor was strengthened and the storerooms were modernized. The Anthropology Collection was placed into the storeroom in the attic while the Archaeology Collection was placed in the storeroom on the first floor of the east wing. The history of the house shows the various functions the building filled over the centuries when all of them played an

Over time the building of the Archaeology Museum has fallen into a derelict state. The overall superstructure is in a very good condition but it was obvious that this protected historic building needed renovation. The concept the architects had has always been about preservation and making connections. Preservation in the course of planning, the architects wanted to preserve everything possible and that which had not been added to the building arbitrarily. The word connection may have several meanings as roads, walkways, ages, buildings and underground spaces also intersect here. Underneath the museum there are ramifying tunnels connected to the cellars still existing under Széchenyi square. According

Fig. 15. Building of the Archaeology Museum in Pécs

important role in the life of Pécs for some reason or other.

**5.2 Concept for the reconstruction** 

to the original architectural concept the planners would not only create cellars under the periphery of the building to establish new exhibition halls, but this work would also have been extended to the south, towards the mosque. This way the ruins of the St. Bartholomew church could be presented (see Fig. 16).

Unfortunately, this southern extension did not fit into the financial framework provided by the investor. The architectural concept was thus limited to using the present cellars of the building and also to making new cellars under the periphery of the building. This does not mean that in the case of a future reconstruction of the building, the architects will not be able to use this underground world offering many great opportunities for improvement. As part of the building's reconstruction, the inner yard will have a glass ceiling, making it a multifunctional exhibition hall. By reconstructing the building of the museum, the planners can also make it accessible for disabled people, although within the limitations a historic building may have. The concept of the museum is also adjusted to the preservingconnecting philosophy of the architectural concept. Széchenyi square and the area west of it formed the historic centre of the town of Pécs. During the reconstruction works of the main square of Pécs in 2010, a burial chamber was found in front of the museum. For financial reasons this chamber was documented by the archaeologist and then reburied. It is quite probable that in the course of excavating the cellars, archaeologists could find several artefacts from the Roman period, which could then make the museum even more attractive. If there are interesting finds under the building then these could be displayed 'in situ' so the museum itself could become part of the exhibition. In this connection the museum, the exhibits, the attraction and its framework are all united. The various ages could also mean a further point of connection in the concept of the museum, as visitors will take a journey in time in the museum. Starting from the 21st century show rooms on the first floor, visitors will be able to reach the time of the Roman Empire in the cellars through the Baroque period and the Middle Ages. A museum concept of this kind helps visitors connect the various archaeological finds to their periods and also understand them. In addition to these ideas, the architects wished to give the museum yet another role. Owing to its location and

Fig. 16. The ruins of the St. Barholomew church in front of the Archaeology Museum

Heritage Protection in Pécs/Sopianae 275

for a mosque, even if it does serve as a catholic church today. A mosque can have a minaret, but it would be strange to hear bells from it. The mosque of Ghazi Kasim pasha was built from the stones of the St. Bartholomew's Church. In 1939 Gyula Gosztonyi excavated it and

Now anybody can experience the medieval treasure world of the missing church as the structure has been reconstructed and is now visible at a seated bench level. The square is neutral, very simple and can accept an almost undecorated tower. Three bells suspended from three slender steel columns, which statue-like guard the area to the north-east of the mosque with the statue of St. Bartholomew. It is a moving telescopic statue, which can hydraulically rise to become a tower (see Fig. 17). Technically, it consists of a thirteen meter

vertical shaft, two meters in diameter, which hides the steel structure of the tower, until it is

The groundwork and creation of the shaft was done by a mining company. Erecting towers and statues, as well as the casting of the bells themselves have always been demanding communal activities. They have a symbolic power, expressing the unification of the settlement, they serve to protect, guard, sound the alarm, celebrate, mourn, orientate and

It is an unforgettable, shocking and imposing experience to design and build a tower. It is a work giving faith and a test of professional competence, the power of soul and the

raised the thirteen meters by a hydraulic drive with a five ton capacity.

found the walls of the church's sanctuary.

Fig. 17. Structural system of the moving bell tower

are meeting points. (Bachmann & Bachman, 2010)

**6.1 Concept of the bell tower** 

because it is close to the walkways popular among tourists, the building could become the information centre of the World Heritage site. The tourists visiting Pécs can get the necessary information they need to discover this colourful town, which has been influenced by several cultures.

A row of arcades along the western side of the courtyard was walled up in the course of an earlier reconstruction. By undoing these, an architectural solution could be restored that could function really well, reducing the amount of sunlight the showrooms receive and meaning the employees would not have to use any additional shading. The geometry of the glass ceiling covering the inner yard of the museum would not be simple, as the height of the moulding, on parts of the building constructed over the various ages, are different from each other. The architects managed to design the geometry of the ceiling in a way that would ensure ventilation of the exhibition hall with the help of shutters. The designed architectural solutions are always separated from the existing structure under protection, ensuring faithfulness to the building and its didactic introduction. In the new spaces created by the enlargement of the underground level the vaulted cellars would appear as houses in the house providing the visitors with an interesting, new perspective. (Molnár, 2009)

The garden plays an important role in the architectural concept for various reasons. On one hand it is a green oasis in the museum, in the town and also in its main square; on the other hand the architects wish to display exhibits here that look like an open-air place, like a separate museum of stonework finds. At the same time, however, the youngest ones, the children should not be forgotten. Small interactive spaces in the garden were designed for them where they could get acquainted with the finds of the various periods in more intriguing, playful manner.

Unfortunately, the reconstruction of the Archaeology Museum in Pécs ground to a halt because of financial pressures of the investor. The architectural solutions to be implemented guarantee a framework for the concept of a museum where the architectural and archaeological remains of the early Christian period of the Roman Empire, the Middle Ages and the Turkish times as well as those of various ethnic groups (German, Croatian, Serbian, Turkish, Bulgarian) having inhabited the region since the beginning of the 19th century can be introduced. Hopefully the designed concept will be constructed in the near future.

### **6. St. Bartholomew's bell-tower**

One of Europe's most beautiful pasha mosques decorates the main square of Pécs and is used as a catholic church. The congregation wanted to build a tower, a belfry, a campanile. This would have resulted in a rather strange architectural formation if the congregation had been called to mass by the peal of a relatively high campanile standing by the mosque. The architects finally had the idea of creating a sculpture composition, a bell sculpture, which rises like a tower while the bells are ringing and then sinks back to the size of a bell sculpture (Bachman, 2010).

The congregation of the City Centre Catholic Church, in Pécs' Széchenyi Square were longing for the ringing of bells for their church. It is quite understandable when you take into consideration that this is the square where János Hunyadi's statue reminds us of the Pope's call for all the bells of Europe to ring in remembrance of János Hunyadi, the Turk Conqueror. It is not a simple task to erect a tower; it could even be sacrilegious in this case

because it is close to the walkways popular among tourists, the building could become the information centre of the World Heritage site. The tourists visiting Pécs can get the necessary information they need to discover this colourful town, which has been influenced

A row of arcades along the western side of the courtyard was walled up in the course of an earlier reconstruction. By undoing these, an architectural solution could be restored that could function really well, reducing the amount of sunlight the showrooms receive and meaning the employees would not have to use any additional shading. The geometry of the glass ceiling covering the inner yard of the museum would not be simple, as the height of the moulding, on parts of the building constructed over the various ages, are different from each other. The architects managed to design the geometry of the ceiling in a way that would ensure ventilation of the exhibition hall with the help of shutters. The designed architectural solutions are always separated from the existing structure under protection, ensuring faithfulness to the building and its didactic introduction. In the new spaces created by the enlargement of the underground level the vaulted cellars would appear as houses in

the house providing the visitors with an interesting, new perspective. (Molnár, 2009)

The garden plays an important role in the architectural concept for various reasons. On one hand it is a green oasis in the museum, in the town and also in its main square; on the other hand the architects wish to display exhibits here that look like an open-air place, like a separate museum of stonework finds. At the same time, however, the youngest ones, the children should not be forgotten. Small interactive spaces in the garden were designed for them where they could get acquainted with the finds of the various periods in more

Unfortunately, the reconstruction of the Archaeology Museum in Pécs ground to a halt because of financial pressures of the investor. The architectural solutions to be implemented guarantee a framework for the concept of a museum where the architectural and archaeological remains of the early Christian period of the Roman Empire, the Middle Ages and the Turkish times as well as those of various ethnic groups (German, Croatian, Serbian, Turkish, Bulgarian) having inhabited the region since the beginning of the 19th century can be introduced. Hopefully the designed concept will be constructed in the near future.

One of Europe's most beautiful pasha mosques decorates the main square of Pécs and is used as a catholic church. The congregation wanted to build a tower, a belfry, a campanile. This would have resulted in a rather strange architectural formation if the congregation had been called to mass by the peal of a relatively high campanile standing by the mosque. The architects finally had the idea of creating a sculpture composition, a bell sculpture, which rises like a tower while the bells are ringing and then sinks back to the size of a bell

The congregation of the City Centre Catholic Church, in Pécs' Széchenyi Square were longing for the ringing of bells for their church. It is quite understandable when you take into consideration that this is the square where János Hunyadi's statue reminds us of the Pope's call for all the bells of Europe to ring in remembrance of János Hunyadi, the Turk Conqueror. It is not a simple task to erect a tower; it could even be sacrilegious in this case

by several cultures.

intriguing, playful manner.

**6. St. Bartholomew's bell-tower** 

sculpture (Bachman, 2010).

for a mosque, even if it does serve as a catholic church today. A mosque can have a minaret, but it would be strange to hear bells from it. The mosque of Ghazi Kasim pasha was built from the stones of the St. Bartholomew's Church. In 1939 Gyula Gosztonyi excavated it and found the walls of the church's sanctuary.

#### **6.1 Concept of the bell tower**

Now anybody can experience the medieval treasure world of the missing church as the structure has been reconstructed and is now visible at a seated bench level. The square is neutral, very simple and can accept an almost undecorated tower. Three bells suspended from three slender steel columns, which statue-like guard the area to the north-east of the mosque with the statue of St. Bartholomew. It is a moving telescopic statue, which can hydraulically rise to become a tower (see Fig. 17). Technically, it consists of a thirteen meter

Fig. 17. Structural system of the moving bell tower

vertical shaft, two meters in diameter, which hides the steel structure of the tower, until it is raised the thirteen meters by a hydraulic drive with a five ton capacity.

The groundwork and creation of the shaft was done by a mining company. Erecting towers and statues, as well as the casting of the bells themselves have always been demanding communal activities. They have a symbolic power, expressing the unification of the settlement, they serve to protect, guard, sound the alarm, celebrate, mourn, orientate and are meeting points. (Bachmann & Bachman, 2010)

It is an unforgettable, shocking and imposing experience to design and build a tower. It is a work giving faith and a test of professional competence, the power of soul and the

Heritage Protection in Pécs/Sopianae 277

these 1600 year old treasures. The burial buildings had to be isolated from the surrounding soil and buffer-zones were used to separate the painted burial chambers from the visitors, as the paintings need a constant temperature and humidity to remain preserved in a good

I am of the opinion that these projects really represent the most important principle of monument protection, namely that the protected heritage should be presented in a way that everybody can understand it. In cases where only remnants of the original buildings remain, artistic effects should be used to present them. Special architectural solutions are needed to

Sustainability is also very important with such buildings and monuments. It is significant that these places are alive nowadays and that they are used for a variety of programmes not

The author would like to express thanks for the works of the participants of the projects:

Dr. Zoltán Bachman, Dr. Bálint Bachmann, Dr. György Stocker, Dr. Tibor Kukai, Dr. István Kistelegdi, Dr. Krisztián Kovács-Andor, Dr. Mihály Schrancz, Dr. Adrienn Emresz, Dr. Gabriella Medvegy, Dr. Donát Rétfalvi, Dr. Tamás Kondor, Csaba Vezér, Ottó Viczencz, Magdolna Horváth, Ákos Lepsényi, György Halász, Júlia Borbély, Nóra Majoros and Dezső

Z. Bachman, B. Bachmann. (2010) *The cathedral museum of Pécs*, Pollack Periodica, Akadémiai

Z. Bachman. (2009a) *The Early Christian burial sites of Pécs/Sopianae as part of the world heritage*,

Z. Bachman. (2009b) *Pécs/Sopianae Early Christian Cemetery Complex Cella Septichora Visitors'* 

Z. Bachman, B. Bachmann. (2001) *Architecture of the World Heritage in Pécs (in Hungarian: A* 

Z. Bachman, F. Fülep. (1990) *Pecs, the early Christian burial chamber to the Wine Pitcher (in* 

Z. Bachman. (1989) *Architectural conservation Hungary's Roman underworld extensive* 

International Building Research and Practice, Vol. 22, No. 1,1989, pp. 41–51. Z. Bachman, F. Fülep, A. Pintér. (1988) *Early Christian monuments of Sopianae-Pecs (in* 

*világörökség védelmének építészete Pécsett)*, Jelenkor, Vol. 44, No. 11, 2001,

*Hungarian: Pécs, a "Korsós" ókeresztény sírkamra)* Tájak Korok Múzeumok

*architectural conservation of the Roman Mausoleum in Pécs including details of new public rooms for above group and underground viewing*, The Journal of CIB Batiment

*Hungarian: Sopianae-Pécs ókeresztény emlékei)*, Képzőművészeti Kiadó, Budapest,

*Centre*, Magyar Építőipar Vol. LIX. No.5. pp. 162-170. Budapest

condition.

only as museums.

Benedek.

**9. References** 

pp. 1143–1157.

1988.

Kiskönyvtára, Vol. 373, 1990.

**8. Acknowledgment** 

make visitors feel the atmosphere of the place.

Z. Bachman. (2010) *Bachman Zoltán*, Vince Kiadó, Budapest

Kiadó, Budapest vol. 5. No. 3. 2010. pp 9-18.

Pollack Periodica, vol. 4. No. 3. 2009. pp 11-32.

omnipotence of fantasy. The erection of the tower was a determining moment for the design team. Work of the planners was guided by the love of the people, starting with the abbot, Pál Kele, through to the bishop and the congregation, their caring and protective concern, and sometimes their anxiety. It also inspired János Gulácsi, the classical master of bell ringing, who dreamt about a previously non-existing and invisible way of moving the bells. The sculptor, Sándor Rétfalvi's statue of St. Bartholomew is a significant piece of art: it is incredibly difficult to mark a point in space, perhaps impossible (see Fig. 18).

This point is the statue of St. Bartholomew, the martyr, who overcomes the torture of the fleeced, suffering man. The tower music was inspired by the movement of the sinking and rising sculpture-tower, the ringing of bells. The fresh rhythmic music, reminiscent of the striking and ringing of hammers in blacksmiths shops, is accompanied by the bass of a roarlike Gregorian song preaching timelessness. When reaching the final height, there is sparkling metallic music again to complete the 65-second rise, giving over to the magnificent ringing of bells, in the morning, at noon and in the evening.

Fig. 18. St. Bartholomew bell tower with the sculpture of the martyr

### **7. Conclusion**

During the projects some important principles of planning and research were laid down that are essential for the preservation and reconstruction of historical city centres.

The underground burial chamber renovation project needed special technical, architectural solutions. It was with the help of mining techniques that enabled the architects to protect

omnipotence of fantasy. The erection of the tower was a determining moment for the design team. Work of the planners was guided by the love of the people, starting with the abbot, Pál Kele, through to the bishop and the congregation, their caring and protective concern, and sometimes their anxiety. It also inspired János Gulácsi, the classical master of bell ringing, who dreamt about a previously non-existing and invisible way of moving the bells. The sculptor, Sándor Rétfalvi's statue of St. Bartholomew is a significant piece of art: it is

This point is the statue of St. Bartholomew, the martyr, who overcomes the torture of the fleeced, suffering man. The tower music was inspired by the movement of the sinking and rising sculpture-tower, the ringing of bells. The fresh rhythmic music, reminiscent of the striking and ringing of hammers in blacksmiths shops, is accompanied by the bass of a roarlike Gregorian song preaching timelessness. When reaching the final height, there is sparkling metallic music again to complete the 65-second rise, giving over to the magnificent

incredibly difficult to mark a point in space, perhaps impossible (see Fig. 18).

ringing of bells, in the morning, at noon and in the evening.

Fig. 18. St. Bartholomew bell tower with the sculpture of the martyr

are essential for the preservation and reconstruction of historical city centres.

During the projects some important principles of planning and research were laid down that

The underground burial chamber renovation project needed special technical, architectural solutions. It was with the help of mining techniques that enabled the architects to protect

**7. Conclusion** 

these 1600 year old treasures. The burial buildings had to be isolated from the surrounding soil and buffer-zones were used to separate the painted burial chambers from the visitors, as the paintings need a constant temperature and humidity to remain preserved in a good condition.

I am of the opinion that these projects really represent the most important principle of monument protection, namely that the protected heritage should be presented in a way that everybody can understand it. In cases where only remnants of the original buildings remain, artistic effects should be used to present them. Special architectural solutions are needed to make visitors feel the atmosphere of the place.

Sustainability is also very important with such buildings and monuments. It is significant that these places are alive nowadays and that they are used for a variety of programmes not only as museums.

#### **8. Acknowledgment**

The author would like to express thanks for the works of the participants of the projects:

Dr. Zoltán Bachman, Dr. Bálint Bachmann, Dr. György Stocker, Dr. Tibor Kukai, Dr. István Kistelegdi, Dr. Krisztián Kovács-Andor, Dr. Mihály Schrancz, Dr. Adrienn Emresz, Dr. Gabriella Medvegy, Dr. Donát Rétfalvi, Dr. Tamás Kondor, Csaba Vezér, Ottó Viczencz, Magdolna Horváth, Ákos Lepsényi, György Halász, Júlia Borbély, Nóra Majoros and Dezső Benedek.

#### **9. References**


**11** 

Kistian Overskaug

*Norway* 

**Homage to Marcel Proust – Aspects** 

*The Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters, Trondheim* 

**of Dissemination and Didactic in a Museum** 

**Visions for the Third Generation Museums** 

**and a Science Centre: Science Communication** 

In this essay focus is upon some experiences from the run of the science centre and the university museum in Trondheim, Norway, and dissemination of research and science to the school. It debates how the institutions increasingly may adapt to school programmes and the new aspect in the new curricula for Norwegian primary and secondary schools: the *budding researcher* – the young student that got the possibility for to have a closer touch of research and science. Hence, the essay display some examples of archaeological public work towards what may be can be said to represent aspects of the third generation museum. Finally – it discuss some science communication visions for the years to come. And: what motivation and benefit

Within science studies there is an examination question which goes something like this; "Progress in research is determined by the development of new techniques and equipments. Discuss". If the answer were a straight "yes", one may have to report that the frontiers of the field had not moved much. Fortunately, the answer is not a simple "yes". While it is of course true that one point to fields of science which opened up because of new techniques and equipments, it may be even more often that new fields opens up because of new *ideas* rather than new techniques. And also behind new equipment, like the electron microscopy for the study of small elements in nature – and radiotelemetry for monitoring of the behaviour of large animals, one can imagine an idea behind the initiative and what kind of data that will emerge. Typically, and as one example of idea-making in practice, the 1973 receiver of the Noble Prize for Physiology and Medicine, Niko Tinbergen (1907-1988) most preferred skills was his ability to observe animals and ask four questions; 1) immediate causation for their behaviour, 2) technically development of anatomic traits, 3) looking back for evolutionary explanations, and 4) how it all function connected to succeed in surviving and reproduction. Tinbergen used his eyes and his imagination as central tools for his voyage of discovery (Tinbergen 1951, 1958). One may suppose that this way of reasoning is

may the archaeologist derive from spending time imparting research?

**1. Introduction** 

**2. The significance of the idea** 

useful in general within science.


### **Homage to Marcel Proust – Aspects of Dissemination and Didactic in a Museum and a Science Centre: Science Communication Visions for the Third Generation Museums**

Kistian Overskaug *The Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters, Trondheim Norway* 

#### **1. Introduction**

278 Archaeology, New Approaches in Theory and Techniques

B. Bachmann. (2010) *The Cathedral Museum of Pécs*, ed. Cruz P. J. S. *Structures and Architecture*,

B. Bachmann, Z. Bachman. (2010) *St. Bartholomew's bell tower*, Pollack Periodica, Akadémiai

B. Bachmann. (2002) *Die Architektur zum Schutze des Weltkulturerbes in Pécs*, Schild von Steier, Kleine Schriften, 19/2002. Landesmuseum Joanneum, pp. 11-29. Graz K. Baliga. (2007) *"Daylight" in Pecs, Cella Septichora Visitors' Centre*, Régi Új Magyar

F. Romvári F, D. Szilágyi. (ed.) (2005) *Bachman Zoltán*, Contemporary Art Pécs, Pécs,

T. Molnár. (2009) *The Reconstruction of the Archaeology Museum in Pécs*, Pollack Periodica, Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest (ISSN1788-1994) 2009. vol. 4. No. 3. pp 49-56.

Építőművészet Hungarian Architecture, No. 4, 2007, pp. 4–9.

CRC Press/Balkema, pp. 421, Leiden

Alexandra Kiadó, 2005, pp. 137–143.

Kiadó, Budapest vol. 5. No. 3. 2010. pp 19-26.

In this essay focus is upon some experiences from the run of the science centre and the university museum in Trondheim, Norway, and dissemination of research and science to the school. It debates how the institutions increasingly may adapt to school programmes and the new aspect in the new curricula for Norwegian primary and secondary schools: the *budding researcher* – the young student that got the possibility for to have a closer touch of research and science. Hence, the essay display some examples of archaeological public work towards what may be can be said to represent aspects of the third generation museum. Finally – it discuss some science communication visions for the years to come. And: what motivation and benefit may the archaeologist derive from spending time imparting research?

#### **2. The significance of the idea**

Within science studies there is an examination question which goes something like this; "Progress in research is determined by the development of new techniques and equipments. Discuss". If the answer were a straight "yes", one may have to report that the frontiers of the field had not moved much. Fortunately, the answer is not a simple "yes". While it is of course true that one point to fields of science which opened up because of new techniques and equipments, it may be even more often that new fields opens up because of new *ideas* rather than new techniques. And also behind new equipment, like the electron microscopy for the study of small elements in nature – and radiotelemetry for monitoring of the behaviour of large animals, one can imagine an idea behind the initiative and what kind of data that will emerge. Typically, and as one example of idea-making in practice, the 1973 receiver of the Noble Prize for Physiology and Medicine, Niko Tinbergen (1907-1988) most preferred skills was his ability to observe animals and ask four questions; 1) immediate causation for their behaviour, 2) technically development of anatomic traits, 3) looking back for evolutionary explanations, and 4) how it all function connected to succeed in surviving and reproduction. Tinbergen used his eyes and his imagination as central tools for his voyage of discovery (Tinbergen 1951, 1958). One may suppose that this way of reasoning is useful in general within science.

Homage to Marcel Proust – Aspects of Dissemination and Didactic in a Museum

collaboration with some schools and groups of teachers has been accomplished.

exhibitions than to new, temporary exhibitions.

given at the university museum were arranged.

and a Science Centre: Science Communication Visions for the Third Generation Museums 281

integrated part of the University of Science and Technology in Trondheim. From 1997 and onwards it has been localized in Bank of Norway's old building in the city, but plans for another localization together with the university museum is now worked out. The exhibition area represent approximately 700 square meters respective around 200 objects that focus upon physics, anatomy and technology. 50 000 people and more have visited the centre yearly, whereas between 60 -70 % represent school classes. The potential customer group are stipulated to be around the 300 000 people living within a 100 km radius around Trondheim. Visitors are mainly from schools in the nearby surroundings of the city. Most objects are adapted to the curriculum within the school programme from age 6-15 years. Several of the models presented are given as examples in the school textbooks. Formal

The Museum of Natural History and Archaeology at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) dates back to the 19th century and is located in the centre of the same city as the science centre – that is Trondheim, central Norway (Steffensen et al. 2008). Its focus is on research on natural history and archaeology with dissemination of research results to the public and to school pupils (Overskaug et al. 2010, and see also Ross 2004). The schools, on their part, incorporate museum visits as means of educating their pupils in compliance with their curricula. Hence, the first archaeological exhibition made at this museum, and one that is still widely used by schools, is the prehistoric exhibition that dates from as long ago as 1955. The exhibition spans the entire period from the earliest settlements in Norway some 10 000 years ago up to the Viking Age, and to medieval time about 500 years ago. It is located in a quiet part of the museum and has seating to give people an opportunity to sit down and absorb the historic atmosphere the rooms attempt to impart. The aim has been to get all school pupils in central Norway to visit this exhibition at least once in the course of their period at school. The exhibition and the presentation of its content made by archaeologists has been extensive and very good. Nowadays, many people will probably say that the exhibition appears old-fashioned, since it largely comprises glass cases containing objects, but the museum have received responses that it is precisely the good atmosphere that prevails in this exhibition that invites people to visit it. However, good empirical data are still lacking to show how widespread this view is. Furthermore, the trend in recent years has been that it has been more difficult to attract pupils to permanent

Obviously, there are ideas that best can be realized by a co-operation between classical museums and interactive centres. One such project initiated in 2001 focus on *communication*, where the university museum presents how animal communication are figured out by postures and sound, and the Science centre build an interactive model which demonstrates principles behind communication technology like TV and radio waves. Another intermuseum project initiated in 2002 deals with *geology*. The new geology lab in the science centre serves the interactive part of this project. Furthermore, visits to the geology exhibits

Finally, a fellow-actor for the museum and the science centre is the School Centre for Science Education at the Norwegian University of Nature and Technology. The School Centre is a link between the primary schools, Colleges, the University and the industry and commerce. The goal is in particular to renew and strengthen the education in mathematics, natural science and technology in the school. Consequently, the basic structure seems well.

Is the reflections above relevant to the topic of this paper - the educational role towards the public of museums and science centres? And for subjects as archaeology? Obviously, an idea, or a notion or thought, can serve as a technique or method of performance or manipulation. A new way of thinking about a problem can become a useful way to solution, just as a new device for measuring can reveal new knowledge. This ability to intellectual action and the possibility for to direct participate in reasoning around a question or a hypothesis is of great value for individuals and society, and should be promoted during dissemination work by scientists. Daily activities, school and studies, and science centres and museums, must encourage this essential quality and capacity among pupils. Hence, science centres and museums should be a tool to stimulate imagination (Pedretti 2002).

Providing the public with information on history and archaeology is well established, and in recent decades the practice has developed into a separate discipline (e.g. Somers 1979, Colin Renfrew 1983, Kwas 2001, Watkins 2006). Books containing collections of articles dealing with how to communicate archaeology to a wider public have begun to appear and the discipline of Science Communication, which is touched upon later in this essay, is growing rapidly (e.g. Beavis & Hunt 1999, Hørnig Priest 2010). These authors stress the importance of publishing research in the best possible way and even question the validity of carrying out much of the research if it is not imparted to the public in an easily understandable fashion. In the last ten years or so, the use of the Internet has also become increasingly important for imparting archaeological research, for instance by presenting exhibitions and dissemination projects (e.g. Hembrey 2001, Warwick & Meckseper 2002, Brughmans 2010). Such activity also directly enters into the role of museums to be socially including in quite general terms (e.g. Sandell 2003), and this is expected to become an increasingly important task for museums in the years to come.

The challenge is to communicate effectively towards the public. By the science centres interactive pedagogy, they are considered as an important supplement to the formal schools, and a contribution to understanding of research (Falk & Dierking 1992, 2000, Persson 2000a). One reason to the establishments of the Norwegian centres is the recruitment swab to science subjects within the education system. One main objective for the science centre is therefore to inspire youths to keep on with science subjects in further studies and employments. One may say that classical museums within archaeological- and natural science moves in much the same direction.

In this essay focus is upon: **1)** some experiences from the run of the science centre and the university museum in Trondheim, Norway, and dissemination of research and science to the school, **2)** debates how the institutions increasingly may adapt to school programmes and the new aspect in the new curricula for Norwegian primary and secondary schools: the budding researcher, and **3)** display some examples of archaeological public work – hence some science communication visions for the years to come: what motivation and benefit may the archaeologist derive from spending time imparting research?

#### **3. The science center and the classical museum**

The science centre in Trondheim, Norway, was founded in 1988, and was from 1991 to 1997 localized together with the Museum of Natural History and Archaeology, which is an

Is the reflections above relevant to the topic of this paper - the educational role towards the public of museums and science centres? And for subjects as archaeology? Obviously, an idea, or a notion or thought, can serve as a technique or method of performance or manipulation. A new way of thinking about a problem can become a useful way to solution, just as a new device for measuring can reveal new knowledge. This ability to intellectual action and the possibility for to direct participate in reasoning around a question or a hypothesis is of great value for individuals and society, and should be promoted during dissemination work by scientists. Daily activities, school and studies, and science centres and museums, must encourage this essential quality and capacity among pupils. Hence, science centres and museums should be a tool to stimulate

Providing the public with information on history and archaeology is well established, and in recent decades the practice has developed into a separate discipline (e.g. Somers 1979, Colin Renfrew 1983, Kwas 2001, Watkins 2006). Books containing collections of articles dealing with how to communicate archaeology to a wider public have begun to appear and the discipline of Science Communication, which is touched upon later in this essay, is growing rapidly (e.g. Beavis & Hunt 1999, Hørnig Priest 2010). These authors stress the importance of publishing research in the best possible way and even question the validity of carrying out much of the research if it is not imparted to the public in an easily understandable fashion. In the last ten years or so, the use of the Internet has also become increasingly important for imparting archaeological research, for instance by presenting exhibitions and dissemination projects (e.g. Hembrey 2001, Warwick & Meckseper 2002, Brughmans 2010). Such activity also directly enters into the role of museums to be socially including in quite general terms (e.g. Sandell 2003), and this is expected to become an increasingly important task for

The challenge is to communicate effectively towards the public. By the science centres interactive pedagogy, they are considered as an important supplement to the formal schools, and a contribution to understanding of research (Falk & Dierking 1992, 2000, Persson 2000a). One reason to the establishments of the Norwegian centres is the recruitment swab to science subjects within the education system. One main objective for the science centre is therefore to inspire youths to keep on with science subjects in further studies and employments. One may say that classical museums within archaeological- and

In this essay focus is upon: **1)** some experiences from the run of the science centre and the university museum in Trondheim, Norway, and dissemination of research and science to the school, **2)** debates how the institutions increasingly may adapt to school programmes and the new aspect in the new curricula for Norwegian primary and secondary schools: the budding researcher, and **3)** display some examples of archaeological public work – hence some science communication visions for the years to come: what motivation and benefit

The science centre in Trondheim, Norway, was founded in 1988, and was from 1991 to 1997 localized together with the Museum of Natural History and Archaeology, which is an

imagination (Pedretti 2002).

museums in the years to come.

natural science moves in much the same direction.

may the archaeologist derive from spending time imparting research?

**3. The science center and the classical museum** 

integrated part of the University of Science and Technology in Trondheim. From 1997 and onwards it has been localized in Bank of Norway's old building in the city, but plans for another localization together with the university museum is now worked out. The exhibition area represent approximately 700 square meters respective around 200 objects that focus upon physics, anatomy and technology. 50 000 people and more have visited the centre yearly, whereas between 60 -70 % represent school classes. The potential customer group are stipulated to be around the 300 000 people living within a 100 km radius around Trondheim. Visitors are mainly from schools in the nearby surroundings of the city. Most objects are adapted to the curriculum within the school programme from age 6-15 years. Several of the models presented are given as examples in the school textbooks. Formal collaboration with some schools and groups of teachers has been accomplished.

The Museum of Natural History and Archaeology at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) dates back to the 19th century and is located in the centre of the same city as the science centre – that is Trondheim, central Norway (Steffensen et al. 2008). Its focus is on research on natural history and archaeology with dissemination of research results to the public and to school pupils (Overskaug et al. 2010, and see also Ross 2004). The schools, on their part, incorporate museum visits as means of educating their pupils in compliance with their curricula. Hence, the first archaeological exhibition made at this museum, and one that is still widely used by schools, is the prehistoric exhibition that dates from as long ago as 1955. The exhibition spans the entire period from the earliest settlements in Norway some 10 000 years ago up to the Viking Age, and to medieval time about 500 years ago. It is located in a quiet part of the museum and has seating to give people an opportunity to sit down and absorb the historic atmosphere the rooms attempt to impart. The aim has been to get all school pupils in central Norway to visit this exhibition at least once in the course of their period at school. The exhibition and the presentation of its content made by archaeologists has been extensive and very good. Nowadays, many people will probably say that the exhibition appears old-fashioned, since it largely comprises glass cases containing objects, but the museum have received responses that it is precisely the good atmosphere that prevails in this exhibition that invites people to visit it. However, good empirical data are still lacking to show how widespread this view is. Furthermore, the trend in recent years has been that it has been more difficult to attract pupils to permanent exhibitions than to new, temporary exhibitions.

Obviously, there are ideas that best can be realized by a co-operation between classical museums and interactive centres. One such project initiated in 2001 focus on *communication*, where the university museum presents how animal communication are figured out by postures and sound, and the Science centre build an interactive model which demonstrates principles behind communication technology like TV and radio waves. Another intermuseum project initiated in 2002 deals with *geology*. The new geology lab in the science centre serves the interactive part of this project. Furthermore, visits to the geology exhibits given at the university museum were arranged.

Finally, a fellow-actor for the museum and the science centre is the School Centre for Science Education at the Norwegian University of Nature and Technology. The School Centre is a link between the primary schools, Colleges, the University and the industry and commerce. The goal is in particular to renew and strengthen the education in mathematics, natural science and technology in the school. Consequently, the basic structure seems well.

Homage to Marcel Proust – Aspects of Dissemination and Didactic in a Museum

arena of education.

medieval cathedral in Trondheim (Fig. 4).

**5. Discussion and further visions 5.1 Research as guide to development** 

the visit.

and a Science Centre: Science Communication Visions for the Third Generation Museums 283

is to incorporate meetings with researchers and work on assignments and the solving of various problems during visits in the field and to the museum as a compulsory part of the education of pupils in ancient and modern history. Hence, school pupils, through the museum, have a unique opportunity to gain insight into the process linked to the research, from idea to realization, and also to meet researchers who are at various stages along that line. The new curricula therefore increase the role of the museum in the current

After going through the first generation museums consisted of artefacts in glass cases (Fig. 1), followed by the second generation encouraged interaction and hands on (Fig. 2), future activity may encourage visitors to redefine the exhibits and its contents. They may themselves participate in developing dissemination projects and in discussions with researchers – and that may be can be said to represent some kind of a third generation museum (Fig. 3, 4). While the science centre in many ways already touch the third generation, also Trondheim university museum has taken steps towards that goal by running dissemination projects where school-teachers- and children participate in the process towards the final product. An example are the production of middle-age clothes based upon what research said about the design of that time costumes (Fig. 3), and then by wearing the costume and perform a "pilgrimage" from the museum to the large medieval cathedral in Trondheim and discuss the history behind the building (Fig. 4). For this specific project information about the life and clothes of *The Bocksten Man* - the remains of a medieval male body found in a bog in Sweden in 1936 and dated to 14th century – were used as background information (see for example Durrani 2006). The man had been killed and knocked to the bottom of a lake which later became a bog. He was recently reconstructed to show what he may have looked like when he was alive. Depending on the interpretation of the clothing, and in particular the hood, different conclusions can be made about the man's social background. The hood he wore was usually worn by the more prosperous classes and it has therefore been suggested that he was a tax collector or a soldier recruiter. The type of hood was also used within the church. Definitely, this story attracts teachers and young students – from it was initiated based upon available literature and the design of the costumes (Fig. 3) – and through further studies of the middle-age time and the history of the

Although the justification of science centres are debated (Bradburne 1998), they seem to represent a kind of institutions of informal learning that public calls for (Borun et al 1996, Persson 2000b). Fully satisfying data that clearly demonstrates long-time effect concerning learning from museums are lacking. But for visitors, museums and science centres represent meaningful experiences (Falk 2000, Sheppard 2000). Studies shows that more than 50 % of the public could precisely repeat the principles behind exhibits one year after

In Finland, Salmi (1993) presents studies from *Heureka* Sciènce Centre of school children that had both single stays and visited the centre several times, respectively. The conclusion was that an optimal strategy for learning is to motivate the visitors for several visits, establish

However, as i. e. Macdonald (2003) point to in here stimulating paper on museum identities, one main challenge for future museum work is also to focus on the concept of identity, and which represent an underlying factor in the following discussion.

#### **4. The budding researcher**

New curricula for the 10-year (pupils aged 6-16 years) compulsory primary and lower secondary education and the succeeding 3-year (pupils aged 16-19 years), optional, upper secondary education was introduced in Norway from 2006. The curricula are comprised of three parts, a general normative part, principles for education, and specific syllabuses for the subjects taught. Central principles in the education are to stimulate personal development and pave the way for involving the local community in school activities. The syllabuses for the subjects mention, for instance, basic skills such as expressing oneself orally and in writing, being able to read and to do arithmetic, and the use of digital tools.

The new curricula do not lay out the same regulations, so to say, as the former ones as regards teaching methods. Nor do they mention, or place emphasis on, special historical events, or list examples of topics in science to the same extent as former curricula and syllabuses have. One intention with this is to give teachers freedom to chose the best form and content in their teaching. However, under the topic of the *budding researcher*, the new curricula place greater focus than earlier on the need to understand research processes and scientific reasoning and maturity. The budding researcher is a compulsory aspect of science subjects, i. e. the pupils must be given grounding in and practice the principles of scientific work. Here, science emerges in the teaching in two ways, as a product that illustrates current knowledge and as a process that builds on knowledge. In the curriculum for social studies, which includes history and archaeology, developing scientific reasoning in accordance with the same pattern as in the budding researcher of science subjects is implicit. The challenge facing the university museum and the archaeological work in their effort to impart knowledge will be how to best organize their dissemination work towards pupils to fit the lines laid out in the curricula.

A distinguishing feature of the university museum is that its exhibitions and the manner the museum communicate them to the public are based on research and collections, while the public service department act as intermediarie to make research and research processes available to the public through exhibitions and other forms of presentation. The combined activity of research and communication in the university museum should therefore be tailored to support the vision behind the introduction of the budding researcher – concept presented in the new curricula, aimed at providing insight into the building up of knowledge and maturity in scientific reasoning.

The university museum in Trondheim has larger natural history and cultural history collections and exhibitions, and the scientific expertise attached to the museum is particularly concerned with those two subjects. The museum organizes activities aimed at the general public and school pupils, providing them with insight into what takes place right from the initiation of research processes to half-completed products and reflections around more long-term perspectives. For instance, it is possible to arrange that school pupils can visit archaeological excavations and follow these excursions up with another visit to the museum when the material has been processed and interpreted. The purpose

However, as i. e. Macdonald (2003) point to in here stimulating paper on museum identities, one main challenge for future museum work is also to focus on the concept of identity, and

New curricula for the 10-year (pupils aged 6-16 years) compulsory primary and lower secondary education and the succeeding 3-year (pupils aged 16-19 years), optional, upper secondary education was introduced in Norway from 2006. The curricula are comprised of three parts, a general normative part, principles for education, and specific syllabuses for the subjects taught. Central principles in the education are to stimulate personal development and pave the way for involving the local community in school activities. The syllabuses for the subjects mention, for instance, basic skills such as expressing oneself orally and in

The new curricula do not lay out the same regulations, so to say, as the former ones as regards teaching methods. Nor do they mention, or place emphasis on, special historical events, or list examples of topics in science to the same extent as former curricula and syllabuses have. One intention with this is to give teachers freedom to chose the best form and content in their teaching. However, under the topic of the *budding researcher*, the new curricula place greater focus than earlier on the need to understand research processes and scientific reasoning and maturity. The budding researcher is a compulsory aspect of science subjects, i. e. the pupils must be given grounding in and practice the principles of scientific work. Here, science emerges in the teaching in two ways, as a product that illustrates current knowledge and as a process that builds on knowledge. In the curriculum for social studies, which includes history and archaeology, developing scientific reasoning in accordance with the same pattern as in the budding researcher of science subjects is implicit. The challenge facing the university museum and the archaeological work in their effort to impart knowledge will be how to best organize their dissemination work towards pupils to

A distinguishing feature of the university museum is that its exhibitions and the manner the museum communicate them to the public are based on research and collections, while the public service department act as intermediarie to make research and research processes available to the public through exhibitions and other forms of presentation. The combined activity of research and communication in the university museum should therefore be tailored to support the vision behind the introduction of the budding researcher – concept presented in the new curricula, aimed at providing insight into the building up of

The university museum in Trondheim has larger natural history and cultural history collections and exhibitions, and the scientific expertise attached to the museum is particularly concerned with those two subjects. The museum organizes activities aimed at the general public and school pupils, providing them with insight into what takes place right from the initiation of research processes to half-completed products and reflections around more long-term perspectives. For instance, it is possible to arrange that school pupils can visit archaeological excavations and follow these excursions up with another visit to the museum when the material has been processed and interpreted. The purpose

which represent an underlying factor in the following discussion.

writing, being able to read and to do arithmetic, and the use of digital tools.

**4. The budding researcher** 

fit the lines laid out in the curricula.

knowledge and maturity in scientific reasoning.

is to incorporate meetings with researchers and work on assignments and the solving of various problems during visits in the field and to the museum as a compulsory part of the education of pupils in ancient and modern history. Hence, school pupils, through the museum, have a unique opportunity to gain insight into the process linked to the research, from idea to realization, and also to meet researchers who are at various stages along that line. The new curricula therefore increase the role of the museum in the current arena of education.

After going through the first generation museums consisted of artefacts in glass cases (Fig. 1), followed by the second generation encouraged interaction and hands on (Fig. 2), future activity may encourage visitors to redefine the exhibits and its contents. They may themselves participate in developing dissemination projects and in discussions with researchers – and that may be can be said to represent some kind of a third generation museum (Fig. 3, 4). While the science centre in many ways already touch the third generation, also Trondheim university museum has taken steps towards that goal by running dissemination projects where school-teachers- and children participate in the process towards the final product. An example are the production of middle-age clothes based upon what research said about the design of that time costumes (Fig. 3), and then by wearing the costume and perform a "pilgrimage" from the museum to the large medieval cathedral in Trondheim and discuss the history behind the building (Fig. 4). For this specific project information about the life and clothes of *The Bocksten Man* - the remains of a medieval male body found in a bog in Sweden in 1936 and dated to 14th century – were used as background information (see for example Durrani 2006). The man had been killed and knocked to the bottom of a lake which later became a bog. He was recently reconstructed to show what he may have looked like when he was alive. Depending on the interpretation of the clothing, and in particular the hood, different conclusions can be made about the man's social background. The hood he wore was usually worn by the more prosperous classes and it has therefore been suggested that he was a tax collector or a soldier recruiter. The type of hood was also used within the church. Definitely, this story attracts teachers and young students – from it was initiated based upon available literature and the design of the costumes (Fig. 3) – and through further studies of the middle-age time and the history of the medieval cathedral in Trondheim (Fig. 4).

#### **5. Discussion and further visions**

#### **5.1 Research as guide to development**

Although the justification of science centres are debated (Bradburne 1998), they seem to represent a kind of institutions of informal learning that public calls for (Borun et al 1996, Persson 2000b). Fully satisfying data that clearly demonstrates long-time effect concerning learning from museums are lacking. But for visitors, museums and science centres represent meaningful experiences (Falk 2000, Sheppard 2000). Studies shows that more than 50 % of the public could precisely repeat the principles behind exhibits one year after the visit.

In Finland, Salmi (1993) presents studies from *Heureka* Sciènce Centre of school children that had both single stays and visited the centre several times, respectively. The conclusion was that an optimal strategy for learning is to motivate the visitors for several visits, establish

Homage to Marcel Proust – Aspects of Dissemination and Didactic in a Museum

and a Science Centre: Science Communication Visions for the Third Generation Museums 285

Fig. 2. Second generations museums – hands-on and minds on. Visits behind the exhibitions, and stay for a day with the archaeologist – in the museum and maybe it sometimes also is possible to go with him to the field-work. Get even deeper insight into his way of working. Exhibitions were student do their own experiments are figured out in a number of more classical museums – and are among the essential ideas behind the science centers. (Photo: K

Overskaug).

Fig. 1. First generation museums – exhibitions in glass cases. This may still function very well, in particular if there are possible to tell a story behind the exhibition and the artefacts. When were they sampled? Under what conditions – accidentally or as a result of a larger project? What was the background for the project? (Photo: K Overskaug).

Fig. 1. First generation museums – exhibitions in glass cases. This may still function very well, in particular if there are possible to tell a story behind the exhibition and the artefacts. When were they sampled? Under what conditions – accidentally or as a result of a larger

project? What was the background for the project? (Photo: K Overskaug).

Fig. 2. Second generations museums – hands-on and minds on. Visits behind the exhibitions, and stay for a day with the archaeologist – in the museum and maybe it sometimes also is possible to go with him to the field-work. Get even deeper insight into his way of working. Exhibitions were student do their own experiments are figured out in a number of more classical museums – and are among the essential ideas behind the science centers. (Photo: K Overskaug).

Homage to Marcel Proust – Aspects of Dissemination and Didactic in a Museum

and a Science Centre: Science Communication Visions for the Third Generation Museums 287

Fig. 4. Maybe characteristics of the third-generation museum, and popularizing of

visit with their students.

archaeological subjects towards the public and school, is to involve children and students in themselves making dissemination projects under supervising of the museum? Hence in the university museum in Trondheim, Norway, - and exemplified by the design of a collection of middle-age-costume – and then take a "pilgrimage" from the museum to the cathedral and the amazing 1000 – year history behind the building (se also figure 3). (Photo: K Dahl).

pre-lectures that prepare students for the visit, and post-lectures that further put the exhibits into a broader context. That approximately 80 % of the first-year students at the University of Helsinki had visited Heureka before they had started their studies, may support the impression that informal learning sources can represent a motivational factor, and create active attitudes towards science, research and technology among young people (Salmi 2000). The importance of integrating the object of the visit towards the textbooks on school can also be stressed by that there at least in some museums and dissemination projects is more or less even compulsory for teachers to participate in a workshop at the centre in front of the

Yet, published empiric and specific visitor data for the science centre and the university museum focused upon here is mostly lacking (but see for example Overskaug et al. 2010), the overall positive response from school-children and groups from kindergarten may, however, indicate that the centre and the museum play a growing role in informal learning. For example have approximately 15 – 20 000 pupils annually visited the university museum during the last years. However, this is nevertheless a fairly small proportion of the total number of pupils in the region that can be considered the museum's natural catchment area. One of the challenges seems to be to reach teachers effectively with the information that are

Fig. 3. The tunic of a medieval man from Sweden (see for example Durrani 2006) is among the best-preserved medieval tunics in Europe, and made of wollen fabric. He was wearing a hood with a 90 centimetres (35 in) long and 2 centimetres (0.79 in) wide "tail". On his upper body he wore a shirt and a cloak, while his legs were covered by hosiery. The photo shows a simple copy made on information from *the Bocksten Man* and other sources, and made by and for students and used for a dissemination project of some of the human life during parts of the medieval time (see Fig. 4). (Photo: G. Holt/K Overskaug).

Fig. 3. The tunic of a medieval man from Sweden (see for example Durrani 2006) is among the best-preserved medieval tunics in Europe, and made of wollen fabric. He was wearing a hood with a 90 centimetres (35 in) long and 2 centimetres (0.79 in) wide "tail". On his upper body he wore a shirt and a cloak, while his legs were covered by hosiery. The photo shows a simple copy made on information from *the Bocksten Man* and other sources, and made by and for students and used for a dissemination project of some of the human life during parts

of the medieval time (see Fig. 4). (Photo: G. Holt/K Overskaug).

Fig. 4. Maybe characteristics of the third-generation museum, and popularizing of archaeological subjects towards the public and school, is to involve children and students in themselves making dissemination projects under supervising of the museum? Hence in the university museum in Trondheim, Norway, - and exemplified by the design of a collection of middle-age-costume – and then take a "pilgrimage" from the museum to the cathedral and the amazing 1000 – year history behind the building (se also figure 3). (Photo: K Dahl).

pre-lectures that prepare students for the visit, and post-lectures that further put the exhibits into a broader context. That approximately 80 % of the first-year students at the University of Helsinki had visited Heureka before they had started their studies, may support the impression that informal learning sources can represent a motivational factor, and create active attitudes towards science, research and technology among young people (Salmi 2000). The importance of integrating the object of the visit towards the textbooks on school can also be stressed by that there at least in some museums and dissemination projects is more or less even compulsory for teachers to participate in a workshop at the centre in front of the visit with their students.

Yet, published empiric and specific visitor data for the science centre and the university museum focused upon here is mostly lacking (but see for example Overskaug et al. 2010), the overall positive response from school-children and groups from kindergarten may, however, indicate that the centre and the museum play a growing role in informal learning. For example have approximately 15 – 20 000 pupils annually visited the university museum during the last years. However, this is nevertheless a fairly small proportion of the total number of pupils in the region that can be considered the museum's natural catchment area. One of the challenges seems to be to reach teachers effectively with the information that are

Homage to Marcel Proust – Aspects of Dissemination and Didactic in a Museum

for society– do we not already know enough about bygone times?,

may stimulate an improvement of mental and physical health,

dissemination can improve recruitment to the discipline,

to social issues, thereby strengthening democracy.

popular scientific articles and news stories:

a more robust society,

utilized in everyday life,

decisions,

& Ibaraki 2009).

**5.3 The active visitor** 

ways this is also already figure out.

and a Science Centre: Science Communication Visions for the Third Generation Museums 289

out popular scientific dissemination – and actual for the archaeologist who may be out on an excavation, in the museum, at a school or on a stand of one sort or another, or by way of

 valuable for research (and society) in itself since, if people in general acquire a broader interest for the science, the science too will achieve more progress and also contribute to

 by being imparted, research has the possibility to put important questions on the society agenda and help to legitimize its own activity. A classical example for archaeology is the frequently posed question of how essential and useful archaeology is

knowledge is advantageous for the individual by directly supplying insight that can be

 some production of knowledge may also have an aesthetic perspective and stimulate art and culture (examples are various scenarios regarding social development), and/or

the broader the knowledge, the better the basis for taking vital political and social

the ultimate benefit is an improvement of the individual's participation in and attitude

Durant et al. (1989) also had a follow-up paper in *Nature* in 1989 where they referred to a study which showed that the public in both England and the USA were more absorbed by knowledge and science than by sport, for example, but compared with the latter it is more difficult to create just as general excitement for science among the population at large and in the media. Nevertheless, still by the end of the last decade less than 1 % of published scientific work was being referred to or made available for the public in other ways (Suleski

There may be at least four challenges that should be solved; **1)** science centres may still struggle for to be somewhat more than a "fun fair". To try to steer this, there is worked out a guide for teachers with cross references to the curriculum, and the staff made suggestions to activities and approach to problems and projects. **2)** when interactive models are presented how can we stimulate the public to take a closer look below the surface? To arrange this, each model is first described in depth in the exhibition area. Second, books and booklets on special subjects are written so the public have the possibility to look into the world of knowledge hidden behind each model. Third, and may be the method that function best, is to have a researcher or guide that in a proper pedagogical way can tell the story about the model, the research project, the persons behind – and how they once in the time come up with the idea, **3)** To make enthusiastic pupils we have to make enthusiastic teachers! One may meet this challenge by making lectures and organize special courses for teachers and their classes, and **4)** finally, how can we give the visitors a "heart" for science? Hence, the science centre and the museum may made do-it-your-self-laits, simple scientific toys and arrange different science-clubs keeping children at the centre every day in a week. In many

distributed. And an important goal is to work further to design studies that verify the educational effect. A more formal co-operation towards schools, and attention around their needs, will make it possible to present offers that increase the use of the centre by schoolchildren. It is often also a question about time and economy – how to bring schoolchildren from the school to the museum and back again? And who pay?

#### **5.2 What's in it for the archaeologist?**

During an ordinary working day, when researchers are often snowed under with urgent tasks and under pressure to write reports and scientific publications, it can often be difficult to find time to carry out popular scientific dissemination work. Moreover, as such work often gives no purely scientific gain in expertise, nor necessarily proves gainful for project applications, it may be difficult to see how it will be attractive for archaeologists and natural scientists. There are, however, tendencies in the academic world that passing on information to school pupils, students, the general public and non-specialists in political and community management, is strengthening its position as a separate discipline and in several ways will develop into an attractive field. This is because the need for quality-assured knowledge and a knowledge-based approach to current issues is increasingly urgent, and active researchers should be among the foremost to attend to this important task for society since such knowledge may otherwise be quite unattainable for most people, for instance "hidden away" in specialised scientific journals or published in other ways that are difficult for ordinary people to gain access to. Science Communication is a disciplinary tool to make, for example, such knowledge more widely available and put it into a broader social context. Several articles have been published in recent years that sum up the essence of Science Communication (e.g. Weigold 2001, Burns et al. 2003) and, according to one of the most recently presented definitions (Hørnig Priest 2010), it concerns presenting science to nonscientists ("the public") – that is, imparting research from researchers to the public at large. Researchers refer to this as "outreaching" or "popularization", and it has evolved into the profession of popular science – that is, interpreting science to the man in the street. Hence, Science Communication includes research exhibitions, research policy and journalistic and other media productions about science. Science Communication may, however, also describe communication between researchers as well as between non-researchers ("the public").

The motivation to focus on popular science is therefore multifaceted. A prime aspect is that imparting research may be valuable for knowledge-based decisions taken by individuals, for social and political decisions, and not least to improve the research itself through the possibility it has to be presented and feedback received from the general public and other users. In this way, Science Communication has achieved increasing publicity in daily newspapers and research journals (e.g. Sherwood Rowland (1993) who gave the topic broad publicity in *Science*)). "Science Communication" (first published in 1979) and "Public Understanding of Science" (published since 1992) are important specialist journals in this field. Some of the more classical articles written about the topic, and summing up the characteristic content of the discipline, were written about the end of the 1980s. Hence, Geoffery Thomas and John Durant are two often-cited authors who addressed the various social benefits derived by increasing public interest for research and science (Durant & Thomas 1987)*.* For instance, the authors point out the following justifications for carrying out popular scientific dissemination – and actual for the archaeologist who may be out on an excavation, in the museum, at a school or on a stand of one sort or another, or by way of popular scientific articles and news stories:


Durant et al. (1989) also had a follow-up paper in *Nature* in 1989 where they referred to a study which showed that the public in both England and the USA were more absorbed by knowledge and science than by sport, for example, but compared with the latter it is more difficult to create just as general excitement for science among the population at large and in the media. Nevertheless, still by the end of the last decade less than 1 % of published scientific work was being referred to or made available for the public in other ways (Suleski & Ibaraki 2009).

#### **5.3 The active visitor**

288 Archaeology, New Approaches in Theory and Techniques

distributed. And an important goal is to work further to design studies that verify the educational effect. A more formal co-operation towards schools, and attention around their needs, will make it possible to present offers that increase the use of the centre by schoolchildren. It is often also a question about time and economy – how to bring schoolchildren

During an ordinary working day, when researchers are often snowed under with urgent tasks and under pressure to write reports and scientific publications, it can often be difficult to find time to carry out popular scientific dissemination work. Moreover, as such work often gives no purely scientific gain in expertise, nor necessarily proves gainful for project applications, it may be difficult to see how it will be attractive for archaeologists and natural scientists. There are, however, tendencies in the academic world that passing on information to school pupils, students, the general public and non-specialists in political and community management, is strengthening its position as a separate discipline and in several ways will develop into an attractive field. This is because the need for quality-assured knowledge and a knowledge-based approach to current issues is increasingly urgent, and active researchers should be among the foremost to attend to this important task for society since such knowledge may otherwise be quite unattainable for most people, for instance "hidden away" in specialised scientific journals or published in other ways that are difficult for ordinary people to gain access to. Science Communication is a disciplinary tool to make, for example, such knowledge more widely available and put it into a broader social context. Several articles have been published in recent years that sum up the essence of Science Communication (e.g. Weigold 2001, Burns et al. 2003) and, according to one of the most recently presented definitions (Hørnig Priest 2010), it concerns presenting science to nonscientists ("the public") – that is, imparting research from researchers to the public at large. Researchers refer to this as "outreaching" or "popularization", and it has evolved into the profession of popular science – that is, interpreting science to the man in the street. Hence, Science Communication includes research exhibitions, research policy and journalistic and other media productions about science. Science Communication may, however, also describe communication between researchers as well as between non-researchers ("the

The motivation to focus on popular science is therefore multifaceted. A prime aspect is that imparting research may be valuable for knowledge-based decisions taken by individuals, for social and political decisions, and not least to improve the research itself through the possibility it has to be presented and feedback received from the general public and other users. In this way, Science Communication has achieved increasing publicity in daily newspapers and research journals (e.g. Sherwood Rowland (1993) who gave the topic broad publicity in *Science*)). "Science Communication" (first published in 1979) and "Public Understanding of Science" (published since 1992) are important specialist journals in this field. Some of the more classical articles written about the topic, and summing up the characteristic content of the discipline, were written about the end of the 1980s. Hence, Geoffery Thomas and John Durant are two often-cited authors who addressed the various social benefits derived by increasing public interest for research and science (Durant & Thomas 1987)*.* For instance, the authors point out the following justifications for carrying

from the school to the museum and back again? And who pay?

**5.2 What's in it for the archaeologist?** 

public").

There may be at least four challenges that should be solved; **1)** science centres may still struggle for to be somewhat more than a "fun fair". To try to steer this, there is worked out a guide for teachers with cross references to the curriculum, and the staff made suggestions to activities and approach to problems and projects. **2)** when interactive models are presented how can we stimulate the public to take a closer look below the surface? To arrange this, each model is first described in depth in the exhibition area. Second, books and booklets on special subjects are written so the public have the possibility to look into the world of knowledge hidden behind each model. Third, and may be the method that function best, is to have a researcher or guide that in a proper pedagogical way can tell the story about the model, the research project, the persons behind – and how they once in the time come up with the idea, **3)** To make enthusiastic pupils we have to make enthusiastic teachers! One may meet this challenge by making lectures and organize special courses for teachers and their classes, and **4)** finally, how can we give the visitors a "heart" for science? Hence, the science centre and the museum may made do-it-your-self-laits, simple scientific toys and arrange different science-clubs keeping children at the centre every day in a week. In many ways this is also already figure out.

Homage to Marcel Proust – Aspects of Dissemination and Didactic in a Museum

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Sandell, R. 2003. Social inclusion, the museum and the dynamics of sectoral change. –

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Sheppard, B. (2000). Do Museums Make a Difference? Evaluating Programs for Social

Sherrwood Rowland, F. 1993. Presidents Lecture: The Need for Scientific Communication

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The conclusion may be that there is no single solution to those questions. The challenge is to stimulate the active, intelligent visitor, which is hidden in every visitor, when they all have their own special abilities and interests. Consequently, we are back at the point of departure for this essay**;** much of the philosophy behind the discussion above may be recognized from the heading - in the way it is expressed by Marcel Proust (1871-1922). Brilliant and simple, but certainly true, the novelist probably goes strict to the heart of pedagogical alternatives by the formulation "*The real voyage of discovery consists not in seeking new landscapes, but having new eyes*". It requires a lot of courage to produce your own, new ideas, to have new eyes on science, or even redefine old truths. Science centres and museums may stimulate, arrange and prepare for to realize this potential in visitors. I welcome suggestions, and a fruitful and stimulating discussion and debate from students, researchers, teachers and the museum community upon how to reach and realize a vision about being a significant and maybe more formal contributor to educational goals.

#### **6. References**


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Beavis, J. & Hunt, A. 1999. Communicating Archaeology. – *Bournemouth University School of Conservation Studies Occasional Paper 4*: Oxford: Oxford Books, 120 pp. Borun, M., Chambers, M and Cleghorn, A. (1996). Families are learning in science museums.

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### *Edited by Imma Ollich-Castanyer*

The contents of this book show the implementation of new methodologies applied to archaeological sites. Chapters have been grouped in four sections: New Approaches About Archaeological Theory and Methodology; The Use of Geophysics on Archaeological Fieldwork; New Applied Techniques - Improving Material Culture and Experimentation; and Sharing Knowledge - Some Proposals Concerning Heritage and Education. Many different research projects, many different scientists and authors from different countries, many different historical times and periods, but only one objective: working together to increase our knowledge of ancient populations through archaeological work. The proposal of this book is to diffuse new methods and techniques developed by scientists to be used in archaeological works. That is the reason why we have thought that a publication on line is the best way of using new technology for sharing knowledge everywhere. Discovering, sharing knowledge, asking questions about our remote past and origins, are in the basis of humanity, and also are in the basis of archaeology as a science.

Archaeology, New Approaches in Theory and Techniques

Archaeology, New

Approaches in Theory and

Techniques

*Edited by Imma Ollich-Castanyer*

Photo by SARMDY / iStock