**5. Discussion**

This study set out to examine the role of various goals and motivational beliefs on learning among distance learners. It adds to the distance learning literature by examining different goals that distance learners hold and the complex interaction relationship between motivational beliefs and goals.

As expected, both efficacy and control beliefs were significant in predicting the use of learning and regulatory strategies, except for time management strategies. These results indicate that for this group of distance learners a strong sense of efficacy and control beliefs was associated with an engagement pattern that was characterised by adaptive strategy use. These two motivational beliefs also predicted distance learners' attitudes towards learning indicating that a stronger sense of efficacy and control beliefs was associated with learning enjoyment, interest and valuing of learning. To be motivated, distance learners need to feel efficacious and certain about their learning progress.

Another major aim of this study is to examine the moderation effects of efficacy and control beliefs on the impact of goals on strategy use and attitudes towards learning. This study found nonsignificant interaction effect between self-efficacy and various goals included in this investigation. In other words, a strong sense of efficacy beliefs would not enhance the positive effects of adaptive goals such as mastery and performance-approach goals. Neither would a strong sense of efficacy beliefs dampen the negative effects of less adaptive goals such as extrinsic work goals and social enhancement goals.

It should be pointed out that contrary to Dweck's experimental study (Dweck, 1986; Elliot & Dweck, 1988), the current study examined distance learners' perceptions of learning at a rather general level. Dweck's study found significant interaction between self-efficacy and performance-approach goals on learning by requiring students in an experimental setting to complete clearly-defined academic tasks. Subsequent studies (e.g. Harackiewicz *et al.*, 2000; Kaplan & Midgley, 1997; Miller et al., 1993) using correlational design examining the moderation hypotheses at a rather general level did not found significant interaction between self-efficacy and performance goals on learning and achievement. The current nonsignificant results aligned with these correlational studies.

While the level of task specificity may be taken as an explanation for contradictory results between Dweck's study and the current study, a more critical factor may have been the

negatively the use of effort management strategies (=-.20, *p<*.001 controlling for both efficacy and control beliefs). These results suggest that these social goals will lead distance learners to reduce their effort in learning by using surface strategies. Unexpectedly, these

Taken together, regression analyses found that mastery-development goals were the most significant variable predicting an adaptive pattern of strategy use and learning attitudes. As expected, performance-approach goals were associated with an adaptive pattern of strategy use. Also as expected, extrinsic work goals did not predict significantly the use of learning and self-regulatory strategies. As for social enhancement goals, the current results showed clearly that these goals were maladaptive to learning. Overall, these results confirmed the relative importance of adaptive goals such as mastery-development goals and performance-

This study set out to examine the role of various goals and motivational beliefs on learning among distance learners. It adds to the distance learning literature by examining different goals that distance learners hold and the complex interaction relationship between

As expected, both efficacy and control beliefs were significant in predicting the use of learning and regulatory strategies, except for time management strategies. These results indicate that for this group of distance learners a strong sense of efficacy and control beliefs was associated with an engagement pattern that was characterised by adaptive strategy use. These two motivational beliefs also predicted distance learners' attitudes towards learning indicating that a stronger sense of efficacy and control beliefs was associated with learning enjoyment, interest and valuing of learning. To be motivated, distance learners need to feel

Another major aim of this study is to examine the moderation effects of efficacy and control beliefs on the impact of goals on strategy use and attitudes towards learning. This study found nonsignificant interaction effect between self-efficacy and various goals included in this investigation. In other words, a strong sense of efficacy beliefs would not enhance the positive effects of adaptive goals such as mastery and performance-approach goals. Neither would a strong sense of efficacy beliefs dampen the negative effects of less adaptive goals

It should be pointed out that contrary to Dweck's experimental study (Dweck, 1986; Elliot & Dweck, 1988), the current study examined distance learners' perceptions of learning at a rather general level. Dweck's study found significant interaction between self-efficacy and performance-approach goals on learning by requiring students in an experimental setting to complete clearly-defined academic tasks. Subsequent studies (e.g. Harackiewicz *et al.*, 2000; Kaplan & Midgley, 1997; Miller et al., 1993) using correlational design examining the moderation hypotheses at a rather general level did not found significant interaction between self-efficacy and performance goals on learning and achievement. The current

While the level of task specificity may be taken as an explanation for contradictory results between Dweck's study and the current study, a more critical factor may have been the

social goals did not show to have positive effects on learning attitudes.

approach goals on learning and attitudes among distance learners.

efficacious and certain about their learning progress.

such as extrinsic work goals and social enhancement goals.

nonsignificant results aligned with these correlational studies.

**5. Discussion** 

motivational beliefs and goals.

salience of performance emphasis. Elliot and Dweck (1988) have created a high level of performance salience focusing participants to their perceived abilities to complete a specific experimental task. In this type of highly controlled setting, one's performance concerns and the demand of performance demonstration are heightened. Students' perceived level of efficacy will therefore be a crucial factor in moderating their performance goals on learning and achievement. Similarly, Church, Elliot & Gable (2001) and Braten and colleagues (2004) based on empirical evidence argued that the mediation role of self-efficacy with goals on learning will be more salient in a highly competitive and evaluative learning environment that focuses on relative performance. The participants and their learning context in the current study were radically different from these previous studies that used on-campus undergraduate students learning in a competitive environment or completing experimental tasks according to a set explicit performance criteria. Rather, the distance learning environment in this study promoted a mastery-focused orientation. Distance learners in this study engaged in their courses through distance learning mode in which face-to-face contact with other learners were limited to optional fortnightly tutorials. Distance learners are expected to complete the assigned readings and learning materials on their own, taking into consideration a suggested time-schedule for monitoring the progress themselves. In other words, the chance for distance learners to compete with each other was limited. Therefore, it can be argued that a lack of emphasis on relative performance might have led to the nonsignificant mediation effect of efficacy beliefs with goals, especially performanceapproach goals, on strategy use and learning attitudes.

Not only did the distance learning environment promoted mastery, the current sample of distance learners also held strong mastery goals ( *X* = 3.82). A mastery-focused learning system coupled with mastery-focused personal motivation would probably allow learners in this study to engage in adaptive patterns of strategy use and attitudinal development regardless of their level of efficacy beliefs (Dweck, 1986; Kaplan & Midgley, 1997). Kaplan and Midgley (1997, p.431) when concluding their study examining the moderation hypotheses stated that "*in an environment in which learning goals were emphasised more, level of perceived competence might become less influential for students with a predominant learning goal orientation*". In other words, mastery goals and mastery learning environment have predisposed distance learners to an adaptive pattern of strategy use and learning attitudes regardless their level of efficacy beliefs.

In contrast, the present study found several counts of significant interaction results between control beliefs, extrinsic work goals, and mastery goals. These significant results, though limited, confirmed the hypotheses set for the interaction between control beliefs and goals. These significant mediation effects indicate clearly that control beliefs will enhance the positive effects of adaptive goals such as mastery-development goals and dampen the negative effect of less adaptive goals, in this case, extrinsic work goals. These results suggest that control beliefs are critically important for distance learners. Within a distance learning system, distance learners are free to determine as to when they learn, how they learn and for what reasons they learn. A strong sense of control for distance learners means that they will be able to regulate their learning pace, determine the appropriate use of learning and regulatory strategies and adopt different goals for learning. This study showed that a strong sense of control beliefs enabled learners to use fewer surface strategies and more deep strategies even when holding extrinsic work goals that draw them away from engaging in the learning process. As for the case of mastery-development goals, a strong sense of control

The Role of Self-Efficacy, Control Beliefs and

Achievement Goals on Learning Among Distance Learners 247

certain extent, would be moderated by control beliefs. However these goals were not utterly detrimental to learning. Distance learners' career concerns were associated with a positive attitude towards learning. In other words, while a concern for career advancement will not associate learners with effective use of strategies, such a concern helps learners develop a positive attitude towards learning. Finally, social enhancement goals were found to have negative impact on learning as these goals were associated with surface strategies and the decrease in effort management. These associations seem to go against the Chinese collectivistic culture that places motivational significance on meeting social norms and fulfilling parental expectation on academic achievement. While it is not clear whether these social concerns would have positive impact on learners' achievement in this study, the present results indicate that a focus on enhancing social status and meeting social

expectation will draw learners away from meaningful engagement and persistence.

those focusing on various career considerations (Ng, 2008).

among distance learners.

**6. Conclusion** 

Barron and Harackiewicz (2001) in a seminal paper argued that different achievement goals will have independent effects on learning and achievement, which can be assessed using the main effects of predictors in regression analyses. The current results clearly indicate that different goals had significant independent effects on learning and attitudes. Overall, the current findings suggest that goals that focus distance learners on the learning process are associated with adaptive use of strategies. In contrast, goals that draw distance learners away from the learning process and focus on the learning product do not predict the use of learning and regulatory strategies. Pintrich (2000) when discussing the nature of multiple goals argued that different goals will lead to different learning pathways and hence resulting in different learning experiences. The current results clearly support this notion of "multiple-goals, multiple-pathways". Distance learners focusing on mastery-development goals will certainly engage in and experience distance learning differently compared to

Barron and Harackiewicz (2001) also proposed that different goals may interact with each other. An additional regression analysis was conducted examining the interaction effects between different goals in this study. The result was nonsignificant, indicating that these goals did not interact with each other. In other words, a high level of performanceapproach goals would not enhance the positive effects of mastery-development goals. However, Ng (2008) using a clustering procedure found that distance learners are capable of endorsing a multitude of goals simultaneously. Future studies should continue to explore the potential interaction effects between goals on learning and engagement

This paper looked into the significant role of motivation in distance learning using an achievement goal framework. The results showed that conceptualising distance learners' motivation as motivational beliefs and goals adds to our understanding of distance learners' motivational and learning characteristics. Of course, the correlation nature of the current study does not allow for the analysis of causal ordering between beliefs, goals, strategies and attitudes. The culturally-specific and female-dominated sample prevents generalisation of the current findings. Further research should examine the relationship of these important variables using longitudinal design and include distance learners from other cultural contexts. The lack of achievement data was another major limitation in the current study.

beliefs simply enhanced the positive effects of these adaptive goals and led the learners to use fewer surface strategies.

Previous studies have examined the moderation effects using middle school students and young adolescents (e.g. Harackiewicz *et al.*, 2000; Kaplan & Midgley, 1997; Miller, Behrens, Greene & Newman, 1993). The current study provided empirical evidence on the moderation hypotheses among mature distance learners, which certainly added to our limited knowledge on the role of mediators on the effect of goals on learning. The present results focused us on the critical role of different moderators in distance learning. While the current study failed to find significant interaction between efficacy beliefs and goals on learning, the discussion above has highlighted the mastery-oriented nature of distance learning as an important factor that needs to be considered in examining the interaction effects. Certainly more research is needed to tease out the moderation effects of efficacy beliefs with goals among distance learners. In particular, our knowledge on extrinsic work goals and social enhancement goals are still rather limited. More research is required to understand how these goals operate in the learning process among distance learners.

The significant moderation effects of control beliefs reminded us the importance of considering additional mediators salient in a specific learning context. An experimental study conducted by Darnon and colleagues (2007) provided relevant empirical evidence showing that different forms of uncertainty created through negative feedback on performance or conflicting evaluation moderated the effects of performance-approach goals on learning. Within a distance learning system, tutor's disconfirming feedback on assessment may pose a significant threat to control beliefs (cf. Ng, 2009) and heighten a certain level of uncertainty. In addition, future research should extend the current investigation to cover different type of dependent measures and examine the moderation hypotheses within different level of task specificity. Two important dependent measures are distance learners' persistence and achievement levels. Will strong efficacy or control beliefs act as a buffer against the negative impact of less adaptive goals such as extrinsic work goals on persistence and achievement? In addition, the current study focused on learners' motivation and learning at the course level without referring to specific academic tasks. Future studies should consider the moderation hypotheses using more specific academic tasks such as sitting for an end-of-course examination that highlights performance demonstration and the critical importance of efficacy and control beliefs.

With regard to the predictive importance of goals, the regression models consistent with past achievement goal research showing that mastery-development goals, and to a lesser extent performance-approach goals, were associated with adaptive patterns of strategy use and learning attitudes. These results were achieved after controlling for the effects of both efficacy and control beliefs. The significance of mastery-development goals was demonstrated in the associated engaged pattern characterising by adaptive use of strategies. The use of regulatory strategies, and more specifically, effort management strategies indicate that distance learners focusing on mastery and development goals will be more likely to persist and continue investing effort on learning despite obstacles and problems. Performance-approach goals in this study were also positively related to these strategies. In addition these goals focused learners on time management and organisation. Extrinsic work goals did not predict any of the strategies. The interaction results indicated that extrinsic work goals were probably associated with a maladaptive pattern of strategy use, which to a

beliefs simply enhanced the positive effects of these adaptive goals and led the learners to

Previous studies have examined the moderation effects using middle school students and young adolescents (e.g. Harackiewicz *et al.*, 2000; Kaplan & Midgley, 1997; Miller, Behrens, Greene & Newman, 1993). The current study provided empirical evidence on the moderation hypotheses among mature distance learners, which certainly added to our limited knowledge on the role of mediators on the effect of goals on learning. The present results focused us on the critical role of different moderators in distance learning. While the current study failed to find significant interaction between efficacy beliefs and goals on learning, the discussion above has highlighted the mastery-oriented nature of distance learning as an important factor that needs to be considered in examining the interaction effects. Certainly more research is needed to tease out the moderation effects of efficacy beliefs with goals among distance learners. In particular, our knowledge on extrinsic work goals and social enhancement goals are still rather limited. More research is required to

understand how these goals operate in the learning process among distance learners.

demonstration and the critical importance of efficacy and control beliefs.

The significant moderation effects of control beliefs reminded us the importance of considering additional mediators salient in a specific learning context. An experimental study conducted by Darnon and colleagues (2007) provided relevant empirical evidence showing that different forms of uncertainty created through negative feedback on performance or conflicting evaluation moderated the effects of performance-approach goals on learning. Within a distance learning system, tutor's disconfirming feedback on assessment may pose a significant threat to control beliefs (cf. Ng, 2009) and heighten a certain level of uncertainty. In addition, future research should extend the current investigation to cover different type of dependent measures and examine the moderation hypotheses within different level of task specificity. Two important dependent measures are distance learners' persistence and achievement levels. Will strong efficacy or control beliefs act as a buffer against the negative impact of less adaptive goals such as extrinsic work goals on persistence and achievement? In addition, the current study focused on learners' motivation and learning at the course level without referring to specific academic tasks. Future studies should consider the moderation hypotheses using more specific academic tasks such as sitting for an end-of-course examination that highlights performance

With regard to the predictive importance of goals, the regression models consistent with past achievement goal research showing that mastery-development goals, and to a lesser extent performance-approach goals, were associated with adaptive patterns of strategy use and learning attitudes. These results were achieved after controlling for the effects of both efficacy and control beliefs. The significance of mastery-development goals was demonstrated in the associated engaged pattern characterising by adaptive use of strategies. The use of regulatory strategies, and more specifically, effort management strategies indicate that distance learners focusing on mastery and development goals will be more likely to persist and continue investing effort on learning despite obstacles and problems. Performance-approach goals in this study were also positively related to these strategies. In addition these goals focused learners on time management and organisation. Extrinsic work goals did not predict any of the strategies. The interaction results indicated that extrinsic work goals were probably associated with a maladaptive pattern of strategy use, which to a

use fewer surface strategies.

certain extent, would be moderated by control beliefs. However these goals were not utterly detrimental to learning. Distance learners' career concerns were associated with a positive attitude towards learning. In other words, while a concern for career advancement will not associate learners with effective use of strategies, such a concern helps learners develop a positive attitude towards learning. Finally, social enhancement goals were found to have negative impact on learning as these goals were associated with surface strategies and the decrease in effort management. These associations seem to go against the Chinese collectivistic culture that places motivational significance on meeting social norms and fulfilling parental expectation on academic achievement. While it is not clear whether these social concerns would have positive impact on learners' achievement in this study, the present results indicate that a focus on enhancing social status and meeting social expectation will draw learners away from meaningful engagement and persistence.

Barron and Harackiewicz (2001) in a seminal paper argued that different achievement goals will have independent effects on learning and achievement, which can be assessed using the main effects of predictors in regression analyses. The current results clearly indicate that different goals had significant independent effects on learning and attitudes. Overall, the current findings suggest that goals that focus distance learners on the learning process are associated with adaptive use of strategies. In contrast, goals that draw distance learners away from the learning process and focus on the learning product do not predict the use of learning and regulatory strategies. Pintrich (2000) when discussing the nature of multiple goals argued that different goals will lead to different learning pathways and hence resulting in different learning experiences. The current results clearly support this notion of "multiple-goals, multiple-pathways". Distance learners focusing on mastery-development goals will certainly engage in and experience distance learning differently compared to those focusing on various career considerations (Ng, 2008).

Barron and Harackiewicz (2001) also proposed that different goals may interact with each other. An additional regression analysis was conducted examining the interaction effects between different goals in this study. The result was nonsignificant, indicating that these goals did not interact with each other. In other words, a high level of performanceapproach goals would not enhance the positive effects of mastery-development goals. However, Ng (2008) using a clustering procedure found that distance learners are capable of endorsing a multitude of goals simultaneously. Future studies should continue to explore the potential interaction effects between goals on learning and engagement among distance learners.
