**6. Reengineering in the academic processes of ODL**

The operational modalities of the 20th century of open and distance learning institutions in Africa are, to large extent, based on the specifications of the traditional Objective-Rational approach to instructional design where knowledge and truth are perceived to exist outside the mind of the individual and, therefore, objective. In other word, learners are told the world and are expected to replicate its content and structure in their thinking. Knowledge, in line with this approach, is taught to the learners as finished product of other people's experience as they are not allowed to realize that they too can produce knowledge from processing their own experience. Thus, knowledge is perceived as a possession of other people's ideas without taken into consideration the experiences of the learners. Hence, it is the experiences of others that matter and not the experiences of the learners who are supposed to be at the centre of the teaching and learning activities.

However, recent events in the contemporary globalized world (especially in the massive revolution of information and communication technology, which has accelerated the internationalization of open and distance learning practice, and the systematic movement of this mode of learning from industrialized model to post-industrialized) has necessitated the infusion of the principles of constructivism in instructional design in open and distance learning. Constructivism is a fundamental departure in thought, from that of the traditional objective-rational approach, about the nature of knowing, learning, and teaching. In terms of learning, the constructivist perspective describes learning as a change in meaning constructed from experience (Newby, Stepich, Lehman, and Russell (1996). The constructivists believe that knowledge and truth are constructed by people and do not exist outside the human mind (Duffy and Jonassen,1991). Thus, the constructivists' view of learning differs radically from that of the objectivists in the sense that they perceive learning to be personal and not purely objective (Bonder, 1986). Von Glaserfeld (1984) submitted that through constructivism, learners construct understanding. They do not simply mirror and reflect what they are told or what they read. Learners look for meaning and will try to find regularity and order in the events of the world, even in the absence of full or complete information. In essence, the construction of knowledge is the major emphasis of constructivism.

In terms of learning process, the central tenet of constructivism is that learning is an active process. Information may be imposed, but not understanding because it must come from within. Woolfolk (1993:485) described the constructivist view of the learning process as follows:


will have to change from top down to bottom-up; so also, the leadership pattern which must also change from dogmatic pattern to inspirational pattern. The job expectation of workers of the 21st century ODL institutions will have to change from that of security to personal growth; so also the philosophy of motivation of such institutions which should now be: to build rather than to compete. ODL institutions in a knowledge-based society must aim at revolutionary improvements rather than incremental improvements. Lastly, the philosophy of quality of ODL institutions of this age must be- no compromise and not affordable best

The operational modalities of the 20th century of open and distance learning institutions in Africa are, to large extent, based on the specifications of the traditional Objective-Rational approach to instructional design where knowledge and truth are perceived to exist outside the mind of the individual and, therefore, objective. In other word, learners are told the world and are expected to replicate its content and structure in their thinking. Knowledge, in line with this approach, is taught to the learners as finished product of other people's experience as they are not allowed to realize that they too can produce knowledge from processing their own experience. Thus, knowledge is perceived as a possession of other people's ideas without taken into consideration the experiences of the learners. Hence, it is the experiences of others that matter and not the experiences of the learners who are

However, recent events in the contemporary globalized world (especially in the massive revolution of information and communication technology, which has accelerated the internationalization of open and distance learning practice, and the systematic movement of this mode of learning from industrialized model to post-industrialized) has necessitated the infusion of the principles of constructivism in instructional design in open and distance learning. Constructivism is a fundamental departure in thought, from that of the traditional objective-rational approach, about the nature of knowing, learning, and teaching. In terms of learning, the constructivist perspective describes learning as a change in meaning constructed from experience (Newby, Stepich, Lehman, and Russell (1996). The constructivists believe that knowledge and truth are constructed by people and do not exist outside the human mind (Duffy and Jonassen,1991). Thus, the constructivists' view of learning differs radically from that of the objectivists in the sense that they perceive learning to be personal and not purely objective (Bonder, 1986). Von Glaserfeld (1984) submitted that through constructivism, learners construct understanding. They do not simply mirror and reflect what they are told or what they read. Learners look for meaning and will try to find regularity and order in the events of the world, even in the absence of full or complete information. In essence, the

In terms of learning process, the central tenet of constructivism is that learning is an active process. Information may be imposed, but not understanding because it must come from within. Woolfolk (1993:485) described the constructivist view of the learning process as


learn. Learning is active mental work, not passive reception of teaching.

has championed by the 20th century ODL institutions.

**6. Reengineering in the academic processes of ODL** 

supposed to be at the centre of the teaching and learning activities.

construction of knowledge is the major emphasis of constructivism.

follows:

Jonassen, (1991) submitted that during the process of learning in constructivist approach, learners may conceive of the external reality somewhat differently, based on their unique set of experiences with the world and their beliefs about them. However, learners may discuss their understandings with others and thus develop shared understandings (Cognition and Technology Group, 1991). While different learners may arrive at different answers, it is not a matter of 'anything goes' (Spiro, R.J., Coulson, R.L., Feltovich, P.J. and Anderson, D. K. (1988); Spiro, R.J., Feltovich, P.J., Jacobson, M.J. and Coulson, R.L. (1991). Learners must be able to justify their position to establish its validity (Cognition and Technology Group, 1991). Even though the learners are central to the learning process, as emphasized by the Piagetian individualistic approach to constructivism, it is collaboration among learners that makes constructivism unique because it encourages the construction of a social context in which collaboration creates a sense of community, and that teachers and students are active participants in the learning process.

In terms of goal or stimulus for learning, it is the problematic situation (Dewey, 1938) or learners 'puzzlement' (Savery and Duffy, 1995) that serves as stimulus and organizer for learning. Hence, according to the constructivist perspective, learning is determined by the complex interplay among learners' existing knowledge, the social context, and the problem to be solved. Instruction, in the constructivist view, should be designed to provide learners with a collaborative situation in which they have both the means and the opportunity to construct 'new and situationally-specific understandings by assembling prior knowledge from diverse sources' (Ertmer and Newby, 1993:63).

The two major characteristics central to constructivist descriptions of the learning process, according to Brooks and Brooks, 1993; Cognition and Technology Group, 1993; Brown and Holum, 1991; Honebein, Duffy, and Fishman, 1993, were:

	- Requires students to make and test a prediction.
	- Can be solved with inexpensive equipment.
	- Is realistically complex.
	- Benefits from group effort.
	- Is seen as relevant and interesting by students.

The role of the teacher during instruction, in constructivist view, is that instructional intervention should not only match, but also accelerate students' cognitive development. According to Copley (1972), constructivism requires a teacher who acts as a facilitator 'whose main function is to help students become active participants in their learning and make meaningful connections between prior knowledge, and the processes involved in learning'.

Re-Engineering Open and Distance Learning

base for self-sustained growth.

**8. Conclusion** 

**9. References** 

Basic Books.

63, 873-878.

Associates, 115-119.

Africa are to be properly re-engineered for knowledge society:

designed in line with the principles of constructivism.

constructivist tutors rather than objectivist tutors.

**7. Recommendations** 

Institutional Development for Knowledge Society in Africa 11

The following recommendations are suggested if open and distance learning institutions in

1. Open and distance learning institutions must be revolutionized in line with the 18 parameters description of the characteristics of the 21st century organizations. 2. Instructional dissemination in open and distance learning programmes must be

3. Tutors in open and distance learning programme must be re-oriented to become

4. Open and distance learning institutions must expand their scope of academic activities

5. Open and distance learning institutions must design strategies and create avenues through which distance learning students can make use of knowledge acquired as the

This paper has established the fact that Open and distance learning remains an important avenue for raising the higher-level employment skills of African countries in order to sustain a competitive research base and improve knowledge dissemination to the benefit of African societies. However, if ODL is to continue to be one of the major drivers of economic competitiveness in an increasingly knowledge-driven global economy, then there is the need for substantial reforms or re-engineering of its institutional development along the lines of administrative and academic processes. This is what this paper has been able to achieve.

Bednar, A.K., Cunningham, D., Duffy, T.M.& Perry J.D. (1992). Theory into practice: How do

*instruction: a conversation*, Hillsdale, HJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 17-35. Bell,D. (1976). The coming of the post-industrialized society: A venture in social forecasting.

Bonder, G.M. (1986). Constructivism: A Theory of Knowledge, *Journal of Chemical Education,*

Brooks, J.G. and Brooks, M.G. (1993). *In search of understanding: the case for constructivist classrooms,* Alexandria, VA: American Society for Curriculum Development. Brown, J.S., Collins, A. And Duguid P. (1989). Situated Cognition and the culture of

Cascio, W. F. (2003). Managing Human Resources: Productivity, Quality of Work Life,

Chung J. (1991). Collaborative learning strategies: the design of instructional environments

Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderblit (1991). Some thoughts about constructivism

and instructional design. In T.M. Duffy and D.H. Jonassen (Eds.) Constructivism and the technology of instruction: a conversation. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum

for the emerging new school. *Educational Technology*, 31 (6), 15-22.

learning. *Educational Researcher*, 18 (1), 32-41.

Profits. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

we link? In T.M. Duffy and D.H. Jonassen (Eds.) *Constructivism and the technology of* 

in order to reduce the knowledge gap (K-Gap) which exists in Africa.

Chung (1991) has described the type and characteristics of the learning environment favoured by the constructivists as follows:


In line with Chung's description, the teacher is thus seen as a guide instead of an expert. Collins, Brown, and Holum (1991) and Rogoff (1990) have likened constructivism instruction to an apprenticeship in which teachers participate with students in the solution of meaningful and realistic problems. Thus, the teacher serves as models and guides showing students how to reflect on their evolving knowledge and providing direction when the students are having difficulty. Learning is shared, and responsibility for the instruction is equally shared. Newby et.al. (1996) submitted that the amount of guidance provided by the teacher will depend on the knowledge level and experience of the students.

From the description of the ideas of constructivism, Brooks and Brooks (1993) have summarized the characteristics of a constructivist teacher as someone who will:


Thus, from the constructivist perspective, the primary responsibility of the teacher is to create and maintain a collaborative problem-solving environment, where students are allowed to construct their own knowledge, and the teacher acts as a facilitator and guide. The pedagogical effectiveness of constructivism in instructional design made Reigeluth (1989) to argue for a 'new mindset, in the translation of the philosophy of constructivism into actual practice.

One of the most appropriate strategy for building constructivist learning environment is to create a collaborative learning environment which does not just entail sharing a workload or coming to a consensus. Rather, it is to allow learners to develop, compare, and understand multiple perspectives on an issue. According to Bednar, Cunningham, Duffy, and Perry J.D. (1992), 'it is the rigorous process of developing and evaluating the arguments that is the goal in collaborative learning". Hence, knowledge, in the constructivists view, is the construction of the learners and the construction of other people's view for the learners.
