**7. Appendix**

*Mastery-development goals (5 items; Cronbach Alpha value=.75)* 


*Performance-approach goals (2 items; Cronbach Alpha value=.65)* 


*Extrinsic work goals (3 items; Cronbach Alpha value=.77)* 


*Social enhancement goals (4 items; Cronbach Alpha value=.66)* 


#### *Deep strategies (4 items; Cronbach Alpha value=.70)*

248 International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education

Future studies need to examine the effects of these important motivational variables on distance learners' achievement level. In particular, it will be interesting to examine if

Understanding distance learners' motivation will have practical implications for designing an engaging learning environment to support distance learners. In particular, the current findings suggest that building a distance learning system that promotes a mastery focus, encourage high performance, addresses personal development needs, and reinforces

Ames (1992) have discussed various classroom dimensions that promote mastery and engagement, such as the nature of task, authority, evaluation, and recognition. Using this perspective, distance educators can engage in a self-reflective process and ask critical questions, such as: Will distance learners find the learning units, activities and assigned readings interesting, challenging and helpful in developing their self-efficacy? Have the course and assessment items designed in such a way that distance learners are given abundant opportunities to develop independence, autonomy and choice? Is the learner support system effective in assisting learners to regulate their learning and progress? Are timely feedback on their progress and performance in the course provided to distance

These are important questions for distance educators who intend to create a motivating and engaging distance learning environment. Certainly, more research is required to look into the nature of distance learners' motivation in order to inform distance educators to make evidence-informed decisions on these critical questions. The current study has contributed to this effort by researching distance learners' motivation using an achievement goal

efficacy and control beliefs are fundamental to motivating distance learners to learn.

extrinsic work goals will be associated with a high level of achievement.

*Mastery-development goals (5 items; Cronbach Alpha value=.75)* 

*Performance-approach goals (2 items; Cronbach Alpha value=.65)* 

I take this course because it helps my career advancement.

*Social enhancement goals (4 items; Cronbach Alpha value=.66)* 

I want to get a good result in this course.

*Extrinsic work goals (3 items; Cronbach Alpha value=.77)* 

In this course, I would like to show that I am more capable than other students.

I take this course because I want to gain the related professional qualification.

Acquiring the knowledge in this course will enable me to help others and contribute to

I believe that my parents will be honoured when I do this course and its associated

 I do in this course because I want to learn something new. I found a sense of personal satisfaction in doing this course.

learners?

perspective.

**7. Appendix** 

the society.

degree programme.


#### *Surface strategies (2 items; Cronbach Alpha value=.66)*


#### *Self-monitoring strategies (8 items; Cronbach Alpha value=.77)*


#### *Time Management (2 items; Cronbach Alpha value=.68)*


#### *Effort Management (2 items; Cronbach Alpha value=.61)*


#### *Help seeking (2 items; Cronbach Alpha value=.76)*


#### *Learning attitudes (7 items; Cronbach Alpha value=.83)*


#### *Efficacy Beliefs (3 items; Cronbach Alpha value=.72)*


#### *Control beliefs (3 items; Cronbach Alpha value=.65)*


The Role of Self-Efficacy, Control Beliefs and

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**12**

Ingrid Helleve *University of Bergen* 

*Norway* 

**Differences and Similarities in Approach** 

**Between Classroom and Distance Learning** 

This chapter will focus on differences and similarities between classroom and distance learning. What should count as learning and knowledge when information is available for everybody all the time? What are the consequences of these questions for teachers? These are questions that will be dealt with throughout the chapter. The aim of this Norwegian study is to single out what characterises productive interactions in ICT- (Information and communication technology) supported communities of learners, based on research from three different case studies. The study is based on the assumption that when teachers are designing and guiding learning communities there are some common features across agegroups and learning environments. Common for the three communities is that educational technology is supposed to serve as a space for collaborative writing activities. Across classrooms and distance learning there are some basic differences and similarities that will be discussed and illustrated through three different studies carried out between pupils in a classroom, on-campus students and distance learning students. The first study is carried out in 2nd grade in primary school where the students were supposed to write common texts by means of stand-alone-computers in the class-room. The next study deals with the experiences of 10 campus students in a blended environment. The students met every day, but were also supposed to collaborate online. The third study deals with distance learning. A group of five students called themselves the "*magic group*." They were student teachers who were supposed to publish portfolios and give feedback to each other. The research methods that are used are observations of the activities in the classroom, interviews and analysis of written texts. The conversation taking place when the pupils were writing common texts by means of the computers were recorded and analysed. The written online material is based on portfolios, feedback processes and online discussions. Further pupils, students and teachers in all three studies are interviewed. The aim of this chapter is to look across the borders of distance- and classroom learning in search of differences and

Schools as we have known them for hundreds of years have gathered people for the purpose of learning. Educational institutions are organized social societies. Currently it is relevant to raise the question of how to legitimize organized teaching and learning in a

**1. Introduction** 

similarities.

**2. Why organized teaching and learning?** 

