**2. Theoretical model**

Moore's theory of transactional distance involves three components: structure, dialogue, and autonomy. Structure consists of the objectives, assignments, due dates, textbook, schedule, and other organizational elements in a course. Dialogue involves interaction with the teacher, peers enrolled in the course, and agents of the institution. It might include email, telephone, video conferences, and written and oral assignment feedback. Autonomy has been defined numerous ways, but can best be conceptualized as involving two key components—choice and capacity. Choice refers to the learner's freedom to make decisions about learning, specifically setting goals, selecting materials, determining how and what to study, and evaluating performance (e.g., see Holec, 1981; Hurd, 1998b, 2005; Little, 1991, White, 2003). When learners do not have much input related to a course, the level of autonomy is low. In these cases, structure is high, meaning that decision-making about what and how to learn are controlled within the course or by the teacher.

Self-Regulated Learning Activities: Supporting Success in Online Courses 113

designers, teachers, and students with guidance for addressing needs, strengthening weaknesses, and realizing success. The model is applicable to any content area or course. Course designers must consider the six dimensions of self-regulated learning and how to

A qualitative study consisting of 20 distance English language learners enrolled in a high intermediate level reading/writing course provides evidence of the model's effectiveness (Andrade & Bunker, 2011a). Data was collected through reflective journals in which learners reported increased self-regulation, persistence, and English proficiency. As learners participated in the self-regulated learning and language activities in the course, they reflected on their performance in their journals, specifically their goals and strategy use. The self-regulated learning dimension of performance, or monitoring and evaluating progress in order to refine goals, was the primary purpose of the assignment. The journals

An analysis of these journals indicated a number of themes related to self-regulated learning and the dimensions. Learners reported that they had increased responsibility for their learning in the following ways: identifying their purpose for learning and understanding the importance of setting and achieving goals (motive), applying various study strategies (methods of learning), tracking and prioritizing their use of time (time), identifying appropriate times and places for study (physical environment), and recognizing that seeking help from tutors and teachers is a positive behaviour (social environment). The dimension of

Autonomy in the course was supported as learners had a choice of self-regulated learning activities based on an initial survey that helped them identify their strengths and weaknesses related to the dimensions. Learners selected an initial dimension on which to focus and corresponding activities to assist them in developing needed strategies. For instance, for the dimension of social environment, learners could choose from four activities—seeking help, preparing for a tutoring appointment, preparing for a teacher conference, or interacting with classmates. Choices related to the dimension of time included recording activities for 24 hours, prioritizing activities, evaluating time use, and organizing time. (More information about these activities is included in the Approaches and

integrate them into course materials to develop and enhance learner responsibility.

were submitted to the teacher at various points during the course.

performance was embedded in the journal assignment itself.

Fig. 1. Steps to self-regulation for distance learners.

**2.1 Effectiveness of the model**

Capacity refers to the learner's ability to be self-directed in terms of being an active learner, taking control, and awareness and use of learning strategies (e.g., see Garrison, 2003; Holec, 1981; Hurd, 1998a; Vanijdee, 2003; White, 2003). When learners have the capacity to be autonomous, they are more likely to achieve success in a distance learning context. When structure and dialogue are high, the "transactional distance" (Moore, 2007, p. 90) between the learner and the teacher decrease; the level of autonomy also decreases. Although high levels of structure and dialogue may provide necessary scaffolding and support for learners, these components should ideally lead to the learner building capacity for independence and needing less structure and dialogue to be successful.

Self-regulated learning is closely related to capacity as it involves learner self-direction and responsibility. It provides a framework for how learners can control the learning process. Self-regulated learning involves six dimensions: motive (e.g., reasons for learning, goals, self-talk, rewards/punishments), methods (e.g., learning strategies), time (e.g., time management, when to study), physical environment (e.g., identification and elimination of distractors), social environment (e.g., help, collaboration, communication), and performance (e.g., evaluation, reflection, goal revision) (Dembo et al., 2006; Schunk & Zimmerman, 1994; Zimmerman, 1994; Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997). Learners who manage these dimensions and show evidence of being self-regulated are academically successful (Dembo et al., 2006). The term self-regulated learning has some advantage over the concept of autonomy because it emphasizes how to develop responsibility for learning and related behaviours. The dimensions provide a specific structural framework upon which to base course activities and strategy instruction. Self-regulated learning encompasses "the practical steps taken by learners to manage their own learning" (Hurd, 2005, p. 10).

Figure 1 depicts how interaction with structure and dialogue, course content, and related self-regulated learning activities contribute to the development of self-regulation and learner success (e.g., see Andrade & Bunker, 2009, 2011a, 2011b). Learners begin a course with initial levels of self-regulated learning, commitment, and language proficiency (or knowledge of course content). In the English language courses described in this chapter, dialogue is provided through instructor feedback, e-mail, discussion groups, and live tutoring (the latter offers interactive language practice). Structure occurs through the study guide with instructions and links to course materials, the calendar with assignment due dates, audio and video presentations, and the textbook. Self-regulated learning activities, designed to provide goal-setting, application, and reflection opportunities, are included for each of the six dimensions. As students work with the course materials, learn and practice the language, and participate in self-regulated learning activities, they increase their selfregulation, capacity to be responsible and make appropriate choices with decreasing amounts of guidance, likelihood of persisting, and language proficiency or subject area knowledge. The model advances the practice of distance learning by providing a framework, based on established theories, by which to enhance learner success.

The model has the potential to positively affect distance learning in a variety of contexts and disciplines. Although some distance courses have utilized or studied self-regulated learning components such as motivation, reflection, metacognition, and goal setting to aid student success (e.g., see Bothma & Monteith, 2004; Chang, 2005; Hurd, 2000, 2005; Murphy, 2005; Tobias, 2006; Thang, 2005; van den Boom, Pass, & van Merrienboer, 2007), the framework depicted in Figure 1 and as described by Andrade and Bunker (2009, 2011a, 2011b) provides

Fig. 1. Steps to self-regulation for distance learners.

designers, teachers, and students with guidance for addressing needs, strengthening weaknesses, and realizing success. The model is applicable to any content area or course. Course designers must consider the six dimensions of self-regulated learning and how to integrate them into course materials to develop and enhance learner responsibility.
