**7. Contrasting visions of radio learning in South African primary schools**

#### **7.1 A product-based versus a product and process-based vision of educational change**

The remaining sections of this chapter will attempt to contrast the type of responsive, contextual and process vision of educational change developed in the South African Radio Learning Programme post 1994 with the type of skills-based, mechanistic and technicist vision of educational change originally envisaged by the project planners. The reason for doing so is that our evaluative evidence indicates that the product and process vision of educational change based on open learning principles enabled the development of two parallel support curricula involving classroom materials plus informal in-service training and support to schools, which was accepted by many principals and teachers.

Many of the initial radio learning programmes (Bosch, 1998; Dock, 1998) were based on similar assumptions to those that informed the development of the South African Radio Learning Programme over its initial three years. At the outset after the programme's inception in 1992, the curriculum was informed by what can be characterized as a technicist vision of educational change, focused on the development of a package of radio lessons and supporting materials, through which a set of skills were introduced to learners.

Over 1993 and 1994, the vision of the project team changed. Product remained important, but only as a starting point to a process of educational change. The process was conceptualised as involving a flow of classroom transactions between teachers and learners. The role of the project team was to support a process of educational change.

This would be done by providing two parallel support curricula, both of which were necessary to improvement of quality of education in the schools. The one support curriculum was directed at the needs of teachers and the other at the needs of learners. Both curricula involved distance education, and both were informed by open learning principles.

We have already explored the shifts in vision which accompanied changes in conception of curricular principles in some depth. This analysis will be built on in the concluding sections of this chapter, in which the value of both a product and process approach to undertaking in-service training and support of teachers will be highlighted. The reason for doing so is that our evaluative evidence over a seventeen year period indicates that both product and process issues formed the basis for the programme becoming widely accepted by teachers and principals at school level. They also underpinned the perceived value of the programme by educational officials across the South African education system.

#### **7.2 Was a product and process curriculum perceived as valuable?**

Post 1994. the South African Radio Learning Programme focused on the development of two curricula, one for learners and the other for their teachers. The aim of the programme

Teacher Development Through Distance Education:

post 1994 would probably have been very different.

print materials formed the priorities.

Ramafoko, 1995; Naidoo & Potter, 1996).

previous fifteen years (Potter & Naidoo, 2006; 2009).

of need.

Contrasting Visions of Radio Learning in South African Primary Schools 79

over the seventeen year period it worked in different areas of the country (DfID, 2004,

Evaluation was important as there are clear indications that the project team responded to evaluative criticism. Had there not been evaluative criticism of the programme's behaviourist and technicist assumptions (Potter, Arnott, Mansfield et al., 1993), its course

Would it have achieved as wide support from teachers? It is tempting to claim this, but it would be better to refer to evidence. Our data are filled with reference by teachers to the lack of support provided by the educational authorities. There was thus recurring evidence

In terms of the project's response to teachers' needs, the initial response prior to 1994 was to focus on provision of audio lessons and supporting materials. In-service training and support of teachers were not part of the programme's vocabulary over its initial years of operation, for the reason that provision of well-conceptualised radio scripts and supporting

Post 1994, the programme continued to focus of provision of materials, but in addition focused on in-service training and support, basing its work in the schools on principles of open learning (OLSET 1995). These were applied in applied in both teacher and learner support curricula. The project's implementation model also focused on developing evaluative capacity among teachers in primary schools from Grades One to Three, using

The model post 1994 can thus be conceptualized as an extension of an initial focus on product to include a process dimension. Both the product and the product and process models involved both development and evaluation. Both in its initial years between 1992 and 1994, as well as post 1994, there were clear indications that the project team perceived both development and formative evaluation as linked. Between 1992 and 1994, the basis for the development of a participatory approach to teacher development was also laid in the teacher support groups and case studies which provided qualitative evidence on the programme's development at school level. This then developed to form the basis for classroom-based intervention (Potter & Naidoo, 2008), involving project staff and teachers at a number of levels in documenting the programme in the schools (Leigh, Naidoo &

Classroom-based participatory evaluation was also conducted for developmental and formative purposes (Friend, Potter, Naidoo et al., 2010; Potter, Chand, Naidoo et al., 2008). As part of this process, photographic case studies were conducted (Potter 1994a; Potter & Silva, 2002), as well as classroom-based evaluations using photovoice procedures (Wang & Burris, 1997; Wang, Yi, Tao et al., 1998). These were used to create a base of photographic evidence which then provided a basis for self-evaluation through classroom-based narrative and questioning (Potter & Naidoo, 2008). This added to the types of internal evaluation which had been implemented in the South African Radio Learning Programme over the

There were thus many insights which became possible through the variety of implementation and evaluative evidence gathered on the programme's work. Evidence

observation and reflection as a basis for improving teaching in the classroom.

Hunter, Nonyongo & Smith, 1998; Potter, 1994b; Potter, 1998; Silva, 2008).

was to provide a framework for teaching and learning English which involves the teacher as an integral part of the process (Potter, 2002; Potter & Naidoo, 2006; Potter & Naidoo, 2010). For teachers, the curriculum was based on an agenda of ongoing contact and school-based support that was tangible and practical, as part of a wider project involving sharing ideas on what it meant to teach well. For learners, the curriculum was based on an agenda of lowcost and affordable learning experiences that were structured and focused, yet at the same time fun.

Our evaluative data from ongoing observation, interviews and school-based case studies suggests that many lower primary school teachers found the support provided by the programme valuable both in providing curriculum materials, as well as in improving their teaching of English. This helped in aligning their teaching to the requirements of the outcomes-based national curriculum. In providing a framework of audio lessons and classroom materials, as well as in providing support on a process level to teachers at school and classroom levels, the programme was well rated by both principals and by educational officials.

Our data suggest that advocacy for the programme was based not only on the perceived value of the radio lessons and print materials provided by the programme, but also on the practical guidance provided by the project team on how to work within outcomes-based education. This was operationalized through in-service training directed at how to use the classroom materials provided by the programme for teaching English across the curriculum, and also on how to teach more effectively.

These were recurrent themes in our data. There were also recurrent themes in our interview and focus group data relating to the value of the support provided to teachers at school level, the benefits from in-service training workshops and the value of teacher support meetings providing practical ways of improving quality of teaching and learning in the classroom.

Overall, the evidence presented in this chapter would thus suggest that the product-related and process-related support provided by the programme were perceived by teachers, principals and educational officials as positive. The partnerships developed with the educational authorities and the national broadcaster (the SABC) also enabled the programme to work at low cost with large numbers of schools, teachers and learners. However, given the scale of teacher and learner needs in South African schools, ongoing intervention and support at school and classroom level were necessary.

At the time the programme closed its doors at the end of 2009, the evidence would suggest that the development of the type of open learning envisaged in the project's 1994 blueprint was still very much a task in process. As others may wish to take up the type of process which this particular project team was not able to complete, the lessons learned from the work of the programme will be outlined in the concluding sections of this chapter.

#### **7.3 What roles did evaluation play in the development of the programme?**

The South African Radio Learning Programme was subject to formative evaluation from its inception, as well as regular external evaluations over its entire seventeen year life. The external evaluations indicated that the programme was successful in meeting its objectives

was to provide a framework for teaching and learning English which involves the teacher as an integral part of the process (Potter, 2002; Potter & Naidoo, 2006; Potter & Naidoo, 2010). For teachers, the curriculum was based on an agenda of ongoing contact and school-based support that was tangible and practical, as part of a wider project involving sharing ideas on what it meant to teach well. For learners, the curriculum was based on an agenda of lowcost and affordable learning experiences that were structured and focused, yet at the same

Our evaluative data from ongoing observation, interviews and school-based case studies suggests that many lower primary school teachers found the support provided by the programme valuable both in providing curriculum materials, as well as in improving their teaching of English. This helped in aligning their teaching to the requirements of the outcomes-based national curriculum. In providing a framework of audio lessons and classroom materials, as well as in providing support on a process level to teachers at school and classroom levels, the programme was well rated by both principals and by educational

Our data suggest that advocacy for the programme was based not only on the perceived value of the radio lessons and print materials provided by the programme, but also on the practical guidance provided by the project team on how to work within outcomes-based education. This was operationalized through in-service training directed at how to use the classroom materials provided by the programme for teaching English across the curriculum,

These were recurrent themes in our data. There were also recurrent themes in our interview and focus group data relating to the value of the support provided to teachers at school level, the benefits from in-service training workshops and the value of teacher support meetings providing practical ways of improving quality of teaching and learning in the

Overall, the evidence presented in this chapter would thus suggest that the product-related and process-related support provided by the programme were perceived by teachers, principals and educational officials as positive. The partnerships developed with the educational authorities and the national broadcaster (the SABC) also enabled the programme to work at low cost with large numbers of schools, teachers and learners. However, given the scale of teacher and learner needs in South African schools, ongoing

At the time the programme closed its doors at the end of 2009, the evidence would suggest that the development of the type of open learning envisaged in the project's 1994 blueprint was still very much a task in process. As others may wish to take up the type of process which this particular project team was not able to complete, the lessons learned from the

The South African Radio Learning Programme was subject to formative evaluation from its inception, as well as regular external evaluations over its entire seventeen year life. The external evaluations indicated that the programme was successful in meeting its objectives

work of the programme will be outlined in the concluding sections of this chapter.

**7.3 What roles did evaluation play in the development of the programme?** 

intervention and support at school and classroom level were necessary.

time fun.

officials.

classroom.

and also on how to teach more effectively.

over the seventeen year period it worked in different areas of the country (DfID, 2004, Hunter, Nonyongo & Smith, 1998; Potter, 1994b; Potter, 1998; Silva, 2008).

Evaluation was important as there are clear indications that the project team responded to evaluative criticism. Had there not been evaluative criticism of the programme's behaviourist and technicist assumptions (Potter, Arnott, Mansfield et al., 1993), its course post 1994 would probably have been very different.

Would it have achieved as wide support from teachers? It is tempting to claim this, but it would be better to refer to evidence. Our data are filled with reference by teachers to the lack of support provided by the educational authorities. There was thus recurring evidence of need.

In terms of the project's response to teachers' needs, the initial response prior to 1994 was to focus on provision of audio lessons and supporting materials. In-service training and support of teachers were not part of the programme's vocabulary over its initial years of operation, for the reason that provision of well-conceptualised radio scripts and supporting print materials formed the priorities.

Post 1994, the programme continued to focus of provision of materials, but in addition focused on in-service training and support, basing its work in the schools on principles of open learning (OLSET 1995). These were applied in applied in both teacher and learner support curricula. The project's implementation model also focused on developing evaluative capacity among teachers in primary schools from Grades One to Three, using observation and reflection as a basis for improving teaching in the classroom.

The model post 1994 can thus be conceptualized as an extension of an initial focus on product to include a process dimension. Both the product and the product and process models involved both development and evaluation. Both in its initial years between 1992 and 1994, as well as post 1994, there were clear indications that the project team perceived both development and formative evaluation as linked. Between 1992 and 1994, the basis for the development of a participatory approach to teacher development was also laid in the teacher support groups and case studies which provided qualitative evidence on the programme's development at school level. This then developed to form the basis for classroom-based intervention (Potter & Naidoo, 2008), involving project staff and teachers at a number of levels in documenting the programme in the schools (Leigh, Naidoo & Ramafoko, 1995; Naidoo & Potter, 1996).

Classroom-based participatory evaluation was also conducted for developmental and formative purposes (Friend, Potter, Naidoo et al., 2010; Potter, Chand, Naidoo et al., 2008). As part of this process, photographic case studies were conducted (Potter 1994a; Potter & Silva, 2002), as well as classroom-based evaluations using photovoice procedures (Wang & Burris, 1997; Wang, Yi, Tao et al., 1998). These were used to create a base of photographic evidence which then provided a basis for self-evaluation through classroom-based narrative and questioning (Potter & Naidoo, 2008). This added to the types of internal evaluation which had been implemented in the South African Radio Learning Programme over the previous fifteen years (Potter & Naidoo, 2006; 2009).

There were thus many insights which became possible through the variety of implementation and evaluative evidence gathered on the programme's work. Evidence

Teacher Development Through Distance Education:

was constant (Potter, 2001; Potter & Naidoo, 2006).

2000; Naidoo and Potter, 2007).

numbers of teachers).

and limited.

Naidoo % Potter, 2007; Potter, 2000; 2001; Potter & Naidoo, 2006).

tangible and practical terms which teachers could understand.

Contrasting Visions of Radio Learning in South African Primary Schools 81

central tension within the programme remained, stemming from external pressures to respond to expectations of OLSET support, at a time where, even at the time of the programme's greatest resourcing by the international community, access to donor resources

**7.5 The programme's use of resources: A little to many as opposed to more to few**  It is also important not to gloss over the many tensions in the programme, given limited resources and lack of a national radio footprint supporting the programme over the first ten years of the programme's life. Over this period, quality of broadcasting as well as support to schools was in many cases compromised (Basson, 2000; Hunter, Nonyongo & Smith, 1998;

The ethical dilemma was essentially whether to respond to large-scale teacher and learner needs at a critical juncture in the educational transformation process across the country as a whole, and at a time when other large-scale educational projects in South Africa had had to scale down or cease their work owing to funding and donor constraints (Bot and Schindler,

Despite the compromises, our longitudinal evidence from observation, interviews and school-based case studies indicates that even at the time it was most stretched financially, the South African Radio Learning Programme provided teachers with tangible and practical assistance in the form not only of individual lessons, but also a structure of supporting materials and guidelines on how these could be used for teaching across the curriculum (Potter, 2001; Naidoo and Potter, 2007). Both teacher and learner materials were clearly set out as part of a wider teacher and learner support curriculum, which was introduced in

Our longitudinal evidence indicates that even at the time when it was most highly resourced, the amount of support actually provided by the programme to the schools was limited. The programme's model was to provide low-cost, focused and clearly defined support to large numbers of teachers. While the in-service training and support provided was based on open learning principles, it cannot be claimed that the programme produced a model for how open learning principles which should be applied by others (unless others also believe in the need to provide low-cost, focused and clearly defined support to large

In our work in other developing countries, we found evidence indicating that the South African Radio Learning Programme's approach to teacher development could also be applied in other country contexts besides our own (Potter, 2008; Potter, Liccardo and Naidoo, 2008). However, it should be noted that had we been able to do so, the principles of open learning we would have applied in these contexts would also have been circumscribed

Our reason for doing so was that this was what we knew best, and also what we felt was ethical. The South African Radio Learning Programme chose the option of working in a limited way with large numbers of schools and teachers, rather than working with few schools and in-depth (Naidoo & Potter, 2007). The choice was to provide minimal support to maximum numbers of beneficiaries. In addition to this circumscribed and limited model of

from classroom observation as well as questionnaires administered in project schools (Potter, Chand, Naidoo et al., 2008); indicates that teachers perceived clear links between the programme's materials, the national curriculum, and the types of in-service training and support provided by programme staff. There were clear indications that continuing advocacy was based on the perceived value of both the programme's teacher and learner support curricula. Advocacy was also based on the wide-spread needs in South African schools for support and in-service training, which is introduced in tangible and practical terms.

#### **7.4 The programme's vision of educational change: Principles of open learning implemented in a circumscribed and limited way**

As Weiss (1998) has suggested, central to any programme is a theory. Underpinning the South African Radio Learning Programme's post 1994 implementation was a theory of change which assumed that teacher development could be undertaken through distance education and open learning (OLSET, 1995). In the model, daily interactive radio lessons would be beamed to schools via a national radio footprint provided by the SABC. Additional print materials supplemented by contact between programme staff and teachers would be being used as a means of providing ongoing support at school and classroom levels.

Over the period up to the end of 2004, the programme underwent rapid growth. Our evaluative data indicates clearly that the programme's growth to scale was needs-driven, reflecting a context in which historically, miminal in-service training and classroom support was provided to teachers. After the advent of democracy in the country in 1994, the move to outcomes-based education has introduced increased demands on teachers for change, without providing the day-to-day guidance and support necessary to make the new system workable at the level of the classroom (Jansen, 1997; Kgobe, 2000a; 2000b; Motala, 1997). In this context of underprovision (Chisholm, Motala, & Vally, 2000) there was a high level of demand from teachers and schools for the South African Radio Learning Programme's services.

The project team's response was to attempt to undertake exponential growth in the programme, based on demand for school and classroom-based support from teachers and principals. In the context of a dearth of both educational materials and guidance and support from the educational authorities both for disadvantaged young learners and their teachers in under-resourced schools, the Radio Learning Programme's support activities were limited, applying principles of open learning in a limited way.

It is tempting to claim major successes from the project team's implementation model, given the evidence of wide-scale advocacy for the programme's work. It is perhaps wiser to suggest, as Silva (2008) has done, that the programme was able to meet its objectives, while at the same time providing support which was positively viewed by both teachers and principals for the reason that it contributed to their empowerment on a professional level.

On the positive side, teachers and principals continued to support the programme over its entire seventeen year life. The programme was able to meet its objectives in terms of broadening its schools base, while at the same time establishing contact with departmental officials as well as large numbers of teachers and learners (Potter, 1999). However, the

from classroom observation as well as questionnaires administered in project schools (Potter, Chand, Naidoo et al., 2008); indicates that teachers perceived clear links between the programme's materials, the national curriculum, and the types of in-service training and support provided by programme staff. There were clear indications that continuing advocacy was based on the perceived value of both the programme's teacher and learner support curricula. Advocacy was also based on the wide-spread needs in South African schools for support and in-service training, which is introduced in tangible and practical

**7.4 The programme's vision of educational change: Principles of open learning** 

As Weiss (1998) has suggested, central to any programme is a theory. Underpinning the South African Radio Learning Programme's post 1994 implementation was a theory of change which assumed that teacher development could be undertaken through distance education and open learning (OLSET, 1995). In the model, daily interactive radio lessons would be beamed to schools via a national radio footprint provided by the SABC. Additional print materials supplemented by contact between programme staff and teachers would be being used as a means of providing ongoing support at school and classroom

Over the period up to the end of 2004, the programme underwent rapid growth. Our evaluative data indicates clearly that the programme's growth to scale was needs-driven, reflecting a context in which historically, miminal in-service training and classroom support was provided to teachers. After the advent of democracy in the country in 1994, the move to outcomes-based education has introduced increased demands on teachers for change, without providing the day-to-day guidance and support necessary to make the new system workable at the level of the classroom (Jansen, 1997; Kgobe, 2000a; 2000b; Motala, 1997). In this context of underprovision (Chisholm, Motala, & Vally, 2000) there was a high level of demand from teachers and schools for the South African Radio Learning Programme's

The project team's response was to attempt to undertake exponential growth in the programme, based on demand for school and classroom-based support from teachers and principals. In the context of a dearth of both educational materials and guidance and support from the educational authorities both for disadvantaged young learners and their teachers in under-resourced schools, the Radio Learning Programme's support activities

It is tempting to claim major successes from the project team's implementation model, given the evidence of wide-scale advocacy for the programme's work. It is perhaps wiser to suggest, as Silva (2008) has done, that the programme was able to meet its objectives, while at the same time providing support which was positively viewed by both teachers and principals for the reason that it contributed to their empowerment on a professional level. On the positive side, teachers and principals continued to support the programme over its entire seventeen year life. The programme was able to meet its objectives in terms of broadening its schools base, while at the same time establishing contact with departmental officials as well as large numbers of teachers and learners (Potter, 1999). However, the

were limited, applying principles of open learning in a limited way.

**implemented in a circumscribed and limited way** 

terms.

levels.

services.

central tension within the programme remained, stemming from external pressures to respond to expectations of OLSET support, at a time where, even at the time of the programme's greatest resourcing by the international community, access to donor resources was constant (Potter, 2001; Potter & Naidoo, 2006).

### **7.5 The programme's use of resources: A little to many as opposed to more to few**

It is also important not to gloss over the many tensions in the programme, given limited resources and lack of a national radio footprint supporting the programme over the first ten years of the programme's life. Over this period, quality of broadcasting as well as support to schools was in many cases compromised (Basson, 2000; Hunter, Nonyongo & Smith, 1998; Naidoo % Potter, 2007; Potter, 2000; 2001; Potter & Naidoo, 2006).

The ethical dilemma was essentially whether to respond to large-scale teacher and learner needs at a critical juncture in the educational transformation process across the country as a whole, and at a time when other large-scale educational projects in South Africa had had to scale down or cease their work owing to funding and donor constraints (Bot and Schindler, 2000; Naidoo and Potter, 2007).

Despite the compromises, our longitudinal evidence from observation, interviews and school-based case studies indicates that even at the time it was most stretched financially, the South African Radio Learning Programme provided teachers with tangible and practical assistance in the form not only of individual lessons, but also a structure of supporting materials and guidelines on how these could be used for teaching across the curriculum (Potter, 2001; Naidoo and Potter, 2007). Both teacher and learner materials were clearly set out as part of a wider teacher and learner support curriculum, which was introduced in tangible and practical terms which teachers could understand.

Our longitudinal evidence indicates that even at the time when it was most highly resourced, the amount of support actually provided by the programme to the schools was limited. The programme's model was to provide low-cost, focused and clearly defined support to large numbers of teachers. While the in-service training and support provided was based on open learning principles, it cannot be claimed that the programme produced a model for how open learning principles which should be applied by others (unless others also believe in the need to provide low-cost, focused and clearly defined support to large numbers of teachers).

In our work in other developing countries, we found evidence indicating that the South African Radio Learning Programme's approach to teacher development could also be applied in other country contexts besides our own (Potter, 2008; Potter, Liccardo and Naidoo, 2008). However, it should be noted that had we been able to do so, the principles of open learning we would have applied in these contexts would also have been circumscribed and limited.

Our reason for doing so was that this was what we knew best, and also what we felt was ethical. The South African Radio Learning Programme chose the option of working in a limited way with large numbers of schools and teachers, rather than working with few schools and in-depth (Naidoo & Potter, 2007). The choice was to provide minimal support to maximum numbers of beneficiaries. In addition to this circumscribed and limited model of

Teacher Development Through Distance Education:

authorities.

annually.

**other projects take forward?** 

Contrasting Visions of Radio Learning in South African Primary Schools 83

In this context, our data suggest that acceptance of this educational innovation was gradual and incremental, and was based on acceptance of the value of the programme's work on multiple levels in the educational hierarchy (Fullan & Stiegelbauer, 1991). Our data also indicate that there was particularly firm advocacy on the part of departmental subject advisers, many of whom worked with the programme staff in teacher in-service training workshops. Given acceptance of the programme by teachers and its partnerships with the education authorities and the SABC, the programme achieved a certain level of institutionalization (DfID, 2004). It developed to form an integral part of the educational departmental structures with respect to in-service training and support to schools. Nevertheless, sustainability remained a problem, with programme remaining dependent on international donor support, as opposed to financial support from the educational

**8. Drawing the threads together: What are the lessons learned and what can** 

As Creekmore (2010) has suggested, projects are transient, and have "a beginning and end" (Turner & Muller, 2003, 1). In the South African Radio Learning Programme, sustainability remained a major tension over its entire life of the programme. The beginning was filled with optimism, while the end of the programme's work was unfortunate, but perhaps inevitable in the context of the funding crisis affecting the work of NGO's internationally. The South African Radio Learning Programme was fortunate in attracting generous international donor support over a period of seventeen years. There were many areas in which the programme's implementation was limited and the support provided to schools and teachers less than perfect. On the basis of evidence from ongoing evaluation (Potter and Naidoo, 2009a; 2009b), it cannot be claimed that the programme's approach was the ultimate, nor that its work was ideal. Nevertheless, it can be claimed that the South African Radio Learning Programme had wide-scale influence over a period of seventeen years, and played a positive role in improving quality of teaching in large numbers of schools at lower primary school level. It also contributed to increased self-efficacy of teachers in terms of

improving their ability to implement outcomes-based education in their classrooms.

On the product level, the programme's influence can be estimated in terms of the scale of the programme's outreach. As at the end of December 2009), over ten million learners in approximately 10% of all South African primary schools had been involved in the South African Radio Learning Programme's interactive radio lessons in the foundation phase of primary school, over a seventeen year period. From the programme's inception at the beginning of 1992 to 2000 the programme grew rapidly. Over period 2001 to end 2009 while the programme was supported at scale, there were an estimated 40 000 primary teachers and 1.3 million learners across nine provinces who utilised the programme's materials

On the process level, the influence of the South African Radio Learning Programme on teachers and schools is more difficult to estimate, for the reason that our data suggest that, despite support and endorsement from educational officials in all nine provinces, there were wide-scale variations in the way in which the programme was implemented at classroom level. It is clear from our data that the teacher and pupil support curricula developed by the

support, the programme was also prescriptive in defining what teachers were expected to do in terms of providing outcomes-based education.

The model was thus one of a little to many, as opposed to more to just a few. The little included setting out clear guidelines on how to link the tangibles provided in the radio lessons and the classroom support materials to the more general demands for improvements and transformation of their teaching practices which were being made by the educational authorities on teachers.
