**2. Theoretical framework: Achievement goal theory**

Achievement goal theory provides the theoretical framework guiding the design of the current study. Achievement goals are students' perceived cognitive purposes that define *why* and *how* students engage in learning. Different goals are associated with a different pattern of cognition, affect and behaviour (cf. Dweck, 1986; Kaplan & Maehr, 2007). Early studies on achievement goals focused on contrasting the effects of two *single* categories of achievement goals, mastery versus performance goals. Mastery goals orient students to learn for the sake of improvement and comprehension; whereas performance goals orient students to focus on achievement and relative ability. Previous studies consistently showed that mastery goals were always associated with adaptive learning outcomes such as higher levels of efficacy belief, persistence, effort expenditure, task value and frequent use of cognitive and regulatory strategies, and expectedly better achievement. In contrast, performance goals were less adaptive and tended to link with lower achievement levels (e.g. Ames, 1992; Ames & Archer, 1988; Dweck, 1986; Greene & Miller, 1996; Meece, Blumenfeld & Hoyle, 1988; Nolen, 1988; Pintrich, 1989; Pintrich & De Groot, 1990; Pintrich & Garcia, 1991).

However, the effects of performance goals on learning and achievement are open to debate and research evidence is far from conclusive. Achievement goal researchers like Elliot and Harackiewicz (Elliot, 1997; Harackiewicz, Barron & Elliot, 1998) argued that the detrimental effects of performance goals should be confined to those focusing students on avoiding performance, such as avoiding revealing one's lack of ability. In contrast, performance goals with an approach orientation, such as getting a good result, should have positive effects on learning and motivation. The debate on the nature of performance goals has therefore led to the separation of performance goals into finer categories—performance-approach and performance avoidance goals. Subsequent empirical evidence (Elliot &Harackiewicz, 1996; Skaalvik, 1997) showed that negative effects of performance goals were confined to those with an avoidance orientation whilst positive effects were found among performance goals with an approaching orientation. Therefore adopting multiple goals, that is holding both performance-approach goals simultaneously with mastery goals will have enhancing effects on learning and achievement.

More recently, other goals researchers have proposed an extended multiple goal perspective and showed that students learn with goals in addition to those focusing on mastery and performance concerns. For example, Valle, Cabanach, Núñez, González-Pienda, Rodríguez, and Piñeiro (2003) found a group of multiple-goal Spanish undergraduates, endorsing mastery, performance and social reinforcement goals simultaneously, alongside with two groups of single-goal students, orienting towards performance and mastery respectively. This group of multiple-goal students used more deep strategies than did performanceoriented students and had a better achievement than did both mastery- and performanceoriented groups. The study of Suárez Riveiro, Cabanach & Valle (2001) provided another example in which they examined four goals, namely, task, self-enhancing, self-defeating and work avoidance goals. Suárez Riveiro and her colleagues found three groups of multiplegoal Spanish-speaking students, which differed in the use of cognitive, self-regulatory and motivational strategies. The current study aligned with these previous studies and examined distance learners' diverse goals for learning. It is believed that distance learners hold goals focusing not just on mastery and performance.

Another major development related to the debate on the nature of performance goals is the notion of mediation. Dweck in its initial formulation of achievement goals suggested that the effect of achievement goals may be mediated by students' self-efficacy level. Dweck (1986) hypothesed that performance goals link with a maladaptive learning pattern when self-efficacy is low. However, when self-efficacy is high, performance goals are more likely to link with a more adaptive pattern of learning. Dweck assumed that self-efficacy will not mediate the effects of mastery goals. Based on an experimental study, Elliot and Dweck (1988) found empirical support for Dweck's mediator hypotheses. However, subsequent studies (e.g. Harackiewicz *et al.*, 2000; Kaplan & Midgley, 1997; Miller, Behrens, Greene & Newman, 1993) failed to confirm the mediating role of self-efficacy on the effects of performance goals. Contrary to Dweck's prediction (1986), interaction effects between selfefficacy and mastery goals were found (e.g. Kaplan & Midgley, 1997). More recently, Braten, Samuelstuen and Stromo (2004) added to this line of research and explored the role of selfefficacy in mediating the effects of avoidance forms of performance goals on self-regulation. Self-efficacy is by far the most important variable mediating the effects of performance and other achievement goals. Other mediators such as task difficulties (Grant & Dweck, 2003) and level of uncertainty (Darnon *et al.*, 2007) have been examined. In the current study, the main concern was whether distance learners' efficacy beliefs will moderate the effects of goals on learning. In addition, the present study extended the current research on achievement goals and examined the role of another important mediator, control beliefs, on the effects of goals on learning.

#### **2.1 The current study**

234 International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education

Achievement goal theory provides the theoretical framework guiding the design of the current study. Achievement goals are students' perceived cognitive purposes that define *why* and *how* students engage in learning. Different goals are associated with a different pattern of cognition, affect and behaviour (cf. Dweck, 1986; Kaplan & Maehr, 2007). Early studies on achievement goals focused on contrasting the effects of two *single* categories of achievement goals, mastery versus performance goals. Mastery goals orient students to learn for the sake of improvement and comprehension; whereas performance goals orient students to focus on achievement and relative ability. Previous studies consistently showed that mastery goals were always associated with adaptive learning outcomes such as higher levels of efficacy belief, persistence, effort expenditure, task value and frequent use of cognitive and regulatory strategies, and expectedly better achievement. In contrast, performance goals were less adaptive and tended to link with lower achievement levels (e.g. Ames, 1992; Ames & Archer, 1988; Dweck, 1986; Greene & Miller, 1996; Meece, Blumenfeld & Hoyle, 1988; Nolen, 1988; Pintrich, 1989; Pintrich & De Groot, 1990; Pintrich & Garcia,

However, the effects of performance goals on learning and achievement are open to debate and research evidence is far from conclusive. Achievement goal researchers like Elliot and Harackiewicz (Elliot, 1997; Harackiewicz, Barron & Elliot, 1998) argued that the detrimental effects of performance goals should be confined to those focusing students on avoiding performance, such as avoiding revealing one's lack of ability. In contrast, performance goals with an approach orientation, such as getting a good result, should have positive effects on learning and motivation. The debate on the nature of performance goals has therefore led to the separation of performance goals into finer categories—performance-approach and performance avoidance goals. Subsequent empirical evidence (Elliot &Harackiewicz, 1996; Skaalvik, 1997) showed that negative effects of performance goals were confined to those with an avoidance orientation whilst positive effects were found among performance goals with an approaching orientation. Therefore adopting multiple goals, that is holding both performance-approach goals simultaneously with mastery goals will have enhancing effects

More recently, other goals researchers have proposed an extended multiple goal perspective and showed that students learn with goals in addition to those focusing on mastery and performance concerns. For example, Valle, Cabanach, Núñez, González-Pienda, Rodríguez, and Piñeiro (2003) found a group of multiple-goal Spanish undergraduates, endorsing mastery, performance and social reinforcement goals simultaneously, alongside with two groups of single-goal students, orienting towards performance and mastery respectively. This group of multiple-goal students used more deep strategies than did performanceoriented students and had a better achievement than did both mastery- and performanceoriented groups. The study of Suárez Riveiro, Cabanach & Valle (2001) provided another example in which they examined four goals, namely, task, self-enhancing, self-defeating and work avoidance goals. Suárez Riveiro and her colleagues found three groups of multiplegoal Spanish-speaking students, which differed in the use of cognitive, self-regulatory and motivational strategies. The current study aligned with these previous studies and examined distance learners' diverse goals for learning. It is believed that distance learners

**2. Theoretical framework: Achievement goal theory** 

1991).

on learning and achievement.

hold goals focusing not just on mastery and performance.

To frame distance learning from an achievement goal perspective, distance learners' motivation is accordingly defined as cognitive purposes for learning and achievement. Few studies (e.g. Eppler & Harju, 1997; Ng, 2006 & 2008) in distance learning have utilized the achievement goal framework to researching distance learners and their learning processes. Ng (2008) used an extended multiple goal perspective and classified distance learners into different types of goal users. One of the most important contributions in this previous study is that distance learners have goals other than mastery and performance considerations. The extant literature on distance education shows that distance learners often learn with goals focusing on personal development, career advancement and different social considerations (e.g. Cochrane, 2000; Dearnley & Matthew, 2000; Cannon, Umble, Steckler & Shay, 2001; Lyall & McNamara, 2000; Miller & Smith, 1998; von Prummer, 1990; Wilson & Bagley, 1999).

According to the studies of Harackiewicz and her colleagues (e.g. Barron & Harackiewicz, 2001; Harackiewicz, Barron, Tauer, Carter & Elliot, 2000), different type of goals will have independent effects on learning. Different goals can provide different forms of motivational supports that help distance learners maintain their focuses or cope with the demands of learning in the midst of diverse life circumstances. For example, personal development goals orient distance learners to learn for the sake of developing confidence, opening up horizons and furthering one's development (cf. Dearnley & Matthew, 2000). Distance learners holding these goals will hold positive attitudes towards learning and be willing to expend effort and use adaptive strategies. Work-related goals focus distance learners on how their learning promotes career advancement and the development of work-related knowledge (Dearnley & Matthew, 2000; Lyall & McNamara, 2000). These goals heighten distance

The Role of Self-Efficacy, Control Beliefs and

judgement offered by a disagreeing peer.

beliefs and goals among distance learners.

achievement goals on learning?

learning of an educational psychology course.

control beliefs?

**3. Method** 

**3.1 Participants** 

Two important research questions in this study were:

Achievement Goals on Learning Among Distance Learners 237

of uncertainty manipulated through negative feedback on abilities and conflicting

In short, this present study was among the few studies that have applied achievement goal theory to researching motivation in distance learning. It adds to the literature of distance learning in two important ways. First, this study explored goals in addition to those focusing on mastery and performance concerns. Second, it examined the interaction between motivational beliefs and goals on learning and attitudes. Currently, there is no published research that has investigated the complex interaction between motivational

1. What are the relative importance of efficacy beliefs, control beliefs and various forms of

2. To what extent the effects of achievement goals are moderated by efficacy beliefs and

This study used a mailed survey method to collect distance learners' responses to a questionnaire examining their motivational beliefs, goals, strategies and attitudes towards

550 distance learners enrolled in an educational psychology course offered by a distance learning university in Hong Kong were asked to complete a questionnaire. This educational psychology course focused learners on understanding child development and learning. Distance learners were expected to study a set of self-instructed learning units and assigned readings covering importnat topics related to child development and learning. In terms of assessment, learners were required to complete four written essays and sit for an end-ofyear examination. This course provided learenrs with optional bi-weekly tutorials held in different learning centres. Each tutorial group consisted of 25 learners and a tutor. The main focus of the tutorial was to provide learners with a chance to interact with other learners and

Together with an invitation letter, the questionnaire was mailed to the distance learners two months after the course started. Distance learners were required to send back the completed questionnaire using a stamped envelope provided within two weeks. 334 learners (60.73%)

Distance learners in this sample were comprised of 274 (82%) female and 46 (13.8%) male learners. 14 (4.2%) learners did not give any information about their gender. Concerning age, 4 learners (1.2%) were below 20, 139 learners (41.6%) in 21-30 age band, 103 (30.8%) in 31-40 age band, 72 (21.6%) in 41-50 age band, 4 (1.2%) in 51-60 age band, and finally 1 (0.3%) learner was in the age band of 61 or over. 11 (3.3%) learners did not give any information about their age. The age spans were regrouped into three categories: young adults (30 or below), mature adults (30-40), and older adults (41 and above). A set of ANOVA analyses

discuss important issues covered in course materials, readings and assignments.

responded and sent back the completed questionnaires.

learners' concerns with the products of learning in relation to important career considerations. As such, these goals drive distance learners to focus on the utility value of learning and therefore can be treated as extrinsic to the learning process. These goals will probably be associated with a less engaged pattern of learning characterized by effort retreat, the use of less adaptive strategies and the development of a less favourable attitude towards learning. Also, this study included social enhancement goals, which focus learners on enhancing their social status through distance learning. This social consideration is culturally significant for Chinese distance leaners because bringing glory to one's family is an important cultural reason for learning in Chinese societies (Salili, 1997). These culturally significant social goals should provide learners with additional motivation. Because these social concerns focus more on the product of learning—enhacning social status, it is asssumed that they will be associated with positive learning attitudes. However, their positive effects on learning and regulatory strategies will be limited.

In addition to examining the effects of these goals on learning, the second aim of this study is to examine the moderation role of efficacy and control beliefs on the effects of goals on learning and attitudes. Previous studies on achievement goals have focused exclusively on moderation effects of self-efficay on performance-approach goals. Seldom other goals have been taken into considersation. This present study adds to this stream of research by examining the moderation role of efficacy beliefs on distance learners' mastery goals, workrelated goals and social enhancement goals. Given the significant result in Kaplan and Midgley (1997), this present study assumed that efficacy beliefs will enhance the positive effects of mastery goals on strategy use and learning attitudes. In other words, a strong efficacy belief will boost the positive effect of mastery goals on effective use of adaptive strategies and development of a positive learning attitude. Previous studies have not considered mediation effect of efficacy beliefs on work related goals and social enhancement goals on learning. Work-related goals and social enhancement goals in this study were conceptualised as less adaptive goals and will direct learners to focus away from the learning process onto the product, therefore it was assumed that a strong sense of efficacy beliefs will dampen the negative impact of these goals on strategy use and learning attitudes. Finally, following Dweck's theorisation (1986), this study assumed that distance learners' performance-approach goals will be associated with adaptive strategies and attitudes when their efficacy beliefs are strong

Another important contribution of the present study was examining the mediation effects of control beliefs. Given that distacne learners are expected to learn independently, it is essential for them to have strong control beliefs and consider that they are in control of their learning. Roblyer (2000) found that students who selected to take distance education considered control over learning pace an important factor. This present study assumed that distance learners' control beliefs will act as an important mediator. In particular, the hypothesised mediation effects of efficacy beliefs on goals discussed above were also held for control beliefs. In other words, a strong sense of control beliefs will enhance the positive effects of performance-approach goals and mastery goals on learning. When less adaptive goals like work-related goals are in question, a strong sense of control beliefs will dampen their negative effects on strategy use and leanring attitudes. These hypothetical relationships are consistent with the study of Darnon et al. (2007) in which experimental results indicated that the effects of performance-approach goals were mediated by the level of uncertainty manipulated through negative feedback on abilities and conflicting judgement offered by a disagreeing peer.

In short, this present study was among the few studies that have applied achievement goal theory to researching motivation in distance learning. It adds to the literature of distance learning in two important ways. First, this study explored goals in addition to those focusing on mastery and performance concerns. Second, it examined the interaction between motivational beliefs and goals on learning and attitudes. Currently, there is no published research that has investigated the complex interaction between motivational beliefs and goals among distance learners.

Two important research questions in this study were:

