**3.2 Self-regulated learning activities**

116 International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education

course will be synchronous (learners progressing through the course together, often with scheduled whole or small group activities via text and voice chat, video, television, or telephone) or asynchronous (learners doing assignments on their own with interaction activities not dependent on learners connecting simultaneously to course learning systems). With learners from all over the world, or at least across several time zones, which is typical of many distance learning contexts, an asynchronous approach may be appropriate although some synchronous activity can be built in through live peer or tutor interactions that accommodate learners' time zones and schedules. If regular interaction and fixed assignment due dates are characteristic of the course and learners are expecting to work independently without interaction, however, this will affect their reactions and adjustment to the course. To address differing expectations, information about course design and content must be clearly communicated prior to enrollment and after the course begins.

Course designers and instructors must also have a sense of prospective learners' access to and familiarity with technology. In cases where learners have challenges with power outages, expensive fees for internet use, or limited computer access, printed materials can be provided or other accommodations made. Some learners in our courses only have access to a computer and the internet once a week. We addressed this by providing a printed study guide and textbook (to accommodate lack of available, on-going computer access and power failures), and a CD-ROM (so as to not be dependent on the internet). Learners can work from these materials and do word processing and assignment uploads when they have access to a computer at an internet café, place of employment, or friend's home. Before they enroll, learners should be informed of the types of technology they will need to use (i.e., webcams, learning management systems, live interaction tools) so that they will be prepared with the necessary skills for the course from the beginning and will not fall behind and become frustrated due to unfamiliarity with technology-based tasks and learning systems. If learners do not have these skills, designers and instructors can provide related tutorials in the first week or so of instruction and gradually introduce course assignments and their

Another key area to address, as it impacts learners' reactions to and attitudes about selfregulated learning course components, is views about learning and learner/teacher roles. Learners may be accustomed to either a passive or an active role, summative rather than formative assessments, a negative or positive opinion of help seeking, teacher-centered or learner-centered instruction, dependence on an authority figure or independence, an external or internal source of motivation, rote learning as opposed to critical thinking, face to face interaction in contrast to technology-based social networking, and an externally set daily learning schedule rather than a variable self-created schedule. These factors all have an

To address these cultural, educational, and individual differences, perspectives, and dispositions in the learning environment, the course designer and instructor must be aware of and ready to accommodate and ameliorate factors that affect academic achievement and successful learning outcomes. The institutional infrastructure (i.e., technology help, information sources, learning assistance) must also be designed to provide needed support. Familiarity with learners' backgrounds and expectations is critical prior to course design and can be accomplished through a needs analysis. If not part of the course itself, an assignment that asks learners to share previous experiences, expectations, motivations for

related formats and technology on an on-going basis.

impact on student learning and success.

Possible types of activities corresponding to the six dimensions of self-regulated learning are indicated in Table 1. These have been used in distance English language courses. Course designers and teachers must consider student needs and specialized content characteristics as these will inform the choice, design, and structure of the activities. For instance, distance language learning has always been more problematic than acquiring knowledge in other subjects due to the need for interaction (Hurd, 2006). Second language acquisition theory indicates that learners must not only have comprehensible input (Krashen, 1985) (i.e., sources of reading and listening appropriate to the learner's proficiency level), but also


Table 1. Example self-regulated learning activity types.

Self-Regulated Learning Activities: Supporting Success in Online Courses 119

The technology-enhanced interactions are introduced gradually and varied throughout the course as are the study partners and groups. An initial assignment involves learners creating a home page within the learning management system and posting an introductory video clip or a written introduction and picture of themselves. They also participate in a live weekly interactive tutoring session in which they discuss an assigned topic and ask logistical questions about the course. Learners take an initial placement test that indicates their language proficiency level (i.e., low/high intermediate or low/high advanced). They also take reading, writing, and vocabulary pre- and post-tests and have unit tests measuring the reading skills they have practiced. They submit various drafts of writing assignments for each unit in the course and receive feedback from a peer tutor and the instructor using a word processing

The course begins with a learner self-assessment of the dimensions. From there, learners choose an initial dimension on which to focus and activities within that dimension. They complete a self-regulated learning activity each week and write a journal reflection. Instructors respond to the content of the journal but not to the language use as the purpose of the activity is to gain fluency in writing, have a specific purpose for communicating, and above all, to express understanding and application of the dimensions. The instructors score the journals according to a rubric which emphasizes the depth and thoroughness of the reflection and overall ability to communicate. Half way through and at the end of the course, learners focus on the dimension of performance by reviewing their success at attaining their goals and determining how to make adjustments. In this way, language practice (e.g., writing) and self-regulated learning development complement each other.

The next section outlines practical, easy-to-implement activities for distance language courses with ideas for how these can be applied more broadly. Each dimension is explicated and illustrative examples provided regarding how learners can develop related skills.

Motive is conceptualized as purpose for learning. It involves the learner determining reasons for enrolment in a specific distance course and what the learner hopes to attain as a result. It also encompasses the source of motivation — internal or external. Learners often believe that the instructor is responsible for motivating them (Dembo & Eaton, 2000) rather than recognizing that self-motivation leads to greater levels of achievement. Related to this dimension, learners identify their motive for learning, set specific goals, examine their selftalk (i.e., internal thoughts and verbalizations regarding beliefs in their ability to be successful), and consider possible rewards and punishments for their behaviours (Dembo & Eaton, 2000; Dembo et al., 2006; Dembo & Seli, 2008). Learners who enrol in distance courses do so for a variety of reasons, including convenience, preference for self-paced learning, and a desire for independence (e.g., see Chen et al., 2006). These reasons for choosing distance learning must be accompanied by goal setting and other strategies that help learners sustain and increase levels of motivation. Distance learners may not have the benefit of external sources of motivation, such as the incentive of being prepared before facing their teacher and peers in class several times a week, thus it becomes easier to relax and lose momentum.

One activity we have used to help learners identify their reasons for learning is to listen to a video clip of an inspirational speaker and his experiences learning English. The speaker is a

tracking tool. The writing assignments are scored with a rubric.

**3.2.1 Motive** 

**3.2.1.1 Reasons for learning** 

opportunities for output (Swain, 1995), or the opportunity to negotiate meaning, make input comprehensible, get feedback, and modify discourse to effectively communicate (Long, 1996). Additionally, English language learners are often accustomed to passive learning modes rather than critical thinking, synthesis of knowledge, risk-taking, and learner responsibility, and thus must be encouraged to engage, interact, and use the language for communicative and problem-solving purposes. Foreign language courses in the Open University system in the U.K. contain strategy instruction to promote learner autonomy and success (Hurd, 2005), recognizing the challenges of distance learning and the potential unfamiliarity of learners with needed language learning and general study strategies. Regardless of content area, course activities supportive of learner success, in the form of selfregulated learning, can be embedded in the course.

Recognizing the needs of distance learners, many of whom are non-traditional in that they are older, employed, responsible for dependents (e.g., see Chen, Gonyea, & Kuh, 2006), unfamiliar with technology-based learning, returning to education after time away, and may have misgivings not only about the distance format but also their ability to be successful, self-regulated learning activities can be designed to strengthen learner responsibility, increase knowledge and application of strategies, and alleviate fears. In the case of distance English language learners, we carefully designed activities to engage students in practicing English as they increase their levels of self-regulation. The activities focus on learning strategy awareness and application and provide opportunities for input and output required components of language acquisition; in this way, content learning needs and selfregulated learning development complement each other.

Course designers may also want to provide learners with an array of activities from which to select in order to support the development of autonomy. Online distance courses lend themselves well to learner choice. To implement this, an assessment can be included that helps learners identify their strengths and weaknesses pertaining to the six dimensions of self-regulated learning. They can then select appropriate activities to address areas of weakness. At various intervals during the course, learners should reflect on their performance related to course content and their progress with the dimensions to determine how they might adjust their goals and associated methods of learning.

Our 15-week high intermediate level reading/writing course focuses on the development of language skills for academic purposes as most of our learners have the goal of pursuing post-secondary studies in an English-speaking country. For each level of language proficiency (i.e., low intermediate to high advanced), learners can choose from skill-based courses such as reading, writing, listening/speaking, or a content-based language course (e.g., biology, religion). The learning objectives for the high intermediate reading/writing course, as an example, focus on comprehension of academic readings through building vocabulary knowledge and reading strategies (e.g., previewing, finding the main idea, skimming and scanning, recognizing inferences and opinions, synthesizing and applying information, using graphic organizers, understanding word forms and grammatical constructions, etc.), and improving their writing ability in terms of organization, development of ideas, and grammatical accuracy at the paragraph and short essay level.

The students are also assigned study partners and groups and use the technology available in the learning management system such as e-mail, chat, and discussion forums to interact and practice their language by responding to ideas and exercises based on the course materials. The technology-enhanced interactions are introduced gradually and varied throughout the course as are the study partners and groups. An initial assignment involves learners creating a home page within the learning management system and posting an introductory video clip or a written introduction and picture of themselves. They also participate in a live weekly interactive tutoring session in which they discuss an assigned topic and ask logistical questions about the course. Learners take an initial placement test that indicates their language proficiency level (i.e., low/high intermediate or low/high advanced). They also take reading, writing, and vocabulary pre- and post-tests and have unit tests measuring the reading skills they have practiced. They submit various drafts of writing assignments for each unit in the course and receive feedback from a peer tutor and the instructor using a word processing tracking tool. The writing assignments are scored with a rubric.

The course begins with a learner self-assessment of the dimensions. From there, learners choose an initial dimension on which to focus and activities within that dimension. They complete a self-regulated learning activity each week and write a journal reflection. Instructors respond to the content of the journal but not to the language use as the purpose of the activity is to gain fluency in writing, have a specific purpose for communicating, and above all, to express understanding and application of the dimensions. The instructors score the journals according to a rubric which emphasizes the depth and thoroughness of the reflection and overall ability to communicate. Half way through and at the end of the course, learners focus on the dimension of performance by reviewing their success at attaining their goals and determining how to make adjustments. In this way, language practice (e.g., writing) and self-regulated learning development complement each other.

The next section outlines practical, easy-to-implement activities for distance language courses with ideas for how these can be applied more broadly. Each dimension is explicated and illustrative examples provided regarding how learners can develop related skills.

#### **3.2.1 Motive**

118 International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education

opportunities for output (Swain, 1995), or the opportunity to negotiate meaning, make input comprehensible, get feedback, and modify discourse to effectively communicate (Long, 1996). Additionally, English language learners are often accustomed to passive learning modes rather than critical thinking, synthesis of knowledge, risk-taking, and learner responsibility, and thus must be encouraged to engage, interact, and use the language for communicative and problem-solving purposes. Foreign language courses in the Open University system in the U.K. contain strategy instruction to promote learner autonomy and success (Hurd, 2005), recognizing the challenges of distance learning and the potential unfamiliarity of learners with needed language learning and general study strategies. Regardless of content area, course activities supportive of learner success, in the form of self-

Recognizing the needs of distance learners, many of whom are non-traditional in that they are older, employed, responsible for dependents (e.g., see Chen, Gonyea, & Kuh, 2006), unfamiliar with technology-based learning, returning to education after time away, and may have misgivings not only about the distance format but also their ability to be successful, self-regulated learning activities can be designed to strengthen learner responsibility, increase knowledge and application of strategies, and alleviate fears. In the case of distance English language learners, we carefully designed activities to engage students in practicing English as they increase their levels of self-regulation. The activities focus on learning strategy awareness and application and provide opportunities for input and output required components of language acquisition; in this way, content learning needs and self-

Course designers may also want to provide learners with an array of activities from which to select in order to support the development of autonomy. Online distance courses lend themselves well to learner choice. To implement this, an assessment can be included that helps learners identify their strengths and weaknesses pertaining to the six dimensions of self-regulated learning. They can then select appropriate activities to address areas of weakness. At various intervals during the course, learners should reflect on their performance related to course content and their progress with the dimensions to determine

Our 15-week high intermediate level reading/writing course focuses on the development of language skills for academic purposes as most of our learners have the goal of pursuing post-secondary studies in an English-speaking country. For each level of language proficiency (i.e., low intermediate to high advanced), learners can choose from skill-based courses such as reading, writing, listening/speaking, or a content-based language course (e.g., biology, religion). The learning objectives for the high intermediate reading/writing course, as an example, focus on comprehension of academic readings through building vocabulary knowledge and reading strategies (e.g., previewing, finding the main idea, skimming and scanning, recognizing inferences and opinions, synthesizing and applying information, using graphic organizers, understanding word forms and grammatical constructions, etc.), and improving their writing ability in terms of organization, development of ideas, and grammatical accuracy at the paragraph and short essay level.

The students are also assigned study partners and groups and use the technology available in the learning management system such as e-mail, chat, and discussion forums to interact and practice their language by responding to ideas and exercises based on the course materials.

regulated learning, can be embedded in the course.

regulated learning development complement each other.

how they might adjust their goals and associated methods of learning.

Motive is conceptualized as purpose for learning. It involves the learner determining reasons for enrolment in a specific distance course and what the learner hopes to attain as a result. It also encompasses the source of motivation — internal or external. Learners often believe that the instructor is responsible for motivating them (Dembo & Eaton, 2000) rather than recognizing that self-motivation leads to greater levels of achievement. Related to this dimension, learners identify their motive for learning, set specific goals, examine their selftalk (i.e., internal thoughts and verbalizations regarding beliefs in their ability to be successful), and consider possible rewards and punishments for their behaviours (Dembo & Eaton, 2000; Dembo et al., 2006; Dembo & Seli, 2008). Learners who enrol in distance courses do so for a variety of reasons, including convenience, preference for self-paced learning, and a desire for independence (e.g., see Chen et al., 2006). These reasons for choosing distance learning must be accompanied by goal setting and other strategies that help learners sustain and increase levels of motivation. Distance learners may not have the benefit of external sources of motivation, such as the incentive of being prepared before facing their teacher and peers in class several times a week, thus it becomes easier to relax and lose momentum.

#### **3.2.1.1 Reasons for learning**

One activity we have used to help learners identify their reasons for learning is to listen to a video clip of an inspirational speaker and his experiences learning English. The speaker is a

Self-Regulated Learning Activities: Supporting Success in Online Courses 121

Goal-setting can help learners in any course identify what they seek to accomplish through the course and the incremental steps they must take to achieve their desired end result.

Methods of learning help learners acquire information and store it in long-term memory. High-achieving learners possess a variety of learning strategies and know how to use them effectively (e.g., see Dembo & Eaton, 2000; Dembo et al., 2006; Dembo & Seli, 2008). They understand that using one or two strategies in all situations is ineffective. Learning methods range from those that are less beneficial such as rehearsal, or copying notes, reciting, and underlining, to those that support making connections between new material and previously learned information. The latter include elaboration, which involves paraphrasing, summarizing, creating analogies, and posing and answering questions as well as methods for organizing information such as mapping and outlining. In distance courses, methods of learning are essential as learners do not have the benefit of face-to-face interaction with the instructor, who could provide additional guidance beyond what is available in the course, thus they need a variety of methods of learning to access and comprehend material on their own.

In all courses, familiarity with the parts of the textbook, supplemental resources, the online course management system, and other resources are important, but for a distance course, this is critical. Learners must understand how the course is organized within a learning management platform, where to locate relevant course materials, and how to submit assignments. Teachers and classmates may not be readily accessible to answer questions. Methods of learning related to using the course materials set a strong foundation for the implementation of strategies leading to in-depth learning. Also relevant are good reading strategies as much information in a distance course is communicated through the written

In our course, learners examine a list of reading strategies and evaluate themselves on their ability to apply these strategies to their use of the course study guide and textbook. Examples of effective reading strategies include previewing assignments and due dates, predicting what comes next, writing down questions, taking notes, identifying main ideas, completing exercises, and measuring comprehension. As part of the self-evaluation, learners rate levels of ability related to each strategy—what they do always, sometimes, or never and determine their strengths and weaknesses. They consider what has worked well for them in the past, what might be particularly effective in the distance course, and which strategies are new and need to be learned. They then set a related goal and indicate how they will begin to learn about and implement the strategy they have selected. The next step is to write a description of their experience with this activity in their learner journal. One learner commented: "The strategies I use are to find any reading helps in the study guide or text book (hints, objectives, definitions, boldface or italic print summaries, tables or figures), but not very often is to predict (guess) what will come in the next section." This learner recognizes a familiar strategy and one she could adopt in the future to improve her learning. The activity builds language skills—reading, writing, communicating—as well as self-

. . . . I will try my best to study harder. [This activity] woke me up to study hard.

**3.2.2 Methods of learning**

**3.2.2.1 Use of course materials** 

form.

I need to know my goal is that I would like to set each step to accomplish the goal I set

well-respected and known figure to the learners. He explains how he grew up in East Germany and learned Russian in school (Uchtdorf, 2006). The Russian language was difficult, but when his family moved to West Germany and he was required to learn English, he found it to be impossible until he realized that to attain his dream to be an airline pilot, he would need to be fluent in English. His motivation, persistence, desire, and ability to learn English completely changed.

Learners' English language skills are developed as they listen to and read excerpts from the talk and respond to specific questions in writing. They reflect on the content of the speech and apply it to their own English language learning situations. As they respond to the speakers' ideas and reflect on their reasons for learning, they identify with greater clarity the depth and source of their motivation. For example, one learner stated:

From doing this activity, I learnt that setting different goals affect our life. Before setting goals, we need to weigh many things. For example: ability and times. . . . Setting goals is meaning I have a dream, an ideal. It means that I decided to make more effort for my future. Setting goals is also helping me to recognize what I want to do. Let me remember how important of my future.

Autonomy is supported as learners choose to either listen to or read the talk, and to listen to or read it in its entirety rather than only the clip in the lesson. For other content areas or academic disciplines, autobiographies, biographies, or recordings of professionals, experts, researchers, and theorists might be used in a similar way. Learners can engage in live chat or discussion board activities related to their response to these sources of information.

#### **3.2.1.2 Goal setting**

Goal setting is critical to the dimension of motive and the basis for strategy development related to the other dimensions. For instance, English language learners might set a goal to increase their active use of academic vocabulary. This broad goal would be accomplished through sub goals such as becoming familiar with the Academic Word List, assessing knowledge of words on the list, identifying research-based methods of learning vocabulary, and then selecting one or two of these methods to apply to vocabulary acquisition. Specific strategies might include use of word cards, study of word parts, or dictionary use. These would be implemented according to guidelines for effective ways to utilize these strategies.

One of the self-regulated learning activities in our course provides learners with the opportunity to identify their values, or principles that guide their lives, and how these values are related to their long-, intermediate-, and short-range goals. They determine if and how these values are related to the course and improving their English language proficiency. In their learner journals, they write a description of their experience working through the guiding questions (i.e. what they learned about their values, which values are most important to them, which values relate most closely to the content of the course, why it is important to identify values before setting goals, and how values and goals are related to motive). They then identify appropriate goals and timelines for goal accomplishment. Related to goal setting, one learner commented:

The values that are important to me are as follows: family, God, service, education, and self-respect. The value that is the most important to me in this course is education. This course helped me write English accurately before getting in to the college. . . . The reasons I need to know my goal is that I would like to set each step to accomplish the goal I set . . . . I will try my best to study harder. [This activity] woke me up to study hard.

Goal-setting can help learners in any course identify what they seek to accomplish through the course and the incremental steps they must take to achieve their desired end result.

#### **3.2.2 Methods of learning**

120 International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education

well-respected and known figure to the learners. He explains how he grew up in East Germany and learned Russian in school (Uchtdorf, 2006). The Russian language was difficult, but when his family moved to West Germany and he was required to learn English, he found it to be impossible until he realized that to attain his dream to be an airline pilot, he would need to be fluent in English. His motivation, persistence, desire, and ability

Learners' English language skills are developed as they listen to and read excerpts from the talk and respond to specific questions in writing. They reflect on the content of the speech and apply it to their own English language learning situations. As they respond to the speakers' ideas and reflect on their reasons for learning, they identify with greater clarity the

From doing this activity, I learnt that setting different goals affect our life. Before setting goals, we need to weigh many things. For example: ability and times. . . . Setting goals is meaning I have a dream, an ideal. It means that I decided to make more effort for my future. Setting goals is also helping me to recognize what I want to do. Let me

Autonomy is supported as learners choose to either listen to or read the talk, and to listen to or read it in its entirety rather than only the clip in the lesson. For other content areas or academic disciplines, autobiographies, biographies, or recordings of professionals, experts, researchers, and theorists might be used in a similar way. Learners can engage in live chat or

Goal setting is critical to the dimension of motive and the basis for strategy development related to the other dimensions. For instance, English language learners might set a goal to increase their active use of academic vocabulary. This broad goal would be accomplished through sub goals such as becoming familiar with the Academic Word List, assessing knowledge of words on the list, identifying research-based methods of learning vocabulary, and then selecting one or two of these methods to apply to vocabulary acquisition. Specific strategies might include use of word cards, study of word parts, or dictionary use. These would be implemented according to guidelines for effective ways to utilize these strategies. One of the self-regulated learning activities in our course provides learners with the opportunity to identify their values, or principles that guide their lives, and how these values are related to their long-, intermediate-, and short-range goals. They determine if and how these values are related to the course and improving their English language proficiency. In their learner journals, they write a description of their experience working through the guiding questions (i.e. what they learned about their values, which values are most important to them, which values relate most closely to the content of the course, why it is important to identify values before setting goals, and how values and goals are related to motive). They then identify appropriate goals and timelines for goal accomplishment.

The values that are important to me are as follows: family, God, service, education, and self-respect. The value that is the most important to me in this course is education. This course helped me write English accurately before getting in to the college. . . . The reasons

discussion board activities related to their response to these sources of information.

depth and source of their motivation. For example, one learner stated:

to learn English completely changed.

remember how important of my future.

Related to goal setting, one learner commented:

**3.2.1.2 Goal setting**

Methods of learning help learners acquire information and store it in long-term memory. High-achieving learners possess a variety of learning strategies and know how to use them effectively (e.g., see Dembo & Eaton, 2000; Dembo et al., 2006; Dembo & Seli, 2008). They understand that using one or two strategies in all situations is ineffective. Learning methods range from those that are less beneficial such as rehearsal, or copying notes, reciting, and underlining, to those that support making connections between new material and previously learned information. The latter include elaboration, which involves paraphrasing, summarizing, creating analogies, and posing and answering questions as well as methods for organizing information such as mapping and outlining. In distance courses, methods of learning are essential as learners do not have the benefit of face-to-face interaction with the instructor, who could provide additional guidance beyond what is available in the course, thus they need a variety of methods of learning to access and comprehend material on their own.

#### **3.2.2.1 Use of course materials**

In all courses, familiarity with the parts of the textbook, supplemental resources, the online course management system, and other resources are important, but for a distance course, this is critical. Learners must understand how the course is organized within a learning management platform, where to locate relevant course materials, and how to submit assignments. Teachers and classmates may not be readily accessible to answer questions. Methods of learning related to using the course materials set a strong foundation for the implementation of strategies leading to in-depth learning. Also relevant are good reading strategies as much information in a distance course is communicated through the written form.

In our course, learners examine a list of reading strategies and evaluate themselves on their ability to apply these strategies to their use of the course study guide and textbook. Examples of effective reading strategies include previewing assignments and due dates, predicting what comes next, writing down questions, taking notes, identifying main ideas, completing exercises, and measuring comprehension. As part of the self-evaluation, learners rate levels of ability related to each strategy—what they do always, sometimes, or never and determine their strengths and weaknesses. They consider what has worked well for them in the past, what might be particularly effective in the distance course, and which strategies are new and need to be learned. They then set a related goal and indicate how they will begin to learn about and implement the strategy they have selected. The next step is to write a description of their experience with this activity in their learner journal. One learner commented: "The strategies I use are to find any reading helps in the study guide or text book (hints, objectives, definitions, boldface or italic print summaries, tables or figures), but not very often is to predict (guess) what will come in the next section." This learner recognizes a familiar strategy and one she could adopt in the future to improve her learning. The activity builds language skills—reading, writing, communicating—as well as self-

Self-Regulated Learning Activities: Supporting Success in Online Courses 123

self-esteem, and a greater sense of competence than those who do not (Dembo & Eaton, 2000; Dembo & Seli, 2008). When effective time management results in achievement of learning outcomes, learners have positive feelings about themselves and their abilities. This reinforces their motivation to make effective use of their time and apply themselves to their studies. Procrastination can be a way for learners to protect their identity from failure (Ferrari, 1991). If a learner procrastinates and gets a poor grade, the learner can attribute it to lack of time rather than lack of ability. Time use strategies include working on a task for a short period of time rather than ignoring it, thus building momentum to continue working (Ellis & Knaus, 1977), and changing dishonest self-talk (Ferrari, Johnson, & McKown, 1995). The latter involves not convincing oneself that it is too late to complete a task or that one does one's best work at the last minute. A more positive approach is to tell oneself that it is not too late to start and that time is important to doing a thorough job on a task. This type of self-talk results in improved attitudes, motivation, and behaviour. Learners can improve their use of time through instruction. This is particularly critical to success in a distance course as learners are largely on their own to set goals, manage and complete assignments,

divide learning tasks into manageable parts, and determine their own schedules.

straightforward activity is a real eye-opener. One learner reported the following:

the week, they evaluate and revise their plan for the next week as needed.

To help our learners recognize how they use their time, they engage in an activity in which they record their activities for a 24-hour period. Then they analyse their use of time—how they used it, what surprised them, what they learned, how they waste time, and where they could find more study time. They write about their findings in their journals. For some, this

While I am keeping track of my activities for 24 hours, I learned that *"Time is a precious thing."* From this activity, I am able to know what I did in a whole day. I can see my worst time and my best time. For example, I used most of my time for watching TV; sleeping at evening time; teaching my nephew; going to my friend's house; and reading the student guide. And what surprises me? Watching TV and sleeping at evening time

A variation to the exercise is to ask learners to organize their use of time into categories. Categories might include essential things (eating, sleeping, working), necessary things (spending time with family, caring for loved ones), and nice-to-do things (sports, watching television, hobbies, visiting with friends) (categories adapted from Beck, 2010). What individuals consider essential, necessary, and nice-to-do will vary, but this exercise helps them prioritize and manage their time. They can then plan how they will use their time in the next week, and list and prioritize their activities based on the categories. At the end of

Strategies for time use are also critical to success in distance learning courses. Although these are important in all learning contexts, distance courses have greater flexibility, thereby giving learners more autonomy over when and for how long to study. The lack of a structured schedule, however, can lead to procrastination and be a deterrent to success. Learners may have limited dialogue with the instructor and other learners, and course structure may be loose in some cases, thus learners must determine how much time is

**3.2.3.1 A record of time use** 

**3.2.3.2 Time use strategies** 

took more of my day than I expected.

regulated learning. Courses in any discipline can incorporate study strategy instruction and practice specifically designed to support learner success.

#### **3.2.2.2 Preferences for learning**

Another area that lends itself well to language acquisition and learning in general is increasing awareness of learning preferences. In our English language courses, learners complete an activity that helps them determine their preferred methods for gaining proficiency in English such as talking to friends, watching television, studying grammar, playing games, practicing English outside of class, interacting with friends or native speakers, having the teacher point out their mistakes, obtaining language input through reading or listening, or practicing pronunciation. These items are organized into sets, which are categorized according to learning types (i.e., authority, communicative, analytical, concrete) (e.g., see Scharle & Szabó, 2000).

The categories are based on Gardner's (1983, 2004) multiple intelligences theory, which encompasses types of intelligences such as visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, linguistic, logical-mathematical, interpersonal, and intrapersonal, as well as on the personality dimensions of extraversion and introversion and preferred logic approaches (i.e., deductive, inductive). After the evaluation process, learners analyse their preferences and how this information can help them be a better student, language learner, and distance learner. As with the other activities, they reflect on their experience with the activity in their journals. The effectiveness of this activity is illustrated by the following journal excerpt, which also illustrates how this individual benefits from the social environment:

I like studying with people. The more people I have, the more understanding I gain. It means that working or studying with people is better than studying independently. . . . For instance, my teacher assigns me to write a proposal about scholarship and I do not know how to write it. In this case, I need to ask for information from someone who knows how to do it. Those people will help me find the ideas and help me correct my drafts. . . . When I work on a group assignment I never feel lost for ideas because my group members share their concepts. Moreover, I could get help from my team members when I need more explanation on any task. Another important point that I could get from my group is emotional support. . . . . To sum up, self-study would never be my learning style.

A wide range of learning preference instruments are available or can be adapted to fit the needs of various courses and subject areas. As demonstrated by the English language learning example, surveys can be tailored to reflect content or skill areas. The Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (Oxford, 1990) is a useful resource for language learners to create awareness and expand knowledge of possibilities. More general learning preference measures can also be administered to help learners in all contexts understand how they learn (e.g., see http://www.lth3.k12.il.us/rhampton/mi/mi.html for multiple intelligences instruments). For distance learners, understanding their learning preferences can help them make appropriate choices related to course options and strategies needed for mastery of the material.

#### **3.2.3 Time**

The dimension of time involves managing time, avoiding procrastination, and prioritizing activities. Learners who manage their time well have better academic achievement, higher self-esteem, and a greater sense of competence than those who do not (Dembo & Eaton, 2000; Dembo & Seli, 2008). When effective time management results in achievement of learning outcomes, learners have positive feelings about themselves and their abilities. This reinforces their motivation to make effective use of their time and apply themselves to their studies. Procrastination can be a way for learners to protect their identity from failure (Ferrari, 1991). If a learner procrastinates and gets a poor grade, the learner can attribute it to lack of time rather than lack of ability. Time use strategies include working on a task for a short period of time rather than ignoring it, thus building momentum to continue working (Ellis & Knaus, 1977), and changing dishonest self-talk (Ferrari, Johnson, & McKown, 1995). The latter involves not convincing oneself that it is too late to complete a task or that one does one's best work at the last minute. A more positive approach is to tell oneself that it is not too late to start and that time is important to doing a thorough job on a task. This type of self-talk results in improved attitudes, motivation, and behaviour. Learners can improve their use of time through instruction. This is particularly critical to success in a distance course as learners are largely on their own to set goals, manage and complete assignments, divide learning tasks into manageable parts, and determine their own schedules.

#### **3.2.3.1 A record of time use**

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regulated learning. Courses in any discipline can incorporate study strategy instruction and

Another area that lends itself well to language acquisition and learning in general is increasing awareness of learning preferences. In our English language courses, learners complete an activity that helps them determine their preferred methods for gaining proficiency in English such as talking to friends, watching television, studying grammar, playing games, practicing English outside of class, interacting with friends or native speakers, having the teacher point out their mistakes, obtaining language input through reading or listening, or practicing pronunciation. These items are organized into sets, which are categorized according to learning types (i.e., authority, communicative, analytical,

The categories are based on Gardner's (1983, 2004) multiple intelligences theory, which encompasses types of intelligences such as visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, linguistic, logical-mathematical, interpersonal, and intrapersonal, as well as on the personality dimensions of extraversion and introversion and preferred logic approaches (i.e., deductive, inductive). After the evaluation process, learners analyse their preferences and how this information can help them be a better student, language learner, and distance learner. As with the other activities, they reflect on their experience with the activity in their journals. The effectiveness of this activity is illustrated by the following journal excerpt,

I like studying with people. The more people I have, the more understanding I gain. It means that working or studying with people is better than studying independently. . . . For instance, my teacher assigns me to write a proposal about scholarship and I do not know how to write it. In this case, I need to ask for information from someone who knows how to do it. Those people will help me find the ideas and help me correct my drafts. . . . When I work on a group assignment I never feel lost for ideas because my group members share their concepts. Moreover, I could get help from my team members when I need more explanation on any task. Another important point that I could get from my group is emotional support. . . . . To sum up, self-study would never be my learning style.

A wide range of learning preference instruments are available or can be adapted to fit the needs of various courses and subject areas. As demonstrated by the English language learning example, surveys can be tailored to reflect content or skill areas. The Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (Oxford, 1990) is a useful resource for language learners to create awareness and expand knowledge of possibilities. More general learning preference measures can also be administered to help learners in all contexts understand how they learn (e.g., see http://www.lth3.k12.il.us/rhampton/mi/mi.html for multiple intelligences instruments). For distance learners, understanding their learning preferences can help them make appropriate

The dimension of time involves managing time, avoiding procrastination, and prioritizing activities. Learners who manage their time well have better academic achievement, higher

choices related to course options and strategies needed for mastery of the material.

which also illustrates how this individual benefits from the social environment:

practice specifically designed to support learner success.

**3.2.2.2 Preferences for learning** 

concrete) (e.g., see Scharle & Szabó, 2000).

**3.2.3 Time** 

To help our learners recognize how they use their time, they engage in an activity in which they record their activities for a 24-hour period. Then they analyse their use of time—how they used it, what surprised them, what they learned, how they waste time, and where they could find more study time. They write about their findings in their journals. For some, this straightforward activity is a real eye-opener. One learner reported the following:

While I am keeping track of my activities for 24 hours, I learned that *"Time is a precious thing."* From this activity, I am able to know what I did in a whole day. I can see my worst time and my best time. For example, I used most of my time for watching TV; sleeping at evening time; teaching my nephew; going to my friend's house; and reading the student guide. And what surprises me? Watching TV and sleeping at evening time took more of my day than I expected.

A variation to the exercise is to ask learners to organize their use of time into categories. Categories might include essential things (eating, sleeping, working), necessary things (spending time with family, caring for loved ones), and nice-to-do things (sports, watching television, hobbies, visiting with friends) (categories adapted from Beck, 2010). What individuals consider essential, necessary, and nice-to-do will vary, but this exercise helps them prioritize and manage their time. They can then plan how they will use their time in the next week, and list and prioritize their activities based on the categories. At the end of the week, they evaluate and revise their plan for the next week as needed.

#### **3.2.3.2 Time use strategies**

Strategies for time use are also critical to success in distance learning courses. Although these are important in all learning contexts, distance courses have greater flexibility, thereby giving learners more autonomy over when and for how long to study. The lack of a structured schedule, however, can lead to procrastination and be a deterrent to success. Learners may have limited dialogue with the instructor and other learners, and course structure may be loose in some cases, thus learners must determine how much time is

Self-Regulated Learning Activities: Supporting Success in Online Courses 125

the form of noise and interruptions, internal distractors such as personal concerns and anxieties also play a role. In both cases, learners must increase their awareness of where and

Distance language learners in our courses who complete the initial self-assessment related to the six dimensions and determine that controlling the physical environment is one of their weak areas have the option of several related activities. One of these is to complete a chart in which they list the various places they study and what they do in this location (e.g., internet café—e-mail communications). They then view a series of statements describing how well they study in each location (e.g., I can work on my studies without being interrupted. I can begin studying immediately. I can concentrate.). They use a rubric with a score ranging from 1 to 5 depicting to what degree the statement describes their study behaviour. Next they respond to a series of questions guiding them in an analysis of their findings (e.g., Which location did I rate the best? Do I study well in more than one location? How can this information help me improve the places where I study?). The last step, as always, is to write a description of their experience with the activity in their journals. The value of this activity

For me, evaluating my study environment is so important to change the way of my study. . . . There are four study locations chosen for my environment evaluation such as at my office, at internet shop, my house, and my friend's office. . . . With no doubt, the evaluation showed me my high and low points in each location. In evaluation result, studying at my office gives me the lowest outcome in the above four places. . . . In reality, the answer from this evaluation will tell my poor study and guide me how to develop or change my study environment if I would like to get successful in my study.

Learners can also benefit from a better understanding of attention and concentration. Attention refers to controlling "awareness of events in the environment," and concentration to the "continual refocusing on a perceived stimulus or message" (Dembo & Seli, 2008, p. 167). In other words, learners are attentive when they are not distracted by the environment or their own emotional and physical needs. They concentrate by continuing to refocus on a learning task. To improve ability in both areas and manage distractors, learners can be made aware of appropriate strategies and set goals for implementing and monitoring their use of these strategies. The following list of strategies is adopted from Dembo and Seli, 2008.

 Control distractions by making sure the space is physically comfortable (temperature, light, furniture) and that disruptions will not occur (leave an automated phone or email message indicating availability after a certain time, put a "do not disturb" sign on

 Attend to physical needs by eating, drinking, or taking a short nap before studying. Avoid studying at times with increased likelihood of hunger and sleepiness. Alternate learning tasks and subject areas and take short breaks every hour.

Use active learning techniques such as asking questions, outlining, summarizing, note-

Study in a designated area free from noise and distractions.

Resolve worries and concerns prior to studying if possible.

taking, and mentally reviewing materials to increase concentration.

why these distractors occur and take steps to eliminate them.

**3.2.4.1 Study behaviours** 

is indicated by one learner as follows:

**3.2.4.2 Attention and concentration**

the door, etc.).

needed to complete assignments and how to plan and schedule related tasks. The following list provides some general guidelines for use of time (adopted from Dembo & Seli, 2008).


These strategies can be shared with learners in pre-enrollment information, the course study guide, or instructor e-mails and announcements. In our course study guides, we include study tips related to the assignments. The tips are brief pointers to help learners approach tasks effectively and efficiently and improve success. Time use and other strategies can also be topics for pair and group interactions, writing assignments, or even be included on tests. For example, a bonus test question might be, "How did you manage your time to prepare for this test?" This helps learners reflect on their performance. As instructors reinforce the importance of all the dimensions of self-regulated learning, students will begin to understand and value them. They will develop the ability for effective learning and recognize strategies that are efficacious in distance learning contexts.

#### **3.2.4 Physical environment**

Distance learners must create their own learning and study spaces. They do not have the advantage of instruction in a classroom and may not have accessibility to a library or similar environment that is largely free from distractions as do traditional students. As such, the dimension of physical environment is of critical importance. This dimension involves the learner's ability to restructure the physical environment so that learning can be effective (Dembo & Eaton, 2000; Dembo et al., 2006). Learners need to locate places to study that are quiet and free from distractions. Specific strategies for eliminating distractions might be turning off cell phones, e-mail notification alerts, music, and television. Learners may also want to identify a particular time of day most conducive to concentration. For some, this is early in the morning or late at night when they are free from responsibilities in the home. Others may decide to go to internet cafes to upload assignments at non-peak times to avoid the noise. Another consideration for distance learners is ensuring that they have sufficient computer skills to engage in the tasks in the course. If not, computer problems can distract from the ability to access and complete assignments. In addition to external distractors in the form of noise and interruptions, internal distractors such as personal concerns and anxieties also play a role. In both cases, learners must increase their awareness of where and why these distractors occur and take steps to eliminate them.

#### **3.2.4.1 Study behaviours**

124 International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education

needed to complete assignments and how to plan and schedule related tasks. The following list provides some general guidelines for use of time (adopted from Dembo & Seli, 2008).

Determine what to work on during the study time—reading, review, specific

 Evaluate the level of difficulty and amount of time needed for tasks—those that are easy and can be done quickly and those that are more difficult and will take more time. Begin difficult tasks and those that will take more time early. Break them into steps and work on them incrementally. For example, writing a research paper involves finding relevant articles, reading and taking notes, synthesizing ideas, drafting, formatting references, and so on. Decide ahead of time which of these tasks to work on during the

Make use of short periods of available time to review notes, organize study materials,

 Work ahead—look at the course assignments for the upcoming week and major assignments and their due dates. Complete what needs to be done and then continue to the next day's assignment. Aim to get ahead of schedule and begin working on major course assignments. Working ahead makes unexpected problems such as illness or

These strategies can be shared with learners in pre-enrollment information, the course study guide, or instructor e-mails and announcements. In our course study guides, we include study tips related to the assignments. The tips are brief pointers to help learners approach tasks effectively and efficiently and improve success. Time use and other strategies can also be topics for pair and group interactions, writing assignments, or even be included on tests. For example, a bonus test question might be, "How did you manage your time to prepare for this test?" This helps learners reflect on their performance. As instructors reinforce the importance of all the dimensions of self-regulated learning, students will begin to understand and value them. They will develop the ability for effective learning and

Distance learners must create their own learning and study spaces. They do not have the advantage of instruction in a classroom and may not have accessibility to a library or similar environment that is largely free from distractions as do traditional students. As such, the dimension of physical environment is of critical importance. This dimension involves the learner's ability to restructure the physical environment so that learning can be effective (Dembo & Eaton, 2000; Dembo et al., 2006). Learners need to locate places to study that are quiet and free from distractions. Specific strategies for eliminating distractions might be turning off cell phones, e-mail notification alerts, music, and television. Learners may also want to identify a particular time of day most conducive to concentration. For some, this is early in the morning or late at night when they are free from responsibilities in the home. Others may decide to go to internet cafes to upload assignments at non-peak times to avoid the noise. Another consideration for distance learners is ensuring that they have sufficient computer skills to engage in the tasks in the course. If not, computer problems can distract from the ability to access and complete assignments. In addition to external distractors in

Set a regular daily study time, as though attending a face-to-face class.

preview readings and exercises, plan, or do e-mail correspondence.

recognize strategies that are efficacious in distance learning contexts.

assignments, or interaction activities.

minor emergencies more manageable.

set study time.

**3.2.4 Physical environment** 

Distance language learners in our courses who complete the initial self-assessment related to the six dimensions and determine that controlling the physical environment is one of their weak areas have the option of several related activities. One of these is to complete a chart in which they list the various places they study and what they do in this location (e.g., internet café—e-mail communications). They then view a series of statements describing how well they study in each location (e.g., I can work on my studies without being interrupted. I can begin studying immediately. I can concentrate.). They use a rubric with a score ranging from 1 to 5 depicting to what degree the statement describes their study behaviour. Next they respond to a series of questions guiding them in an analysis of their findings (e.g., Which location did I rate the best? Do I study well in more than one location? How can this information help me improve the places where I study?). The last step, as always, is to write a description of their experience with the activity in their journals. The value of this activity is indicated by one learner as follows:

For me, evaluating my study environment is so important to change the way of my study. . . . There are four study locations chosen for my environment evaluation such as at my office, at internet shop, my house, and my friend's office. . . . With no doubt, the evaluation showed me my high and low points in each location. In evaluation result, studying at my office gives me the lowest outcome in the above four places. . . . In reality, the answer from this evaluation will tell my poor study and guide me how to develop or change my study environment if I would like to get successful in my study.

#### **3.2.4.2 Attention and concentration**

Learners can also benefit from a better understanding of attention and concentration. Attention refers to controlling "awareness of events in the environment," and concentration to the "continual refocusing on a perceived stimulus or message" (Dembo & Seli, 2008, p. 167). In other words, learners are attentive when they are not distracted by the environment or their own emotional and physical needs. They concentrate by continuing to refocus on a learning task. To improve ability in both areas and manage distractors, learners can be made aware of appropriate strategies and set goals for implementing and monitoring their use of these strategies. The following list of strategies is adopted from Dembo and Seli, 2008.


Self-Regulated Learning Activities: Supporting Success in Online Courses 127

One institution's model of distance learning is designed to encourage learner self-regulation. The learning model on which all courses are based encompasses three steps (Brigham Young University Idaho, 2007). First, learners prepare for discussion by reading and studying course materials for the unit. Next, they teach each other by posting questions in the online course management system and responding to the questions of their peers. They may have responsibility to lead a discussion on an issue related to the topic and to reply to a set number of posts from other learners. The instructor monitors the discussion and responds to individual learners but in a way that does not limit or take control of the interaction so as to allow the learners to process and understand the material together. The instructor encourages learners to solve problems collaboratively by directing them to seek help from each other. The last step is to ponder and evaluate the learning experience for the week. This step consists of responding to specific questions related to the content and its application, and reflecting on the overall learning experience and how it could be changed

In keeping with the theory of transactional distance (Moore, 1972, 2007), mentioned earlier in connection with the model of self-regulated distance learning, the lesson design described has sufficient structure to guide learners and give them direction. It encourages dialogue among learners and the instructor. Learners are provided with choices to support their capacity for autonomy, or self-direction, and learn strategies for becoming self-regulated. The instructor models how to respond appropriately to discussion posts in a way that respects diverse positions and opinions rather than indicating if answers are right or wrong. In this way, learners begin to develop more confidence in their own abilities as learners and in the viability of help from their peers. The instructor also holds weekly live office hours

Learners can show responsibility for their learning by preparing for appointments with tutors and instructors, regardless of whether these appointments are face-to-face or through technology. In our distance language learning courses, learners have a weekly live tutorial session. To make this use of the social environment more efficacious, learners complete a worksheet that outlines the steps they need to take related to the appointment: be prepared, participate, ask questions, and practice. Being prepared focuses on doing the assignments for the week, writing down related questions to ask in the tutoring session, and making note of the date and time for the appointment. The steps of participating and asking questions involve making the learners aware that this is an opportunity for them to practice their speaking skills and having them record three things that they learned or found interesting from the session as a result of asking questions. The final step, practice, focuses on learners identifying two things they understand better as a result of the session and how they will use what they learned to improve their language proficiency. Similar steps can be followed for interacting with the

After the tutor session, learners compare how they prepared for appointments in the past with how they prepared when guided by the steps, how they can practice the skills learned in the session, and what they can do next time to prepare for their appointment. Thus they are reflecting, monitoring their performance, and setting and revising their goals. The

effectiveness of this assignment is demonstrated by the following learner quotation:

using Adobe Connect, thus furthering opportunities for dialogue.

instructor during office hours or collaborating with peers on assignments.

or improved in the upcoming week.

**3.2.5.2 Tutorial preparation**


As learners engage in the use of these strategies, they should continue to evaluate the challenges they have, the causes of these challenges, and the effectiveness of the strategies they are using, and make modifications in their study plans, time use, or physical environment as appropriate.
