**2.1 Effectiveness of the model**

112 International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education

Capacity refers to the learner's ability to be self-directed in terms of being an active learner, taking control, and awareness and use of learning strategies (e.g., see Garrison, 2003; Holec, 1981; Hurd, 1998a; Vanijdee, 2003; White, 2003). When learners have the capacity to be autonomous, they are more likely to achieve success in a distance learning context. When structure and dialogue are high, the "transactional distance" (Moore, 2007, p. 90) between the learner and the teacher decrease; the level of autonomy also decreases. Although high levels of structure and dialogue may provide necessary scaffolding and support for learners, these components should ideally lead to the learner building capacity for independence and

Self-regulated learning is closely related to capacity as it involves learner self-direction and responsibility. It provides a framework for how learners can control the learning process. Self-regulated learning involves six dimensions: motive (e.g., reasons for learning, goals, self-talk, rewards/punishments), methods (e.g., learning strategies), time (e.g., time management, when to study), physical environment (e.g., identification and elimination of distractors), social environment (e.g., help, collaboration, communication), and performance (e.g., evaluation, reflection, goal revision) (Dembo et al., 2006; Schunk & Zimmerman, 1994; Zimmerman, 1994; Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997). Learners who manage these dimensions and show evidence of being self-regulated are academically successful (Dembo et al., 2006). The term self-regulated learning has some advantage over the concept of autonomy because it emphasizes how to develop responsibility for learning and related behaviours. The dimensions provide a specific structural framework upon which to base course activities and strategy instruction. Self-regulated learning encompasses "the practical

Figure 1 depicts how interaction with structure and dialogue, course content, and related self-regulated learning activities contribute to the development of self-regulation and learner success (e.g., see Andrade & Bunker, 2009, 2011a, 2011b). Learners begin a course with initial levels of self-regulated learning, commitment, and language proficiency (or knowledge of course content). In the English language courses described in this chapter, dialogue is provided through instructor feedback, e-mail, discussion groups, and live tutoring (the latter offers interactive language practice). Structure occurs through the study guide with instructions and links to course materials, the calendar with assignment due dates, audio and video presentations, and the textbook. Self-regulated learning activities, designed to provide goal-setting, application, and reflection opportunities, are included for each of the six dimensions. As students work with the course materials, learn and practice the language, and participate in self-regulated learning activities, they increase their selfregulation, capacity to be responsible and make appropriate choices with decreasing amounts of guidance, likelihood of persisting, and language proficiency or subject area knowledge. The model advances the practice of distance learning by providing a

steps taken by learners to manage their own learning" (Hurd, 2005, p. 10).

framework, based on established theories, by which to enhance learner success.

The model has the potential to positively affect distance learning in a variety of contexts and disciplines. Although some distance courses have utilized or studied self-regulated learning components such as motivation, reflection, metacognition, and goal setting to aid student success (e.g., see Bothma & Monteith, 2004; Chang, 2005; Hurd, 2000, 2005; Murphy, 2005; Tobias, 2006; Thang, 2005; van den Boom, Pass, & van Merrienboer, 2007), the framework depicted in Figure 1 and as described by Andrade and Bunker (2009, 2011a, 2011b) provides

needing less structure and dialogue to be successful.

A qualitative study consisting of 20 distance English language learners enrolled in a high intermediate level reading/writing course provides evidence of the model's effectiveness (Andrade & Bunker, 2011a). Data was collected through reflective journals in which learners reported increased self-regulation, persistence, and English proficiency. As learners participated in the self-regulated learning and language activities in the course, they reflected on their performance in their journals, specifically their goals and strategy use. The self-regulated learning dimension of performance, or monitoring and evaluating progress in order to refine goals, was the primary purpose of the assignment. The journals were submitted to the teacher at various points during the course.

An analysis of these journals indicated a number of themes related to self-regulated learning and the dimensions. Learners reported that they had increased responsibility for their learning in the following ways: identifying their purpose for learning and understanding the importance of setting and achieving goals (motive), applying various study strategies (methods of learning), tracking and prioritizing their use of time (time), identifying appropriate times and places for study (physical environment), and recognizing that seeking help from tutors and teachers is a positive behaviour (social environment). The dimension of performance was embedded in the journal assignment itself.

Autonomy in the course was supported as learners had a choice of self-regulated learning activities based on an initial survey that helped them identify their strengths and weaknesses related to the dimensions. Learners selected an initial dimension on which to focus and corresponding activities to assist them in developing needed strategies. For instance, for the dimension of social environment, learners could choose from four activities—seeking help, preparing for a tutoring appointment, preparing for a teacher conference, or interacting with classmates. Choices related to the dimension of time included recording activities for 24 hours, prioritizing activities, evaluating time use, and organizing time. (More information about these activities is included in the Approaches and

Self-Regulated Learning Activities: Supporting Success in Online Courses 115

improving their vocabulary and grammar or becoming a better reader, but did not identify specific sub goals or strategies related to these general areas. This can be addressed through teacher feedback to the learner journals as well as the inclusion of additional examples of goals, sub goals, and strategies within the course. However, overwhelmingly, students demonstrated not only awareness, but clear understanding, of the six dimensions of selfregulated learning and how to apply them to their English language studies. Related to methods of learning, one learner indicated: "I preview the course materials before I begin working on each unit (Study Guide, textbook, Blackboard); I will look at the assignments that will be due before I start working in each unit." Others indicated plans to apply the components of self-regulated learning beyond the course: "I'll keep applying them [self-

Learners' diverse needs, including linguistic, cultural, and educational backgrounds, must be considered when planning course content and activities. Learners from countries across the globe are enrolled in the distance English language courses described in this chapter. Countries include Norway, Nigeria, China, Mongolia, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Saipan, Tonga, Kiribati, Papua New Guinea, the Dominican Republic, and Chile, to name a few. Course design must take into account how to accommodate learners from various time zones, with differing levels of computer access and literacy, English language proficiency, study skills, and familiarity with distance learning. Perhaps the greatest differences we have encountered among learners is their technological knowledge base, which ranges from those who are true digital natives to those who need to access a computer at an internet café or get help from someone they know in order to navigate course technology. Knowing this, our courses are designed to accommodate a range of skill levels and largely focus on the use of basic Word processing tools and PDF documents to accommodate variations in internet speed, web accessibility,

Due to cultural backgrounds and educational experiences, learners have a range of expectations for learner and teacher roles, which affect the learning process. One of the situations we have encountered is that many learners, across countries and cultures, are accustomed to teacher-centered instruction. Distance learning requires that learners possess a degree of independence and discipline. Thus, the idea of self-regulated learning, choice in activities, and monitoring performance may be new to learners. Differing cultural backgrounds also serve as the basis for interesting perspectives on readings and related

Beyond this, learners also have diverse purposes, concerns, and individual situations. Some learners can work on a course daily while others may only be able to access it on a weekly basis due to employment situations. This section focuses on approaches and activities for addressing learners' needs and assisting their development as self-regulated learners, and

Prior to designing actual course activities, and particularly those specific to self-regulated learning, other decisions must be made. One of the first of these is to determine whether the

regulated learning strategies] into every phase of my learning journey."

**3. Approaches and activities**

equipment, and software.

consequently, their success in distance course work.

**3.1 Preliminary design decisions**

discussions.

Activities section of the chapter.) Leaners were also offered relevant activities for the dimensions of motive, methods of learning, and physical environment. As they completed the activities of their choice and evaluated their performance (the sixth dimension of selfregulated learning), they revised their goals, set new goals, and continued to monitor their progress. They were required to do one activity each week and report on the experience in their learner journals, which they submitted to the teacher. When they felt they had made sufficient progress with one dimension, they could work on another. They had a variety of choices involving the dimensions, the activities, and the number of activities they participated in for each dimension.

The survey and related activity choices modelled the idea of taking responsibility for learning outcomes rather than depending on direction from the teacher. Structure was provided, as mentioned earlier, through various course components (e.g., study guide, calendar, due dates) as was dialogue in the form of announcements, e-mail reminders and assignment feedback, but choices were provided and the amount of structure and dialogue given varied across learners with the teacher being mindful of supporting the development of self-regulated learning.

A key structural element of the course was the study guide, which provided objectives, an overview of course content and tasks for each week, an estimate of the amount of time it would take to complete readings and assignments, instructions, study tips, and links to course materials, which were available in the learning management system. Icons in the study guide represented the various elements of the course such as "communicate," "self-check," "submit assignments," and "tests and quizzes." These icons were easily recognized and used consistently to help learners identify the various sections of the study guide and corresponding information. The study guide served as the teacher's voice in the course and was comparable in many ways to what a teacher would say in the classroom to instruct and support learners. Dialogue was sometimes provided to the entire class, as in the case of general feedback about an assignment or clarifications of an upcoming task, but it was also individualized in the form of e-mails to learners who were behind schedule or missing assignments, for instance. Thus, structure, dialogue, and autonomy were variables in the course that were managed in such a way as to support the learner yet promote self-regulation.

Overall, the study demonstrated that the model, designed to increase learners' levels of selfregulation and proficiency in the content area (in this case, English language ability) through interaction with course materials, self-regulated learning activities, and varying amounts of structure and dialogue, was effective in helping learners overcome challenges related to the distance learning mode. Learners reported that the self-regulated learning activities resulted in higher test scores and grades and improved learning skills and English proficiency. The following quotation illustrates:

Actually, there are many choices and strategies to use in this distance education course. Those include daily schedule, using study guide and text book, place to study, strength and weaknesses being a language learner, and getting help. According to my experience these are the important factors that can help me in this online course.

Limitations of the study include self-reported data and a small sample size. One of the findings that must be addressed in future iterations of the course is learners' depth of reflection and the conceptualization of goals. Some learners formed very broad goals such as improving their vocabulary and grammar or becoming a better reader, but did not identify specific sub goals or strategies related to these general areas. This can be addressed through teacher feedback to the learner journals as well as the inclusion of additional examples of goals, sub goals, and strategies within the course. However, overwhelmingly, students demonstrated not only awareness, but clear understanding, of the six dimensions of selfregulated learning and how to apply them to their English language studies. Related to methods of learning, one learner indicated: "I preview the course materials before I begin working on each unit (Study Guide, textbook, Blackboard); I will look at the assignments that will be due before I start working in each unit." Others indicated plans to apply the components of self-regulated learning beyond the course: "I'll keep applying them [selfregulated learning strategies] into every phase of my learning journey."
