**7. Recommendations**

10 International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education

Chung (1991) has described the type and characteristics of the learning environment

In line with Chung's description, the teacher is thus seen as a guide instead of an expert. Collins, Brown, and Holum (1991) and Rogoff (1990) have likened constructivism instruction to an apprenticeship in which teachers participate with students in the solution of meaningful and realistic problems. Thus, the teacher serves as models and guides showing students how to reflect on their evolving knowledge and providing direction when the students are having difficulty. Learning is shared, and responsibility for the instruction is equally shared. Newby et.al. (1996) submitted that the amount of guidance provided by

From the description of the ideas of constructivism, Brooks and Brooks (1993) have

Use a wide variety of materials, including raw data, primary sources, and

Inquire about students' understandings of concepts before sharing his/her own

 Encourage students to engage in dialogue with the teachers and with one another. Encourage students, inquiry by asking thoughtful, open-ended questions and encourage students to ask questions from each other and seek elaboration of

Engage students in experiences that show contradictions to initial understandings

Assess students' understanding through application and performance of open-

Thus, from the constructivist perspective, the primary responsibility of the teacher is to create and maintain a collaborative problem-solving environment, where students are allowed to construct their own knowledge, and the teacher acts as a facilitator and guide. The pedagogical effectiveness of constructivism in instructional design made Reigeluth (1989) to argue for a 'new mindset, in the translation of the philosophy of constructivism

One of the most appropriate strategy for building constructivist learning environment is to create a collaborative learning environment which does not just entail sharing a workload or coming to a consensus. Rather, it is to allow learners to develop, compare, and understand multiple perspectives on an issue. According to Bednar, Cunningham, Duffy, and Perry J.D. (1992), 'it is the rigorous process of developing and evaluating the arguments that is the goal in collaborative learning". Hence, knowledge, in the constructivists view, is the construction

of the learners and the construction of other people's view for the learners.

Provide time for students to construct relationships and create metaphors.

favoured by the constructivists as follows:

Shared knowledge among teachers and students;

 The teacher's new role as guide in instruction; Heterogeneous and small groupings of students.

understanding of those concepts.

students' initial responses.

structured tasks.

into actual practice.

and then encourage discussion.

Shared authority and responsibility among teachers and students;

the teacher will depend on the knowledge level and experience of the students.

summarized the characteristics of a constructivist teacher as someone who will:

interactive materials and encourage students to use them.

Encourage and accept student autonomy and initiative.

The following recommendations are suggested if open and distance learning institutions in Africa are to be properly re-engineered for knowledge society:

