**2. Relevant literature**

To identify a framework from which to investigate low-income student experience in online learning environments, the related literature was reviewed. This review identified five areas of concern: the prevalence of distance and online education, factors related to student pursuit of online study, student preparation for online study, student online course experiences, and factors related to student success in online courses.

#### **2.1 Prevalence of distance and online learning**

The landscape of postsecondary distance learning has changed in the last ten years with distance courses shifting more to online delivery modes using Internet technologies. This section presents the current status of postsecondary distance course and program offerings and associated student enrollments.

#### **2.1.1 Course and program offerings**

In the most recent study of distance education at degree-granting postsecondary institutions in the United States, Prasad and Lewis (2008) found that two-thirds of all institutions offered

Moore et al. (2011) note the need for clarity in the use of the terms distance learning and online learning and their relationship to each other. For this chapter, we define distance education as "some form of instruction [that] occurs between two parties (a learner and an instructor), [that] is held at different times and/or places, and uses varying forms of instructional materials" (Moore et al., p. 130). Online learning, in this chapter, is defined as distance learning mediated primarily by synchronous and/or asynchronous Internet technologies, such as email, discussion boards, chat rooms, and course management systems. Thus, for purposes of this chapter, online learning is considered a subset of distance learning such that all online learning is distance learning but all distance learning is not online learning. For example, print-based correspondence study is a form of distance

Hybrid/blended is a term used to describe learning environments that use elements of distance learning along with elements of traditional face-to-face learning. The instructional strategies used in hybrid/blended courses typically combine a face-to-face learning environment with computer-mediated activities such as videoconferencing, chats, discussion boards, and tutorials. In addition, using a hybrid/blended approach may encourage instructors to reduce the number of face-to-face sessions for more instructor-to-

To identify a framework from which to investigate low-income student experience in online learning environments, the related literature was reviewed. This review identified five areas of concern: the prevalence of distance and online education, factors related to student pursuit of online study, student preparation for online study, student online course

The landscape of postsecondary distance learning has changed in the last ten years with distance courses shifting more to online delivery modes using Internet technologies. This section presents the current status of postsecondary distance course and program offerings

In the most recent study of distance education at degree-granting postsecondary institutions in the United States, Prasad and Lewis (2008) found that two-thirds of all institutions offered

experiences, and factors related to student success in online courses.

**2.1 Prevalence of distance and online learning** 

students enrolled in online study.

learning but it is not a form of online learning.

student interaction via the Internet.

and associated student enrollments.

**2.1.1 Course and program offerings** 

**2. Relevant literature** 

non-contiguous communication and can be carried out anywhere and at any time, which makes it attractive to adults with professional and social commitments. (p. 181) This chapter describes an exploratory research project that investigated the experiences of low-income and working students enrolled in postsecondary distance study for the purpose of gaining insight to help in the development of instructional and non-instructional interventions to enhance their persistence to graduation. Because of the growing use of Internet-based technologies to facilitate distance learning, the project focused primarily on online, hybrid/blended, or other distance education courses for the academic year 2006- 2007. For the two-year level, the study revealed that 97% of public institutions and 16% of private for-profit institutions offered undergraduate distance courses. At the four-year level, 87% of public institutions, 51% of private not-for-profit institutions and 50% of private forprofit institutions offered undergraduate distance courses.

Sixty-two percent of institutions offered online distance education courses. At the two-year level, 96% of the public institutions and 15% of private for-profit institutions offered online undergraduate distance courses. At the four-year level, 86% of public institutions, 47% of private not-for-profit institutions and 52% of private for-profit institutions offered online undergraduate distance courses.

Prasad and Lewis (2008) found that only one-fourth of the institutions offered fully online undergraduate degree programs. At the two-year level, 39% of public institutions and 7% of private for-profit institutions offered online undergraduate degree programs. At the fouryear level, 40% of public institutions, 16% of private not-for-profit institutions and 27% of private for-profit institutions offered online undergraduate degree programs.

Prasad and Lewis' (2008) findings are summarized in Table 1. The numbers clearly indicate that while institutions are providing online undergraduate courses at a high rate (62%), they are providing fully online programs at a much lower rate (25%).


Table 1. Percentages of institutions involved in undergraduate distance education, Prasad and Lewis (2008).

Prasad and Lewis (2008) also found that nearly all of the institutions rely on online asynchronous delivery (92%) over synchronous delivery (31%). Asynchronous technologies were used to a large extent in 75% of the institutions that offered college-level creditgranting distance education courses and to a moderate extent in 17%. Only 12% of these institutions used synchronous Internet-based technologies to a large extent while 19% used them to a moderate extent.

A higher percentage of students at private for-profit institutions (12%) completed their entire program through distance education than students at either public institutions or private not-for-profit institutions (both 3%). Similarly, a higher percentage of students at private for-profit 4-year institutions took their entire program through distance education (19%) than students at any type of institution, ranging from 2% at public less-than-2-year, public 4-year, and private for-profit less-than-2-year institutions to 8% at private for-profit 2-

In the Aud et al (2008) study, distance education courses included live, interactive audio- or videoconferencing; prerecorded instructional videos; webcasts; CD-ROMs or DVDs; or computer-based systems accessed over the Internet. Distance education did not include


1.1 million 2%

1.1 million 19%

Distance Program Enrollment (percent)

year institutions (Aud et al., 2011). The numbers are summarized in Table 3.

Distance Course Enrollment (millions)

Overall 9.8 million 4%

Two-year, public 4.8 million 2%

Four-year, public 2.6 million 2%

Table 3. Distance education course and program enrollment (Aud et al., 2011).

In order for students to pursue online study, they must know that the option exists. Once they become aware that online study is an option, they must choose to enroll. This section presents an overview of the literature related to student awareness of online study options

In a national study of adult learners enrolled in two-year community and technical colleges, four-year public institutions and four-year private institutions, Noel-Levitz (2005) found that general program awareness is gained by adult learners from the following sources (listed in descending order of importance): institution web site; online catalog; printed catalog and brochures; student/graduate contact; family/friend recommendations; employer recommendations; information session; workplace information; national college search web site; recruiting phone calls from college representatives; newspaper; and television. Interestingly, although adult learners value the convenience and flexibility of

correspondence courses as in the Prasad and Lewis (2008) study.

Two-year, private,

Four-year, private, Not-for-profit

Four-year, private,

**2.2 Pursuit of online study** 

**2.2.1 Program awareness** 

and factors that influence their decision to enroll.

For-profit

For-profit

Ninety-three percent of two-year level public institutions used asynchronous Internet-based for instruction to a moderate or large extent. At the four-year level, 90% of public institutions, 90% of private not-for-profit institutions and 95% of private for-profit institutions used asynchronous Internet-based for instruction to a moderate or large extent. For two-year level public institutions, 28% used synchronous Internet-based activities for instruction to a moderate or large extent. At the four-year level, 42% of public institutions, 32% of private not-for-profit institutions and 13% of private for-profit institutions used synchronous Internet-based for instruction to a moderate or large extent. These figures are summarized in Table 2.


Table 2. Percentages of institutions Involved in undergraduate distance education, Prasad and Lewis (2008).

Prasad and Lewis (2008) also found that the most common factors cited as affecting distance education decisions to a major extent were meeting student demand for flexible schedules (68%), providing access to college for students who would otherwise not have access (67%), making more courses available (46%), and seeking to increase student enrollment (45%). This finding agrees with Holmberg (1995) that distance learning is a vehicle to serve adults with professional and social commitments.

#### **2.1.2 Distance and online enrollment**

In terms of enrollment, during the 2006-2007 academic year, there were 9.8 million enrollments in distance courses. Of those, 4.8 million were enrolled at public two-year institutions, 2.6 million at public four-year institution, 1.1 million at private not-for-profit four-year institutions and 1.1 million at private for-profit four-year institutions (Aud et al., 2011). In 2007–08, about 4.3 million undergraduate students, or 20% of all undergraduates, took at least one distance education course. Approximately 0.8 million, or 4% of all undergraduates, completed their entire program through distance education.

Ninety-three percent of two-year level public institutions used asynchronous Internet-based for instruction to a moderate or large extent. At the four-year level, 90% of public institutions, 90% of private not-for-profit institutions and 95% of private for-profit institutions used asynchronous Internet-based for instruction to a moderate or large extent. For two-year level public institutions, 28% used synchronous Internet-based activities for instruction to a moderate or large extent. At the four-year level, 42% of public institutions, 32% of private not-for-profit institutions and 13% of private for-profit institutions used synchronous Internet-based for instruction to a moderate or large extent. These figures are

> Synchronous Internet-based Technologies (Used from a Moderate to Large Extent)

Internet-based Technologies (Used from a Moderate to Large Extent)

Overall 92 31

2-year public 93 28

4-year public 90 42

Table 2. Percentages of institutions Involved in undergraduate distance education, Prasad

Prasad and Lewis (2008) also found that the most common factors cited as affecting distance education decisions to a major extent were meeting student demand for flexible schedules (68%), providing access to college for students who would otherwise not have access (67%), making more courses available (46%), and seeking to increase student enrollment (45%). This finding agrees with Holmberg (1995) that distance learning is a vehicle to serve adults

In terms of enrollment, during the 2006-2007 academic year, there were 9.8 million enrollments in distance courses. Of those, 4.8 million were enrolled at public two-year institutions, 2.6 million at public four-year institution, 1.1 million at private not-for-profit four-year institutions and 1.1 million at private for-profit four-year institutions (Aud et al., 2011). In 2007–08, about 4.3 million undergraduate students, or 20% of all undergraduates, took at least one distance education course. Approximately 0.8 million, or 4% of all

undergraduates, completed their entire program through distance education.


90 32

95 13

summarized in Table 2.

2-year private, for-profit

4-year private, not-for-profit

4-year private, for-profit

and Lewis (2008).

with professional and social commitments.

**2.1.2 Distance and online enrollment** 

Asynchronous

A higher percentage of students at private for-profit institutions (12%) completed their entire program through distance education than students at either public institutions or private not-for-profit institutions (both 3%). Similarly, a higher percentage of students at private for-profit 4-year institutions took their entire program through distance education (19%) than students at any type of institution, ranging from 2% at public less-than-2-year, public 4-year, and private for-profit less-than-2-year institutions to 8% at private for-profit 2 year institutions (Aud et al., 2011). The numbers are summarized in Table 3.

In the Aud et al (2008) study, distance education courses included live, interactive audio- or videoconferencing; prerecorded instructional videos; webcasts; CD-ROMs or DVDs; or computer-based systems accessed over the Internet. Distance education did not include correspondence courses as in the Prasad and Lewis (2008) study.


Table 3. Distance education course and program enrollment (Aud et al., 2011).
