**3. Method**

236 International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education

learners' concerns with the products of learning in relation to important career considerations. As such, these goals drive distance learners to focus on the utility value of learning and therefore can be treated as extrinsic to the learning process. These goals will probably be associated with a less engaged pattern of learning characterized by effort retreat, the use of less adaptive strategies and the development of a less favourable attitude towards learning. Also, this study included social enhancement goals, which focus learners on enhancing their social status through distance learning. This social consideration is culturally significant for Chinese distance leaners because bringing glory to one's family is an important cultural reason for learning in Chinese societies (Salili, 1997). These culturally significant social goals should provide learners with additional motivation. Because these social concerns focus more on the product of learning—enhacning social status, it is asssumed that they will be associated with positive learning attitudes. However, their

In addition to examining the effects of these goals on learning, the second aim of this study is to examine the moderation role of efficacy and control beliefs on the effects of goals on learning and attitudes. Previous studies on achievement goals have focused exclusively on moderation effects of self-efficay on performance-approach goals. Seldom other goals have been taken into considersation. This present study adds to this stream of research by examining the moderation role of efficacy beliefs on distance learners' mastery goals, workrelated goals and social enhancement goals. Given the significant result in Kaplan and Midgley (1997), this present study assumed that efficacy beliefs will enhance the positive effects of mastery goals on strategy use and learning attitudes. In other words, a strong efficacy belief will boost the positive effect of mastery goals on effective use of adaptive strategies and development of a positive learning attitude. Previous studies have not considered mediation effect of efficacy beliefs on work related goals and social enhancement goals on learning. Work-related goals and social enhancement goals in this study were conceptualised as less adaptive goals and will direct learners to focus away from the learning process onto the product, therefore it was assumed that a strong sense of efficacy beliefs will dampen the negative impact of these goals on strategy use and learning attitudes. Finally, following Dweck's theorisation (1986), this study assumed that distance learners' performance-approach goals will be associated with adaptive strategies and

Another important contribution of the present study was examining the mediation effects of control beliefs. Given that distacne learners are expected to learn independently, it is essential for them to have strong control beliefs and consider that they are in control of their learning. Roblyer (2000) found that students who selected to take distance education considered control over learning pace an important factor. This present study assumed that distance learners' control beliefs will act as an important mediator. In particular, the hypothesised mediation effects of efficacy beliefs on goals discussed above were also held for control beliefs. In other words, a strong sense of control beliefs will enhance the positive effects of performance-approach goals and mastery goals on learning. When less adaptive goals like work-related goals are in question, a strong sense of control beliefs will dampen their negative effects on strategy use and leanring attitudes. These hypothetical relationships are consistent with the study of Darnon et al. (2007) in which experimental results indicated that the effects of performance-approach goals were mediated by the level

positive effects on learning and regulatory strategies will be limited.

attitudes when their efficacy beliefs are strong

This study used a mailed survey method to collect distance learners' responses to a questionnaire examining their motivational beliefs, goals, strategies and attitudes towards learning of an educational psychology course.

#### **3.1 Participants**

550 distance learners enrolled in an educational psychology course offered by a distance learning university in Hong Kong were asked to complete a questionnaire. This educational psychology course focused learners on understanding child development and learning. Distance learners were expected to study a set of self-instructed learning units and assigned readings covering importnat topics related to child development and learning. In terms of assessment, learners were required to complete four written essays and sit for an end-ofyear examination. This course provided learenrs with optional bi-weekly tutorials held in different learning centres. Each tutorial group consisted of 25 learners and a tutor. The main focus of the tutorial was to provide learners with a chance to interact with other learners and discuss important issues covered in course materials, readings and assignments.

Together with an invitation letter, the questionnaire was mailed to the distance learners two months after the course started. Distance learners were required to send back the completed questionnaire using a stamped envelope provided within two weeks. 334 learners (60.73%) responded and sent back the completed questionnaires.

Distance learners in this sample were comprised of 274 (82%) female and 46 (13.8%) male learners. 14 (4.2%) learners did not give any information about their gender. Concerning age, 4 learners (1.2%) were below 20, 139 learners (41.6%) in 21-30 age band, 103 (30.8%) in 31-40 age band, 72 (21.6%) in 41-50 age band, 4 (1.2%) in 51-60 age band, and finally 1 (0.3%) learner was in the age band of 61 or over. 11 (3.3%) learners did not give any information about their age. The age spans were regrouped into three categories: young adults (30 or below), mature adults (30-40), and older adults (41 and above). A set of ANOVA analyses

The Role of Self-Efficacy, Control Beliefs and

beliefs were taken from Pintrich's MSLQ (1993).

**3.2.4 Attitude** 

**4. Results**

1. Mastery-

2. Extrinsic work

3. Performance-

4. Social

6. Surface

8. Time

9. Effort

7. Self-monitoring

Note 1: \* *p*<.05; \*\**p*<.01

development goals 3.83 .51 --

goals 3.82 .76 .18\* --

approach goals 3.32 .78 .11\* .22\*\* --

enhancement goals 3.14 .63 .45\*\* .21\*\* .29\*\* --

5. Deep strategies 3.19 .53 .45\*\* .13\* .19\*\* .17\*\* --

strategies 2.95 .70 -.19\*\* n.s. n.s. n.s. -.28\*\* --

strategies 3.15 .48 .32\*\* n.s. .24\* .17\*\* .63\*\* -.24\*\* --

management 2.89 .76 .19\*\* n.s. .19\*\* n.s. .37\*\* -.16\*\* .47\*\* --

management 3.56 .62 .24\*\* .12\* .16\*\* n.s. .38\*\* -.15\*\* .43\*\* .37\*\* --

Table 1. Descriptive statistics, reliability scores and correlation analyses.

10. Help seeking 3.14 .72 .15\*\* n.s. .13\*\* n.s. .39\*\* -.21\*\* .38\*\* .27\*\* .28\*\* -- 11. Attitudes 3.57 .56 .65\*\* .21\* n.s. .24\*\* .60\*\* -.28\* .41\*\* .21\*\* .29\*\* .21\*\* -- 12. Efficacy beliefs 3.07 .55 .32\*\* .16\*\* .33\*\* .19\*\* .42\*\* -.20\*\* .44\*\* .28\*\* .30\*\* .28\*\* .39\*\* -- 13. Control beliefs 3.74 .54 .36\*\* .20\*\* .13\*\* .13\*\* .42\*\* -.17\*\* .33\*\* .19\*\* .32\*\* .30\*\* .49\*\* .51\*\*

**3.2.5 Motivational beliefs** 

Achievement Goals on Learning Among Distance Learners 239

Attitudes involved items assessing learners' interest, enjoyment and perceived values of the

Motivational beliefs included learners' efficacy and control beliefs. Efficacy beliefs assessed learners' perceived confidence in completing the distance learning course they enrolled. Control beliefs assessed learners' belief of their own abilities in pacing their studies and learning different concepts using appropriate strategies. Items assessing these motivational

Table 1 shows the means and standard deviations for all the variables in this study. Table 2 shows the correlation findings among these variables. Mastery-development goals were positively associated with deep and all forms of self-regulatory strategies. They were also associated positively with learning attitudes, efficacy and control beliefs. As expected, these goals were negatively related to surface strategies. Extrinsic work-related goals were associated with the use of deep and effort management strategies. Also, these goals were

M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

of doing the course they enrolled. 8 items were taken from Ng (2008).

showed that distance learners in these three age groups differed with each other in masterydevelopment goals (F(2, 318)=6.97; *p<.001*), performance-approach goals (F(2, 320)=5.30; *p<.005*), and social enhancement goals (F(2, 316)=3.01; *p<.05*). The age factor was therefore controlled for in the regression analyses.

#### **3.2 Measure**

This section explains the measures used to assess different major constructs in this study. A questionnaire was designed to assess distance learners' motivatioal beliefs, goals, strategies and learning attitudes. Sample items for each constructs were included in the Appendix. Participants responded to each item on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree). Cronbach's alpha values of these constructs ranged between .65 and .83.

#### **3.2.1 Goals**

This study assessed three achievement goals: mastery goals, performance-approach goals and performance-avodiance goals. These items were adapted from previous achievement goal research (Ames & Archer, 1988; Bouffard, Boisvert, Vezeau, & Larouche, 1995; Meece et al., 1988; Young, 1997). In addition, three important goals for distance learners were included in the survey: personal development goals, work-related goals and social enhancement goals. Items that assessed these three goals were taken from Ng (2008). A factor analysis using varimax rotation method was conducted to evaluate the underlying structure of these goals. The result produced 4 distinctive factors with eigenvalues of ranged between 1.32 and 4.39. In total, these four factors accounted for 53.85% of total variance. Factor 1 included a combination of items focusing on developing knowledge and promoting personal development. This factor was labelled as mastery-development goals. Factor 2 contained items solely on achieving a high level of performance and was therefore labelled as performance-approach goals. Factor three included mainly items assessing distance learners' concern for career advancement and attaining higher qualification. This factor was labelled as extrinsic work goals. The final factor contained items assessing the intention to meet parental expectation and social norms for high achievement. This factor was therefore labelled as social enhancement goals. Items with loading less than .40 were not included in forming these factors.

#### **3.2.2 Learning strategies**

Learning strategies in this study included deep and surface strategies. Eight items assessing these contrasting strategies were taken from Biggs' SPQ (1987). Deep strategies focused distance learners on spending time and effort to ensure deep understanding and comprehension. Surface strategies draw distance learners away from learning engagement by expending minimal effort and time on learning.

#### **3.2.3 Regulatory strategies**

Eight items were adapted from Pintrich's MSLQ (1993) to assess learners' use of selfmonitoring strategies. In addition, this study included several important self-regulatory strategies: time management, effort management, and help-seeking strategies. Each strategy was formed by using corresponding items in Pintrich's MSLQ (1993).

## **3.2.4 Attitude**

238 International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education

showed that distance learners in these three age groups differed with each other in masterydevelopment goals (F(2, 318)=6.97; *p<.001*), performance-approach goals (F(2, 320)=5.30; *p<.005*), and social enhancement goals (F(2, 316)=3.01; *p<.05*). The age factor was therefore controlled

This section explains the measures used to assess different major constructs in this study. A questionnaire was designed to assess distance learners' motivatioal beliefs, goals, strategies and learning attitudes. Sample items for each constructs were included in the Appendix. Participants responded to each item on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree). Cronbach's alpha values of these constructs ranged between .65 and .83.

This study assessed three achievement goals: mastery goals, performance-approach goals and performance-avodiance goals. These items were adapted from previous achievement goal research (Ames & Archer, 1988; Bouffard, Boisvert, Vezeau, & Larouche, 1995; Meece et al., 1988; Young, 1997). In addition, three important goals for distance learners were included in the survey: personal development goals, work-related goals and social enhancement goals. Items that assessed these three goals were taken from Ng (2008). A factor analysis using varimax rotation method was conducted to evaluate the underlying structure of these goals. The result produced 4 distinctive factors with eigenvalues of ranged between 1.32 and 4.39. In total, these four factors accounted for 53.85% of total variance. Factor 1 included a combination of items focusing on developing knowledge and promoting personal development. This factor was labelled as mastery-development goals. Factor 2 contained items solely on achieving a high level of performance and was therefore labelled as performance-approach goals. Factor three included mainly items assessing distance learners' concern for career advancement and attaining higher qualification. This factor was labelled as extrinsic work goals. The final factor contained items assessing the intention to meet parental expectation and social norms for high achievement. This factor was therefore labelled as social enhancement goals. Items with loading less than .40 were not included in

Learning strategies in this study included deep and surface strategies. Eight items assessing these contrasting strategies were taken from Biggs' SPQ (1987). Deep strategies focused distance learners on spending time and effort to ensure deep understanding and comprehension. Surface strategies draw distance learners away from learning engagement

Eight items were adapted from Pintrich's MSLQ (1993) to assess learners' use of selfmonitoring strategies. In addition, this study included several important self-regulatory strategies: time management, effort management, and help-seeking strategies. Each strategy

for in the regression analyses.

**3.2 Measure** 

**3.2.1 Goals** 

forming these factors.

**3.2.2 Learning strategies** 

**3.2.3 Regulatory strategies** 

by expending minimal effort and time on learning.

was formed by using corresponding items in Pintrich's MSLQ (1993).

Attitudes involved items assessing learners' interest, enjoyment and perceived values of the of doing the course they enrolled. 8 items were taken from Ng (2008).
