**1. Introduction**

12 International Perspectives of Distance Learning in Higher Education

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Learning is the beginning of a need for perfection. It is evident that the more science and knowledge is developed; the more need for change in learning and its mechanisms are required. Distance learning is one of the alternative approaches which can be replaced with face to face or traditional learning and is one of the key factors in the development of higher education (Taylor, 2001). One of the pioneer scholars, Holmberg (1983, p. 25), defines distance education, as a non contiguous communication. It means that, with respect to the time and place, the learner and instructor are separate from each other. Keegan (1993, p. 75) consider the separation of the instructor and learner at the learning time as a main feature of distance education. From his point of view, distance learning refers to:"A programmed educational system for establishing the teaching-learning procedure by the use of an organization and not a teacher whose object is to select and apply proper techniques for using new technologies in education, facilitating the mutual relationship between the learner and instructor, providing independent learning situations and evaluating the learning outcomes by the learners themselves".

Garrison (2003) also stated three characteristics for defining distance learning as the followings:


Distance learning provides a far better situation for the students rather than the traditional learning because the learning can occur everywhere at anytime outside the university. Distance learning prepares the way for that most of educational goals like independent learning, self-directed learning, learning in every place and not dependent to a specific time, participation learning and education, self-assessment and fast presenting of the feedback from previous studies manifested to be more ascertainable.

Distance Teaching and Learning in Higher Education: A Conceptual Model 15

planning effective learning patterns is necessary. Matrink (2002) performed a study to examine the values and effectiveness of distance education. He evaluated the characteristics of an effective professor, a successful student and effective learning strategies in his study. The findings of this research showed that the success of professor and student in the online course is only possible if they are ready. Facilitating is an appropriate learning strategy for distance education and the more motivated the student is, the more successful they will be in distance education courses. Lastly, this research emphasizes that the communication between instructor, student and peer groups plays an important role on being successful in

In distance education, motivation plays an important role especially for adult learners. One of the main shortcomings of distance education is the lack of relationship between the professor, student and peer groups. A key factor for overcoming such problem is to have a chance for regular self-assessment, online and offline communication. Brawn et al (2005) study aimed to evaluate the elements of planning an effective electronic learning. From their view point, providing communicative learning activities, making motivation and interest in the learner, providing the right technologies for presenting, the learners' educating in the social and individual ground were as the required principles in an

Mendenhall (2003) made a research which aimed to plan an effective distance education model based on the internet in Brigham Yang University. The fundamental principles of this model are to emphasize individual learning, active learning approaches, and a communication associated with the flexibility of time and place and making the learning

Researches show that there is an interest in using the constructive learning theory for planning learning environment (Morphew 2000; Naidu 2003). Gillani (2000) presented a social research educational model. His online learning environment was based on the cognitive theory of Vigotsky, based on the learner and according to the learners' needs. He introduced three main shortcomings for the online learning environment: overloading data, the variety of the learners and the presence of web as a media for presenting the education. For solving this problem, he suggested an individualized curriculum as the pupils' needs. Therefore, he considered the social features of the students, the way of communicating,

Garrison (2003) evaluated in his study the theoretical shortcomings of distance education in the 21st century in his study . These shortcomings are an understanding of educational opportunities, limitations and learning with different developing approaches and technologies. He planned a concept model entitled "the model of learning society". According to this model, every effective educational experience is the result of distance education and needs the presence of three evident factors: social, cognitive and educational


cognitive ability and their academic matters (p.162).

distance education courses.

effective planning.

societies.

presence.

Regarding that the process of higher education is highly significant in any society, Nowadays universities have come across a main transformation. Lack of budget, an increase in the number of university students, a change in the student population, up-to-date and various educational needs of each society require fundamental changes that are coordinated with recent needs. Through distance learning, the feasibility of "learning with no time limitation" proportionate to the students' requirements has been brought about. In comparison to the traditional learning that disregards the students' requirements and addresses a group of students at a specific time and place, this method is a basic strategies.

UNESCO (2001) reports that an application for expansion the variety of higher education will be increased during the two next decades and universities compete closely with each other for attracting the students, break national borders, moving toward globalization and cooperating throughout the world (Cerf & Schutz, 2002, p.3) Rapid economical, social and technological changes have affected the nature of life and the individuals' occupations. Individuals should continuously learn and educate for dealing with such changes and these features in the present decade have caused a constant increase in the number of candidates for entering to the higher education (Groff & Mouza, 2008). In most countries, numbers of candidates for entering to the universities are more than their capacity. Therefore, in most countries electronic universities have been developed to respond the educational needs (Buford & Harper, 2005, p. 3).

Under these circumstances, the view of educational experts and politicians toward the distance learning subject has changed a little. For example, public report of Norway higher education specifies that distance learning, based on new communications technology, will be an important factor in future higher education strategies. Europe Union Research & Industrial Development Commission describes in its report that Europe needs an extensive and flexible structure for electronic learning (Mendenhall, 2001, p. 37). Although globalization, development of information technology and other above mentioned factors have led to rapid changes in higher education. Permanent and consistent matters also exist in such a matter. One of these subject matters in the area of distance education is the presence of patterns or models proportionate to this type of education. Success and progress of distance education is possible just by the development of appropriate educational models, realistic strategies and proper pedagogy approaches of the twenty first century.

With regarding the fact that distance education is growing rapidly in higher education, clarifying learning strategies which can assist the university students to be successful in this ground is more needed. Researches have shown that there is a separation between the knowledge related to learning theories, distance education concepts and the application of this knowledge for using in distance education and higher education. Therefore, there is a need of providing theoretical basics which can reinforce effectively the development and presentation of distance education. This chapter represents our most recent research into an effective distance learning model in higher education.

#### **2. Background**

Many studies have been performed in relation to the effective distance education plans. These researches have shown that distance education can have either positive or negative effects on proficiency and attainment to the goals. Consequently, making an assurance for

Regarding that the process of higher education is highly significant in any society, Nowadays universities have come across a main transformation. Lack of budget, an increase in the number of university students, a change in the student population, up-to-date and various educational needs of each society require fundamental changes that are coordinated with recent needs. Through distance learning, the feasibility of "learning with no time limitation" proportionate to the students' requirements has been brought about. In comparison to the traditional learning that disregards the students' requirements and addresses a group of students at a specific time and place, this method is a basic strategies. UNESCO (2001) reports that an application for expansion the variety of higher education will be increased during the two next decades and universities compete closely with each other for attracting the students, break national borders, moving toward globalization and cooperating throughout the world (Cerf & Schutz, 2002, p.3) Rapid economical, social and technological changes have affected the nature of life and the individuals' occupations. Individuals should continuously learn and educate for dealing with such changes and these features in the present decade have caused a constant increase in the number of candidates for entering to the higher education (Groff & Mouza, 2008). In most countries, numbers of candidates for entering to the universities are more than their capacity. Therefore, in most countries electronic universities have been developed to respond the educational needs

Under these circumstances, the view of educational experts and politicians toward the distance learning subject has changed a little. For example, public report of Norway higher education specifies that distance learning, based on new communications technology, will be an important factor in future higher education strategies. Europe Union Research & Industrial Development Commission describes in its report that Europe needs an extensive and flexible structure for electronic learning (Mendenhall, 2001, p. 37). Although globalization, development of information technology and other above mentioned factors have led to rapid changes in higher education. Permanent and consistent matters also exist in such a matter. One of these subject matters in the area of distance education is the presence of patterns or models proportionate to this type of education. Success and progress of distance education is possible just by the development of appropriate educational models,

With regarding the fact that distance education is growing rapidly in higher education, clarifying learning strategies which can assist the university students to be successful in this ground is more needed. Researches have shown that there is a separation between the knowledge related to learning theories, distance education concepts and the application of this knowledge for using in distance education and higher education. Therefore, there is a need of providing theoretical basics which can reinforce effectively the development and presentation of distance education. This chapter represents our most recent research into an

Many studies have been performed in relation to the effective distance education plans. These researches have shown that distance education can have either positive or negative effects on proficiency and attainment to the goals. Consequently, making an assurance for

realistic strategies and proper pedagogy approaches of the twenty first century.

effective distance learning model in higher education.

**2. Background** 

(Buford & Harper, 2005, p. 3).

planning effective learning patterns is necessary. Matrink (2002) performed a study to examine the values and effectiveness of distance education. He evaluated the characteristics of an effective professor, a successful student and effective learning strategies in his study. The findings of this research showed that the success of professor and student in the online course is only possible if they are ready. Facilitating is an appropriate learning strategy for distance education and the more motivated the student is, the more successful they will be in distance education courses. Lastly, this research emphasizes that the communication between instructor, student and peer groups plays an important role on being successful in distance education courses.

In distance education, motivation plays an important role especially for adult learners. One of the main shortcomings of distance education is the lack of relationship between the professor, student and peer groups. A key factor for overcoming such problem is to have a chance for regular self-assessment, online and offline communication. Brawn et al (2005) study aimed to evaluate the elements of planning an effective electronic learning. From their view point, providing communicative learning activities, making motivation and interest in the learner, providing the right technologies for presenting, the learners' educating in the social and individual ground were as the required principles in an effective planning.

Mendenhall (2003) made a research which aimed to plan an effective distance education model based on the internet in Brigham Yang University. The fundamental principles of this model are to emphasize individual learning, active learning approaches, and a communication associated with the flexibility of time and place and making the learning societies.

Researches show that there is an interest in using the constructive learning theory for planning learning environment (Morphew 2000; Naidu 2003). Gillani (2000) presented a social research educational model. His online learning environment was based on the cognitive theory of Vigotsky, based on the learner and according to the learners' needs. He introduced three main shortcomings for the online learning environment: overloading data, the variety of the learners and the presence of web as a media for presenting the education. For solving this problem, he suggested an individualized curriculum as the pupils' needs. Therefore, he considered the social features of the students, the way of communicating, cognitive ability and their academic matters (p.162).

Garrison (2003) evaluated in his study the theoretical shortcomings of distance education in the 21st century in his study . These shortcomings are an understanding of educational opportunities, limitations and learning with different developing approaches and technologies. He planned a concept model entitled "the model of learning society". According to this model, every effective educational experience is the result of distance education and needs the presence of three evident factors: social, cognitive and educational presence.


Distance Teaching and Learning in Higher Education: A Conceptual Model 17

Distance learning is a complicated global phenomenon that is associated with various terms, meanings, theoretical concepts and models. With studying the distance learning theories, the independence theory of Moore & Wedemeyer and the interaction and communication



Learners get the learning content through technology and process them, then personalize the data and use them in any grounds they wish. In this process, the learners communicate with the content, professors and other learners to test and approve their ideas and use what they have learned. Distance education theory makers (Grison & Anderson, 1991, 2000; Holmburg, 2003; Moor & Kearsley, 1996; Gamson & Chickering, 2003) called the

Therefore, the learner should take the responsibility of learning and regulate his learning activities for attaining to the goals at the right time and place, and also have communicate and react with the elements of academic milieu to improve learning and help create a the

Using information and communication technology is a symbol of a new period for distance teaching (Peters, 2002). The reports of the eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth Global Commission of International Distance education Society and most of the written articles by the pioneer researchers like Michael Moore (2003), Holmberg (1995, 2001, 2003), Garrison & Anderson (2000,2003) and Peters (2000, 2002, 2003) show that the development and an interest in distance education is increasing. All of these pioneers emphasized that using

Traditionally, distance learning was provided for those who were not able to register in normal classes, but through progresses in information and communication technology everyone can be a distance learner. The progressive technology is learning and its facilities should be adapted to the nature of learning in human beings (Keppell, 2003, p.634). Education which is based on information and communication technology contains the six following features: telepresence, flexibility, communication, active learning, Collaboration and motivation. Thus, using information and communication technology transforms and changes mental models of distance education, enriches the present educational models more than before and

information and communication technology transforms distance education.

**3.1 The theoretical bases of distance learning** 

transformation of learning in learners.

personalized concept.

**3.2 ICT based education concepts** 

communication as an important criterion of the quality.

theory of Moore & Garrison are more relevant to the present theories.

choose the time, place and quickness of their study.


Evaluation of the performed studies in distance education suggests that in recent decades, the attention toward distance education has increased in most universities. It caused that new models on the ground of distance education are used. Improving the quality of the curriculum of distance universities depends on the combination of the right facilities and capabilities associated with the related learning theories. These theories should encourage active learning-teaching strategies, cooperation, and flexibility and based on the learner in distance education, have the ability to admit new methods and technologies and form future functions.
