**3. Recent and emerging trends in geospatial applications**

It is difficult to exhaustively outline the recent applications of geomatics in an article as the list continues to expand and there are already vast areas of application. "Comprehensive lists of the capabilities of GIS are notoriously difficult to construct" (Goodchild, 2008). However, notable applications can still be highlighted to show what geospatial technologies are capable of and the possible future uses. The development of new applications in geospatial technology is linked with recent development in electronic and information and communication technology (ICT). Geospatial technologies adopt innovative information and communication system concepts and this is evident in the current and emerging geospatial applications highlighted in the following sections. The different domains of geomatics have benefited from these technological developments.

Applications of Geospatial Technologies

for Practitioners: An Emerging Perspective of Geospatial Education 7

studies on varying issues of global concern such as global warming and sea level rise, urbanization, environmental management, global security have also been taking advantage of the emerging opportunities of increased data availability and improvement in visualization techniques. An example of such studies is the work of Li et al. (2009) on global impacts of sea level rise. They used GIS to delineate areas that could be inundated due to the projected sea level rises basing their analysis on readily available DEM data. Alshuwaikhat & Aina (2006) applied GIS in assessing the urban sustainability of Dammam, Saudi Arabia

In the industrial sector, the articles by Ajala (2005; 2006) described how a GIS-based tool was applied by a telecommunication firm to analyze call records and improve network quality. GIS was used to analyze call records on the basis of "the location of subscribers, cells, market share, and handset usage" with a view to improving subscribers' services (Ajala, 2006). In the oil and gas industry, Mahmoud et al. (2005) demonstrated the use of GIS in determining the optimal location for wells in oil and gas reservoirs. The Well Location Planning System consisted different modules for automated mapping, data integration and reporting, overlay and distance analysis, specialized modules and 3D viewer for 3D visualization (Mahmoud et al., 2005). 3D visualization is one of the areas that GIS has become relevant both in the public and private sectors. 3D GIS is applied in generating profiles, visibility analysis and as basis for virtual cities. Figure 3 shows an example of 3D visualization in GIS. The model was developed by using DEM, buildings layer and building heights data. Recent 3D models have improved upon this technique by using high

and they concluded that GIS is a veritable tool for promoting urban sustainability.

resolution images and incorporating building facade into the model.

Fig. 3. 3D GIS: Visualization of KFUPM Campus, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

It is expected that many more GIS applications will be developed in the future and some of the highlighted applications will be improved upon. The future trend is towards 4D visualization by incorporating time component with 3D. Goodchild (2009) opined that future development in GIS will include knowing where everything is at all times,

#### **3.1 Geographic information system – Towards multidimensional visualization**

GIS is one of the most evolving aspects of geospatial technology. It evolved from desktop application in the 1980s into enterprise GIS in the 1990s and into distributed GIS. Even the technology of distributed GIS is evolving. It has changed from mobile GIS to web GIS and it is currently developing into cloud GIS. The development of cyberinfrastructure has facilitated the distribution of geospatial information as web service and the advancement in visualizing geospatial data. The synergy between cyberinfrastructure and GIS has not only increased the availability and use of geoinformation, but has also enabled members of the public to become publishers of geoinformation (Goodchild, 2011). Map mashups and crowdsourcing or volunteered geographic information (VGI) (Goodchild, 2007; Batty et al., 2010) and ambient geographic information (AGI) (Stefanidis et al., forthcoming) are being developed by non-expert users to disseminate geoinformation on the web. These emerging sources of geospatial information have become valuable to different societal and governmental applications such as geospatial intelligence (Stefanidis et al., in press), disaster management, real time data collection and tracking and property and services search.

McDougall (2011) highlighted the role of VGI during the Queensland floods in Austalia especially in post-disaster assessment. Crowd sourced geographic information was vital during the floods as people were kept informed of the flood events, "especially as official channels of communication began to fail or were placed under extreme load" (MacDougall, 2011). Crowd sourcing was also applied in managing similar recent events such as Haiti earthquake (Van Aardt et al., 2011) and Japan tsunami (Gao et al., 2011) (Fig. 2). Research

Fig. 2. Number of incidents reported during Japan tsunami (Source: www.ushahidi.com)

GIS is one of the most evolving aspects of geospatial technology. It evolved from desktop application in the 1980s into enterprise GIS in the 1990s and into distributed GIS. Even the technology of distributed GIS is evolving. It has changed from mobile GIS to web GIS and it is currently developing into cloud GIS. The development of cyberinfrastructure has facilitated the distribution of geospatial information as web service and the advancement in visualizing geospatial data. The synergy between cyberinfrastructure and GIS has not only increased the availability and use of geoinformation, but has also enabled members of the public to become publishers of geoinformation (Goodchild, 2011). Map mashups and crowdsourcing or volunteered geographic information (VGI) (Goodchild, 2007; Batty et al., 2010) and ambient geographic information (AGI) (Stefanidis et al., forthcoming) are being developed by non-expert users to disseminate geoinformation on the web. These emerging sources of geospatial information have become valuable to different societal and governmental applications such as geospatial intelligence (Stefanidis et al., in press), disaster management, real time data collection and tracking and property and services search.

McDougall (2011) highlighted the role of VGI during the Queensland floods in Austalia especially in post-disaster assessment. Crowd sourced geographic information was vital during the floods as people were kept informed of the flood events, "especially as official channels of communication began to fail or were placed under extreme load" (MacDougall, 2011). Crowd sourcing was also applied in managing similar recent events such as Haiti earthquake (Van Aardt et al., 2011) and Japan tsunami (Gao et al., 2011) (Fig. 2). Research

Fig. 2. Number of incidents reported during Japan tsunami (Source: www.ushahidi.com)

**3.1 Geographic information system – Towards multidimensional visualization** 

studies on varying issues of global concern such as global warming and sea level rise, urbanization, environmental management, global security have also been taking advantage of the emerging opportunities of increased data availability and improvement in visualization techniques. An example of such studies is the work of Li et al. (2009) on global impacts of sea level rise. They used GIS to delineate areas that could be inundated due to the projected sea level rises basing their analysis on readily available DEM data. Alshuwaikhat & Aina (2006) applied GIS in assessing the urban sustainability of Dammam, Saudi Arabia and they concluded that GIS is a veritable tool for promoting urban sustainability.

In the industrial sector, the articles by Ajala (2005; 2006) described how a GIS-based tool was applied by a telecommunication firm to analyze call records and improve network quality. GIS was used to analyze call records on the basis of "the location of subscribers, cells, market share, and handset usage" with a view to improving subscribers' services (Ajala, 2006). In the oil and gas industry, Mahmoud et al. (2005) demonstrated the use of GIS in determining the optimal location for wells in oil and gas reservoirs. The Well Location Planning System consisted different modules for automated mapping, data integration and reporting, overlay and distance analysis, specialized modules and 3D viewer for 3D visualization (Mahmoud et al., 2005). 3D visualization is one of the areas that GIS has become relevant both in the public and private sectors. 3D GIS is applied in generating profiles, visibility analysis and as basis for virtual cities. Figure 3 shows an example of 3D visualization in GIS. The model was developed by using DEM, buildings layer and building heights data. Recent 3D models have improved upon this technique by using high resolution images and incorporating building facade into the model.

Fig. 3. 3D GIS: Visualization of KFUPM Campus, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

It is expected that many more GIS applications will be developed in the future and some of the highlighted applications will be improved upon. The future trend is towards 4D visualization by incorporating time component with 3D. Goodchild (2009) opined that future development in GIS will include knowing where everything is at all times,

Applications of Geospatial Technologies

estimate socio-economic information and for visualization.

for Practitioners: An Emerging Perspective of Geospatial Education 9

Suppasri et al. (2012) showcased the application of remote sensing, especially high resolution imagery, in Tsunami disaster management. Their study includes damage detection and vulnerability analysis. Figure 4 shows tsunami damage detected in their study by using IKONOS imagery. In the same vein, AlSaud (2010) used IKONOS imagery to identify the areas inundated during the Jeddah flood hazard in November 2009. The study was also able to highlight areas that are vulnerable to flooding to help decision makers take preventive actions. Also, in a population estimation study, the population distribution of a rural lake basin in China was successfully mapped using high resolution imagery from Google Earth (Yang et al., 2011). The study applied texture analysis with other procedures to extract building features for population estimation. The extraction of features and information from high resolution imagery is currently an expanding area of remote sensing. Buildings, roads, trees and even DEM data are extracted from images, including LIDAR, to

Fig. 4. Detection of tsunami damaged buildings (Red dots indicate damaged buildings and

LIDAR images, with high geometric resolutions, have opened new areas of research and applications. LIDAR has been applied in 3D modelling of cities and geometric analysis of structures including utility corridor mapping. One of these applications is the use of LIDAR imagery as a tool for utility companies to monitor electricity transmission lines for vegetation encroachment and line rating assessment (Corbley, 2012). "Airborne LIDAR will become the most widely accepted solution due to its efficiency and cost-effectiveness" (Corbley, 2012). The highlighted applications demonstrate the usage of remote sensing and photogrammetry in a variety of ways. The applications are expanding as we have more satellite sensors "prying eyes" monitoring the earth "from above". Samant (2012) succinctly highlighted this trend by identifying conventional and emerging applications of remote

blue dots indicate undamaged buildings) from IKONOS imageries

(Source: Suppasri et al., 2012)

sensing (Table 1).

improvement in third spatial dimension, providing real time dynamic information, more access to geographic information and improvement in the role of citizen. These developments indicate that geospatial technologies will be more integrated in the future. For example, the technologies for knowing where everything is at all times will most likely include RFID, GPS, internet, geo-visualization and probably satellite imagery.

## **3.2 Surveying and GNSS – Towards accurate and timely data collection**

The advancements in modern surveying instruments have not only led to improvement in accuracy, but also increasing integration of digital survey data with other technologies. In Olaleye et al. (2011), this development was referred to as "Digital Surveying". Most of the data collected through surveying are now in digital formats that are interchangeable with other geospatial data formats. Even in some instances, survey data can be streamed through bluetooth or wifi to other hardware or software. Another development that has impacted surveying is the proliferation of laser technology. 3D laser scanners are now being used in surveying to collect quick and accurate data, captured as thousands of survey points, known as point cloud. The point cloud can be processed to produce accurate 3D geometry of structures. The use of unmanned aircraft has also made an inroad into surveying (Mohamed, 2010). Using unmanned aircraft in aerial mapping provides opportunity for collecting cheap, fast and high-resolution geospatial data.

GNSS technology has been very crucial to most geospatial technology applications from invehicle navigation to civil aviation and automated machine control. GNSS is a component of the unmanned aircraft technology mentioned above. As stated above, the technology is applied in aerial mapping and even in military operations such as US military drones (Chapman, 2003). The trend in GNSS is towards consistent availability and improved accuracy. With the inauguration of Russia's GLONASS and other GNSS systems such as Japan's QZSS, EU's GALILEO and China's Beidou; accuracy and availability will continue to improve.

#### **3.3 Remote sensing and photogrammetry – Prying eyes from above**

Remote sensing and photogrammetric technology have been undergoing dramatic changes since the launching of Landsat in the 1970s. Then, it was only United States that was involved in planning and launching remote sensing satellite missions. Now, there are more than 20 countries that own remote sensing satellites. This development has made users to have more access to satellite images. Free image programmes like the Global Land Cover Facility (GLCF) and USGS free landsat archive and OrbView3 data have also improved the availability of images. Users have recently got the opportunity of accessing satellite data through geospatial portals such as Google Earth and Microsoft Virtual Earth. Apart from the improvement in data availability, the quality of satellite imagery has also improved in terms of resolutions. Currently, the image with the highest spatial resolution is GeoEye (0.5m) but there is a plan to launch GeoEye-2 (0.25m) within the next two years. High resolution satellite imagery is valuable to applications in disaster management, feature extraction and analysis, mapping and monitoring changes in urban landscape, infrastructure management, health (Kalluri et al., 2007) and 3D visualization.

improvement in third spatial dimension, providing real time dynamic information, more access to geographic information and improvement in the role of citizen. These developments indicate that geospatial technologies will be more integrated in the future. For example, the technologies for knowing where everything is at all times will most likely

The advancements in modern surveying instruments have not only led to improvement in accuracy, but also increasing integration of digital survey data with other technologies. In Olaleye et al. (2011), this development was referred to as "Digital Surveying". Most of the data collected through surveying are now in digital formats that are interchangeable with other geospatial data formats. Even in some instances, survey data can be streamed through bluetooth or wifi to other hardware or software. Another development that has impacted surveying is the proliferation of laser technology. 3D laser scanners are now being used in surveying to collect quick and accurate data, captured as thousands of survey points, known as point cloud. The point cloud can be processed to produce accurate 3D geometry of structures. The use of unmanned aircraft has also made an inroad into surveying (Mohamed, 2010). Using unmanned aircraft in aerial mapping provides opportunity for

GNSS technology has been very crucial to most geospatial technology applications from invehicle navigation to civil aviation and automated machine control. GNSS is a component of the unmanned aircraft technology mentioned above. As stated above, the technology is applied in aerial mapping and even in military operations such as US military drones (Chapman, 2003). The trend in GNSS is towards consistent availability and improved accuracy. With the inauguration of Russia's GLONASS and other GNSS systems such as Japan's QZSS, EU's GALILEO and China's Beidou; accuracy and availability will continue

Remote sensing and photogrammetric technology have been undergoing dramatic changes since the launching of Landsat in the 1970s. Then, it was only United States that was involved in planning and launching remote sensing satellite missions. Now, there are more than 20 countries that own remote sensing satellites. This development has made users to have more access to satellite images. Free image programmes like the Global Land Cover Facility (GLCF) and USGS free landsat archive and OrbView3 data have also improved the availability of images. Users have recently got the opportunity of accessing satellite data through geospatial portals such as Google Earth and Microsoft Virtual Earth. Apart from the improvement in data availability, the quality of satellite imagery has also improved in terms of resolutions. Currently, the image with the highest spatial resolution is GeoEye (0.5m) but there is a plan to launch GeoEye-2 (0.25m) within the next two years. High resolution satellite imagery is valuable to applications in disaster management, feature extraction and analysis, mapping and monitoring changes in urban landscape, infrastructure management,

include RFID, GPS, internet, geo-visualization and probably satellite imagery.

**3.2 Surveying and GNSS – Towards accurate and timely data collection** 

collecting cheap, fast and high-resolution geospatial data.

health (Kalluri et al., 2007) and 3D visualization.

**3.3 Remote sensing and photogrammetry – Prying eyes from above** 

to improve.

Suppasri et al. (2012) showcased the application of remote sensing, especially high resolution imagery, in Tsunami disaster management. Their study includes damage detection and vulnerability analysis. Figure 4 shows tsunami damage detected in their study by using IKONOS imagery. In the same vein, AlSaud (2010) used IKONOS imagery to identify the areas inundated during the Jeddah flood hazard in November 2009. The study was also able to highlight areas that are vulnerable to flooding to help decision makers take preventive actions. Also, in a population estimation study, the population distribution of a rural lake basin in China was successfully mapped using high resolution imagery from Google Earth (Yang et al., 2011). The study applied texture analysis with other procedures to extract building features for population estimation. The extraction of features and information from high resolution imagery is currently an expanding area of remote sensing. Buildings, roads, trees and even DEM data are extracted from images, including LIDAR, to estimate socio-economic information and for visualization.

Fig. 4. Detection of tsunami damaged buildings (Red dots indicate damaged buildings and blue dots indicate undamaged buildings) from IKONOS imageries (Source: Suppasri et al., 2012)

LIDAR images, with high geometric resolutions, have opened new areas of research and applications. LIDAR has been applied in 3D modelling of cities and geometric analysis of structures including utility corridor mapping. One of these applications is the use of LIDAR imagery as a tool for utility companies to monitor electricity transmission lines for vegetation encroachment and line rating assessment (Corbley, 2012). "Airborne LIDAR will become the most widely accepted solution due to its efficiency and cost-effectiveness" (Corbley, 2012). The highlighted applications demonstrate the usage of remote sensing and photogrammetry in a variety of ways. The applications are expanding as we have more satellite sensors "prying eyes" monitoring the earth "from above". Samant (2012) succinctly highlighted this trend by identifying conventional and emerging applications of remote sensing (Table 1).

Applications of Geospatial Technologies

(Source: AlGhamdi & Haja, 2011)

needed "spatial thinking" in higher education.

(Nittel, 2009).

thinking skills.

for Practitioners: An Emerging Perspective of Geospatial Education 11

real-time event detection (e.g. stream and well water monitoring and warning, Yoo et al., 2011) and mobile sensor nodes (e.g. livestock traceability, Rebufello et al., 2012)

It can be argued that the importance of geospatial technology in higher education is evident from its varying areas of application. A field of study that its applications cut across different aspects of human endeavour should be valuable to higher education. Sinton (2012) classified the reasons behind geographic information science and technology (GIS&T) education into two; dominant and secondary reasons. The reasons include marketplace, conducting research, competition for students, managing the business of the university and enhancing learning and teaching (Sinton, 2012). Apart from the need for geospatial technology in the marketplace, there is increasing demand for researchers (even in other fields) to have geospatial skills. "Scientists who can combine geographic information systems with satellite data are in demand in variety of disciplines" (Gewin, 2004). Thus, geospatial technology could help enhance the

In addition to supporting varying research studies, geospatial technologies enhance teaching and learning by promoting effective learning environment and critical thinking (Sinton, 2012). Most of the subjects in geospatial technologies are amenable to being taught using emerging and innovative teaching and learning methods such as problem-based learning and inquiry-based learning. For example, GIS courses have components that are taught using real world problem-solving approach. These problem-solving components engender analytical and spatial thinking among learners thereby improving their critical

The myriad of challenging issues facing the world today ranging from urban growth and biodiversity to climate change have spatial dimension. Geospatial technologies are needed in addressing these challenges. "Grappling with local, regional and global issues of the 21st century requires people who think spatially and who can use geotechnologies" (Kerski, 2008). In addition, geospatial technology is interdisciplinary giving its graduates the capability of viewing problems from different perspectives. Tackling these varying global challenges needs multidisciplinary and collaborative approach and training in the needed

multidisciplinary perspectives is already embedded in geospatial education.

Fig. 5. Monitoring and detection of land encroachment (2007-2009)

**4. Importance of geospatial technologies in higher education** 


Table 1. Conventional and emerging applications of remote sensing (Source: Samant, 2012)

### **3.4 Integration of geospatial technologies – Towards a synergy**

As mentioned in section 3.1, the current trend is towards the integration of different geospatial technologies. There is hardly any recent geospatial application that does not have components from two or more domains of geospatial technology. The idea of integration started with the use of remote sensing data in GIS and data from GIS serving as ancillary data in satellite image classification. In recent times, the integration has included computeraided design (CAD), GPS, survey data, internet, RFID, geosensor and telecommunication. Even concepts such as space syntax, cellular automata and agent based modelling (ABM) have been integrated into geospatial technologies (Jiang & Claramunt, 2002; Beneson et al., 2006; Sullivan et al., 2010). Likewise, software vendors have started integrating GIS, GPS and remote sensing functionalities in their packages. The trend towards synergy has been driving emerging applications in geospatial technologies and this might probably continue into the future.

In one of the early study on the integration of geospatial data with wireless communication, Tsou (2004) presented a prototype mobile GIS that "allows multiple resource managers and park rangers to access large-size remotely sensed images and GIS layers from a portable web server mounted in a vehicle". The mobile GIS application was developed for habitat conservation and environmental monitoring. A similar application, geared towards crowd management and pilgrim mobility in the city of Makkah, used location based services and augmented reality technologies to provide Hajj pilgrims with timely information on mobile phone (Alnuaim & Almasre, 2010). In Saud Aramco, (AlGhamdi & Haja, 2011) developed an integrated system, based on mobile GIS technology and high precision surveying process, to monitor land encroachments on land reservations and pipeline corridors. The system generated and propagated encroachment data (to GIS database) based on a change detection process (Fig. 5).

The emerging applications that integrate geospatial technologies with ICT are based on wireless network of spatially-aware sensors "geosensor networks" that "detect, monitor and track environmental phenomena and processes" (Nittel, 2009). Geosensor networks are used in three streams of applications; continuous monitoring (e.g. measuring geophysical processes),

Application environment Coventional applications Emerging applications

Table 1. Conventional and emerging applications of remote sensing (Source: Samant, 2012)

As mentioned in section 3.1, the current trend is towards the integration of different geospatial technologies. There is hardly any recent geospatial application that does not have components from two or more domains of geospatial technology. The idea of integration started with the use of remote sensing data in GIS and data from GIS serving as ancillary data in satellite image classification. In recent times, the integration has included computeraided design (CAD), GPS, survey data, internet, RFID, geosensor and telecommunication. Even concepts such as space syntax, cellular automata and agent based modelling (ABM) have been integrated into geospatial technologies (Jiang & Claramunt, 2002; Beneson et al., 2006; Sullivan et al., 2010). Likewise, software vendors have started integrating GIS, GPS and remote sensing functionalities in their packages. The trend towards synergy has been driving emerging applications in geospatial technologies and this might probably continue

In one of the early study on the integration of geospatial data with wireless communication, Tsou (2004) presented a prototype mobile GIS that "allows multiple resource managers and park rangers to access large-size remotely sensed images and GIS layers from a portable web server mounted in a vehicle". The mobile GIS application was developed for habitat conservation and environmental monitoring. A similar application, geared towards crowd management and pilgrim mobility in the city of Makkah, used location based services and augmented reality technologies to provide Hajj pilgrims with timely information on mobile phone (Alnuaim & Almasre, 2010). In Saud Aramco, (AlGhamdi & Haja, 2011) developed an integrated system, based on mobile GIS technology and high precision surveying process, to monitor land encroachments on land reservations and pipeline corridors. The system generated and propagated encroachment data (to GIS database) based on a change detection

The emerging applications that integrate geospatial technologies with ICT are based on wireless network of spatially-aware sensors "geosensor networks" that "detect, monitor and track environmental phenomena and processes" (Nittel, 2009). Geosensor networks are used in three streams of applications; continuous monitoring (e.g. measuring geophysical processes),

**3.4 Integration of geospatial technologies – Towards a synergy** 

Biodiversity Health

Disaster management Cadastral mapping Energy Oil and gas Climate Mineral exploration Water Location based service

> Weather Insurance Ecosystem Property registration Forest Emergency and accident

Agriculture Environmental monitoring

Defence Infrastructure Monitoring

monitoring

Terrestrial

Hydrological

Atmospheric

into the future.

process (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Monitoring and detection of land encroachment (2007-2009) (Source: AlGhamdi & Haja, 2011)

real-time event detection (e.g. stream and well water monitoring and warning, Yoo et al., 2011) and mobile sensor nodes (e.g. livestock traceability, Rebufello et al., 2012) (Nittel, 2009).
