**12. Conclusion**

Electricity produced from photovoltaic (PV) systems has a far smaller impact on the environment than traditional methods of electrical generation. During their operation, PV cells need no fuel, give off no atmospheric or water pollutants and require no cooling water. Unlike fossil fuel (coal, oil, and natural gas) fired power plants, PV systems do not contribute to global warming or acid rain. The use of PV systems is not constrained by material or land shortages and the sun is a virtually endless energy source. The cost of PV systems has decreased more than twenty times since the early 1970's, and research continues on several different technologies in an effort to reduce costs to levels acceptable for wide scale use. Current PV cells are reliable and already cost effective in certain applications such as remote power, with stand-alone PV plants built in regions not reached by the utility networks. Besides that, integration of PV systems into buildings in residential areas, where the PV system is also connected to the electricity grid to provide an alternative supply source to the load, is becoming even more attractive. Various alternatives have been designed for building-integrated PV systems, including roof-top, facade and sun-shield systems. Early solutions were aimed at superposing the PV modules onto the building structures. Yet, nowadays an increasing attention is paid to the integration of the PV modules into the structural elements that form the building architecture. Although at present the costs of the PV solutions are still not competitive in comparison to other energy sources, the adoption of buildingintegrated solutions and some incentives provided by national regulations and installation programs could make the investment on PV systems affordable. The future extent of using PV systems will strongly depend upon research to reduce costs and on the value societies place on the negative environmental impacts associated to other forms of electricity generation.

The PV module technology and the type of installation affect significantly the performance of the PV systems. Experimental studies aimed at characterizing the electrical behavior of the PV systems are then essential to understand the peculiarities of

Photovoltaic Systems and Applications 49

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**3** 

*Iran* 

**A New Adaptive Method for Distribution System** 

Distribution systems usually have radial configuration and have unbalanced operation. Distribution system protection is based on a time over current method. This method includes selection of equipment and settings, placement of equipment, and coordination of devices to clear faults with as little impact on customers as possible. Equipment in distribution protection consists of fuses, reclosers and sectionalizers. Also an over current time inverse relay usually exists inside the distribution substation at feeder outset. In distribution system, the main priorities are to prevent further damage to utility equipment,

The installation of small distributed generation (DG) units at distribution system has many advantages such as energy efficiency, environmental considerations and voltage support. A wide range of power generation technologies are currently in use or under development, these technologies includes: small combustion turbines and micro turbines, small steam turbines, fuel cells, small-scale hydroelectric power, photovoltaic, solar energy, wind turbines and energy storage technologies. Also, Insertion of DG in distribution systems may create technical and safety problems (Brahma, 2001). DG may contribute to increased fault currents, cause in voltage oscillations, decrease or increase losses and interfere in voltage control processes. On the other sides the distribution systems are well designed which could handle the addition of DG if proper grounding, transformers and protection is provided. In fact, all analysis about distribution system occurrence should be reanalyzed as the DG impacts are significant for both planning and operation of distribution networks. The problems associated with protection devices operation and coordination requires special

review since they may affect the system security and dependability (Brahma, 2004).

distinguish coordination problems of fuse-fuse and fuse-recloser in presence of DG.

A sample distribution system with DG is shown in Figure 1. In such system DG feed adjacent loads and the system doesn't have radial property. So protection devices must have directional sensitivity in systems with several sources. Fuses, reclosers and sectionalizers don't have directional property while over current relays can equipped with directional element. But displacement of fuses and reclosers with directional over current relays is impossible because of economic considerations. So we need a generalized analysis to

reliability and power quality (Barker & De Mello, 2003).

**1. Introduction** 

**Protection Considering Distributed Generation** 

**Units Using Simulated Annealing Method** 

Hamidreza Akhondi and Mostafa Saifali

*Sadra Institute of Higher Education* 

