**6. References**

Aldrich, H. (1999). *Organizations Evolving*. Sage Publications, ISBN 0803989199, London


idea, that economic life is 'embedded and enmeshed in institutions, economic and noneconomic' (1957, p.250). Polanyi's notion of embeddedness allows us to conceptualize a comprehensive view of the market economy, to observe the connections between economic and social/cultural phenomena, and to regard the latter as by no means residual. By the same token, the use of embeddedness as a conceptual frame enables us to gaze at entrepreneurship by eschewing the limits of economic models that explain entrepreneurial behavior detached from the cultural context. We could also turn our attention to entrepreneurship as a point of departure, in the sense that it is through the study of entrepreneurship as a social and cultural phenomenon that we can easily see the extent of the embeddedness of the market economy. This is what has been accomplished here, by analyzing how entrepreneurial opportunities are enhanced (or at times hindered) by financing "as instituted process" - to paraphrase one of Polanyi's fundamental articles (1957). Entrepreneurship is essentially a social and a cultural phenomenon as much as an economic one. Just look at the importance of the symbolic personal assets, such as reputation, esteem, family, working skills, political and religious beliefs. They represent the cultural sphere and play an economically relevant role as symbolic collateral to lower the barrier to credit access

and to initiate social relations that eventually turns into valuable economic capital.

new forms of credit and if they will be embedded or rather dis-embedded practices.

Aldrich, H. (1999). *Organizations Evolving*. Sage Publications, ISBN 0803989199, London Barth, F. (Ed.). (1963). *The Role of the Entrepreneur in Social Change in Northern Norway*.

Raymond Firth, (Ed.), pp.149–174, Tavistock Publications, London

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Barth, F. (1967a). Economic Spheres in Darfur, in: *Themes in Economic Anthropology*,

Barth, F. (1967b). On the study of Social Change. *American Anthropologist*, Vol.69, No.6,

Belshaw, C, S. (1965). *Traditional exchange and modern markets*. Prentice Hall, Englewood

Baumol, W.J. (1993). Normal Entrepreneurship Theory in Economics Existence and Bound.

Baumol, W.J. (1968). Entrepreneurship in Economic Theory. *American Economic Review*.

Beals, R.L. (1970). Gifting, Reciprocity, Savings, and Credit in Peasant Oaxaca. *Southwestern* 

Benton, L. (1990). *Invisible Factories. The Informal Economy and Industrial Development in Spain*.

Blim, M.L. (1990a). *Made in Italy. Small-Scale Industrialization and its Consequences*. Praeger,

Blim, M.L.(1990b). Economic Development and Decline in the Emerging Global Factory:

Blim, M.L.(1996). Cultures and the Problems of Capitalisms. *Critique of Anthropology*, Vol. 16,

Some Italian Lessons. *Politics and Society*, Vol.18, No. 1, pp. 143-163, ISSN 0032-3292

**6. References** 

Cliffs, NJ

Universitetsfoklaget, Bergen

pp.661-69, ISSN 002-7294 0065-6941

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SUNY Press, ISBN 079140224X, New York

ISBN 0275931013, New York

No.1, pp.79-93, ISSN 0308-275X

What stands to be seen is how and if the forms of embeddedness examined in this paper will alter and/or persist in light of the global economic crisis and to observe if there will be


**14** 

*Portugal* 

**Labour Relations and** 

Elísio Estanque and Hermes Augusto Costa *Center for Social Studies – University of Coimbra,* 

**Social Movements in the 21st Century** 

Perhaps labour relations and social movements are today – more than ever before – two fields of decisive importance in contemporary sociology. In spite of being issues that can be treated autonomously, in a context of intense and ever-worsening austerity measures in many societies it makes sense, in fact, to think of them as interconnected. Besides, it is difficult to talk of a global crisis in capitalism, of an unemployment crisis, of a crisis in models of collective bargaining, and so on, without talking of the response strategies of society's citizens. So, for this purpose, we need to consider the "old" trade union organisations as well as the "new" ones, and to pay attention to the social networks which are emerging worldwide in the struggle for the right to employment and a dignified future. New groups, languages, proposals and rebels are emerging and, in many countries of the West, the overall society seems to be moving and asking for new agendas and political repertoires. The panorama of a deep economic crisis which in the last few decades has hit Europe and its Welfare state in particular has had an unprecedented impact on employment and social policies. The neoliberal model and the effects of deregulated and global finance not only question the "European social model" but push sectors of the labour force – with the youngest and well-qualified being prominent – into unemployment or precarious jobs. This text aims to point out the main trends that have taken place in the labour field whilst simultaneously trying to understand what type of responses or ways ahead can be considered, namely of a socio-occupational nature, using the social movements as a starting point. The first part of the chapter centres on the transforming trends and processes associated with the labour market, the types of work and models of organisation of production. In the second part we focus on the most recent waves of protests and social movements, making reference to the experience and new forms of collective action. Our aim is to show the sociological and potential socio-political significance of these actions, particularly as a result of the interconnections that such movements express, both in the sphere of the workplace and industrial system or whether with broader social structures, with special emphasis on the middle classes and the threats of 'proletarianization' that

Our argument is therefore the following: labour relations of our time are crossed by precariousness and by a new and growing "precariat" which also gave rise to new social movements and new forms of activism and protest. Thus labour relations and social

**1. Introduction** 

presently hang over them.

