**3. Scientific collections**

## **3.1 Short overview of the history of museums**

The history of museums may be separated into six epochs: Greco-Roman (until 400 A.D.), Pre-Renaissance (400 A.D. – 1400), Renaissance (1400 – 1600), Pre-Linnaean (1600 – 1750), Linnaean (1750 – 1850) and Modern (1850 onwards). We will not discuss these periods, but when one looks into their history it may be realized that collections have always reflected the social atmosphere and the state of knowledge of that specific period (Whitehead, 1970).

Natural history documents were not only words, texts or archives, but bright places where things overlap: herbaria, collections, gardens (Foucault, 1966) and cabinets of curiosities (Fig. 2; Papavero et al., 1997). These cabinets of curiosities were rooms designated to store exquisite material that was collected throughout the world. The owner could also buy goods from world travelers that gathered uncommon material in expedition journeys, such as unicorn horns, plants, animals, objects, etc. (to see more on expeditions, see Papavero et al., 1995). As the museums in former periods were private collections, one common practice was to buy, sell and exchange items. This activity could be very promising, depending on the size of the collection, the materials themselves, and their degree of conservation.

One important function of museums in past centuries was to pull together several casual and disjointed collections split throughout the world. The worship of what is rare, unusual, marvelous, miraculous and sacred (R. Morris & D. Morris, 1965) make these places sets of natural and artificial objects ideal for study or, alternatively, for gaining prestige in society (Whitehead, 1970).

It is usual to affirm that the constitutions of botanical gardens and zoological collections reflected a new curiosity stimulated by the exotic plants and animals. The bizarre, mysterious and glamorous were spectacular; these facets were exposed in parties and amusement parks. Legendary reconstructions (as pictures and drawings) where presented in which the beast showed its mythical facets (Foucault, 1966; cf. Almaça, 2002).

These places were not dedicated exclusively to scientific studies. They were also places for social meetings, where the aristocrats went to discuss politics, art, economy, etc. The more rare materials present in a collection, the more valuable they became economically and socially.

Therefore, in the several facets that the museum represents throughout history, they do not only reflect the state of knowledge of zoology, but also the social atmosphere. These features could determine if a museum could only raise the prestige of their owner or if they could also add to the progress of knowledge (Whitehead, 1970).

the resources are limited, or that there are considerable differences between their qualities

Animals fight each other for two basic reasons: to establish a domain in a social hierarchy or to establish territory. Some species are purely hierarchical, with no territory. Others are purely territorial, with no hierarchical issues being involved. Still others keep hierarchy in their own territory and must face all kinds of aggressiveness. We, the naked apes (as Desmond Morris would say), belong to the last group: we face both problems (Morris, 1984).

The history of museums may be separated into six epochs: Greco-Roman (until 400 A.D.), Pre-Renaissance (400 A.D. – 1400), Renaissance (1400 – 1600), Pre-Linnaean (1600 – 1750), Linnaean (1750 – 1850) and Modern (1850 onwards). We will not discuss these periods, but when one looks into their history it may be realized that collections have always reflected the social atmosphere and the state of knowledge of that specific period (Whitehead, 1970). Natural history documents were not only words, texts or archives, but bright places where things overlap: herbaria, collections, gardens (Foucault, 1966) and cabinets of curiosities (Fig. 2; Papavero et al., 1997). These cabinets of curiosities were rooms designated to store exquisite material that was collected throughout the world. The owner could also buy goods from world travelers that gathered uncommon material in expedition journeys, such as unicorn horns, plants, animals, objects, etc. (to see more on expeditions, see Papavero et al., 1995). As the museums in former periods were private collections, one common practice was to buy, sell and exchange items. This activity could be very promising, depending on

the size of the collection, the materials themselves, and their degree of conservation.

in which the beast showed its mythical facets (Foucault, 1966; cf. Almaça, 2002).

also add to the progress of knowledge (Whitehead, 1970).

One important function of museums in past centuries was to pull together several casual and disjointed collections split throughout the world. The worship of what is rare, unusual, marvelous, miraculous and sacred (R. Morris & D. Morris, 1965) make these places sets of natural and artificial objects ideal for study or, alternatively, for gaining prestige in society

It is usual to affirm that the constitutions of botanical gardens and zoological collections reflected a new curiosity stimulated by the exotic plants and animals. The bizarre, mysterious and glamorous were spectacular; these facets were exposed in parties and amusement parks. Legendary reconstructions (as pictures and drawings) where presented

These places were not dedicated exclusively to scientific studies. They were also places for social meetings, where the aristocrats went to discuss politics, art, economy, etc. The more rare materials present in a collection, the more valuable they became economically and socially.

Therefore, in the several facets that the museum represents throughout history, they do not only reflect the state of knowledge of zoology, but also the social atmosphere. These features could determine if a museum could only raise the prestige of their owner or if they could

(Deag, 1980).

**3. Scientific collections** 

(Whitehead, 1970).

**3.1 Short overview of the history of museums** 

Fig. 2. A rich "cabinet of curiosity". Adapted from Papavero et al. (1997).

As the disciplines of zoology and botany turned into sciences that required observation and experimentation, a huge proliferation of museums occurred. They were the natural history museums. During this period the museums changed from a pure catalogue of natural objects to an attempt of men to classify them. This part of Biology that aims to classify organisms in a systematic order is called taxonomy. The classification of data is the first step in any investigation. The objects acquire significance when they are classified because they facilitate a comparison between objects, which leads to the understanding of their nature (Foucault, 1966; Whitehead, 1970).

In 1850 the bases of the natural history museums were revolutionized by Charles Darwin. All community sectors interested in museums increased. At the same time, the value of the scientific work made the museums gain reconnaissance not only in academic aspects but also in economics. From this period, the private museums declined. They were intense through the XIX century and some still exist nowadays. More and more, however, museums belong to scientific societies or to State associations (Whitehead, 1970).
