**6. Conclusion**

334 Sociological Landscape – Theories, Realities and Trends

Attend Coefficient Standard Error t P>|t| Education -0.027 0.079 -0.33 0.738 Age 0.018 0.019 0.95 0.344 No. of Child 0.399 0.152 2.63 0.009 Income -0.000 0.000 -1.70 0.092 Denomination 0.020 0.009 2.09 0.039 Divorce 0.136 0.490 0.28 0.782 Ethnic -0.004 0.011 -0.37 0.709 Happy -0.604 0.339 -1.78 0.077 Life -0.513 0.367 -1.40 0.164 Race 0.669 0.391 1.71 0.090 Household Type -0.025 0.047 -0.53 0.596 Hispanic 0.326 0.229 1.42 0.156 Marital -2.144 0.970 -2.21 0.029 Sex 0.792 0.442 1.79 0.076

F=0.0004 R-square=0.2405 Adj R-squared=0.1597 MSE=2.4528 Table 12. A Person's Religion Attendance, Education, and Other Variables.

F=2.84 R-square=0.2581 Adj R-squared=0.1674 MSE=2.4416 Table 13. A Person's Religious Attendance, Occupation, and Other Variables

Table 13 shows the variables that have a significant effect on one's religious attendance. However, this time we replaced education variable with occupation variable to see whether one's occupation would have a significant effect on his or her religious attendance. In this estimation, I find that a more prestigious occupation has a negative effect on one's religious attendance, but this effect is not significant with a p-value of 0.320. There are only two other

Attend Coefficient Standard Error t P>|t| Occupation -0.022 0.022 -1.00 0.320 Age 0.016 0.020 0.80 0.428 No. of Child 0.455 0.154 2.96 0.004 Income -0.000 0.000 -2.11 0.037 Denomination 0.018 0.010 1.82 0.070 Divorce 0.265 0.494 0.54 0.592 Ethnic -0.001 0.108 -0.11 0.913 Happy -0.652 0.343 -1.90 0.060 Life -0.533 0.372 -1.43 0.154 Race 0.701 0.396 1.77 0.079 Household Type -0.035 0.047 -0.74 0.461 Hispanic 0.344 0.224 1.53 0.128 Marital -1.974 0.970 -2.03 0.044 Sex 0.577 0.455 1.27 0.206

Religion remains an important aspect of life in the U.S. Yet very little is known about the impact religious participation has on economic outcomes. I have attempted to remedy this shortcoming by studying the relationship between education and religious variables and study the relationship between social factors and religion using the GSS data.

Within the U.S., education decreases religious attendance at an individual level. This does not seem unusual to us because religious attendance is a major form of social interaction and education raises every other measurable form of social connection. We do not fully understand why education has this impact on social connection, but it seems to be the best explanation of the negative connection between education and religion. At the same time, there is a strong negative connection between attendance and education across religious groups within the U.S. and elsewhere. This can be explained by the fact that education is negatively connected religious belief and there is strong sorting across denominations on the basis of beliefs. We think that the negative correlation between beliefs and education occurs because education teaches a secular belief system, which conflicts with religious ideology.

This research attempts to achieve two purposes by linking religion and education. First, the study analyzes the one-to-one relationship between education and several religious activities and obtained significant results between education and some of the religious variables.

Second, it applied the human capital models based on social factors by analyzing a framework in which social factors, such as education, occupation, income, marital status, etc. affect children's education, a la Coleman. Based on sociologists' research as well as the existing economic literature, I analyzed the effects of income, marital status, education, and other social factors on people's religious activities.

In other words, religion has a value of investment as well as a value of consumption. It suggests that there is a close relationship between an individual's education attainment and the level of her religious participation. Further, this study reaches the conclusion that education is significantly related with various religious factors proving that human capital and religious activities are strongly associated. This result helps to explain why seemingly unproductive religions can be everlasting. Sometimes, it is observed that the higher one's education attainment, the fewer religious activities he or she would attend, less fundamentalist he or she will be, and more liberal he or she will be. However, for Jewish people, it has somehow a reverse trend, the educated the Jew, he or she will be more active religiously. Also, as the degree rises, the number of nonbelievers will also increase.

In addition, conform with the finding of the first part, the regression analysis in the second part also shows that education has a significant negative effect on religious attendance,

Religious Participation and Educational Attainment: An Empirical Investigation 337

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In future research, the empirical analysis could be extended in several ways. For example, for simplicity, besides using the cross-tab methods, and the ordinary least square regression, the ordinal regression analysis could be applied to check the robustness of the results. Based on further theoretical development, other variables could affect church activities; as a result, we could include other variables such as the parents' religious belief, the region of the country, the density of the churches, etc. into the model. Secondly, there might be two way interactions between attending church and education, it might be useful to conduct a test of endoegeneity between the two variables: if there is the endogeneity issue, an instrument may be applied to solve for the problem. Thirdly, I only used church attendance as the independent variable in the regression model: besides church attendances, there are many religious variables such as number of days one prays, how strong one considers him to be a fundamentalist, or how strong one believes in God. It would be interesting to compare the results from using church attendance and other religious variables. If the independent variables are categorical variables, again, the ordinal regression could be applied for the analysis.

#### **7. References**


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**Trends** 


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**Trends** 

**18** 

Eran Shor

*Canada* 

*McGill University,* 

**Symbiosis and Exploitation in Sports-Media** 

**Tel-Aviv Basketball Club and the Public Channel** 

Studies of organizational interdependence distinguish between two contrasting phenomena: symbiosis and exploitation. These are often discussed separately, as if they were isolated patterns. Such dichotomy is clearly evident in the sports field, where scholars often emphasize either cooperation and symbiosis or competition and exploitation when studying the relationships of sports organizations with their environment. I argue here that this binary misses the delicate intricacy of organizational interdependencies. While most organizational relations exhibit forms of symbiosis and exploitation, these are not exclusive patterns. Rather, symbiotic cooperation and opportunistic exploitation exist side by side in organizational alliances. Furthermore, these are dynamic patterns, sensitive to changes in the organization's environmental context. This proposition is demonstrated through a case study of the long-lasting alliance between Maccabi Tel-Aviv basketball club and the Israeli Public Channel. This alliance has been characterized by ongoing cooperation and symbiotic rent, but also by altering exploitive behaviors. At different times both organizations used

their structural advantages to attain exploitive rents at the expense of the other side.

The literature on organizational interdependence has a long tradition, going back to the early 1950s (e.g. Hawley 1950; Katz & Kahn 1966; Aiken & Hage 1968; Pfeffer 1972; Hannan & Freeman 1988; Gulati & Singh 1998). Scholars of organizational relations often distinguish between two prominent and contrasting phenomena: Symbiosis (e.g. Pfeffer & Nowak 1976; Hannan & Freeman 1977; Deutsch 1980; Koka & Prescott 2000) and exploitation (e.g. Burt 1992; Larson et al. 1998; Sorenson 2000; Das et al. 2003). Dyadic symbiotic interdependence occurs when two individuals or organizations cooperate in order to achieve desired goals. This symbiosis leads to what Marshall (1949 [1920]) had termed *composite rent*—the gains resulting from cooperation in excess to the returns in a non-cooperative situation. In exploitive relations actors take advantage of their structural social position to maximize returns at the expense of another party. I will refer to such gains here as *exploitive rent*.

The current paper wishes to break a common dichotomy in organizational literature between cooperation and exploitation. Building on the ideas of Barnett and Carroll (1987) I argue that these two practices are rarely (if ever) exclusive. Rather, they tend to exist side by side in organizational interrelations. Cooperation, trust, and the perception of mutual gains

**1. Introduction** 

**Interrelations: The Israeli Case of Maccabi** 
