**6. Conclusions**

In awareness of the fact that short statements are somewhat simplifying, we will now attempt to formulate several conclusions arising out of state-of-art knowledge about the effects of education systems on the reproduction of education inequalities.


<sup>27</sup> Lucas's (2001) theory of effectively maintained inequality should be mentioned here. According to the theory, elites will always find a way of offering better educational tracks to their children. If no *quantitative* advantages are available (i.e., higher educational attainment such as tertiary education in a society where most people attain lower levels) then they are bound to assert *qualitative* advantages, i.e., place their children in schools of higher quality and prestige that receive better ratings and offer better educational and professional career prospects.

Allmendinger, J. (1989). Educational Systems and Labor Market Outcomes. *European Sociological Review*, Vol. 5, No. 3, (Dec 1989), pp. (231-250), ISSN 0266-7215 Archer, M. (1979). *Social origins of educational systems*, Sage, ISBN 0803998767, Beverly Hills,

Arum, R., & Shavit, Y. (1995). Secondary Vocational Education and the Transition from

Attewell, P. (2001). The winner-take-all high school: Organizational adaptations to

Benavot, A. (1983). The Rise and Decline of Vocational Education. *Sociology of Education,* Vol.

Betts, J.R., & Shkolnik, J.L. (2000a). The Effects of Ability Grouping on Student Math

Betts, J.R., & Shkolnik, J.L. (2000b). Key Difficulties in Identifying the Effects of Ability

Bishop, J. (1989). Occupational Training in High School: When Does It Pay Off? *Economics of Education Review,* Vol. 8, No. 1, (Feb 1989), pp. (1-15), ISSN 0272-7757 Blossfeld, H.-P. (1992). Is the German dual system a model for a modern vocational training

Bourdieu, P. (2004). The Forms of Capital, In: *The Routledge Falmer Reader in Sociology of Education*, S. Ball, pp. (15-29), Routledge, ISBN 0415327768, London and New York Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J.-C. (1977). *Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture*, SAGE,

Brint, S. (1998). *Schools and Societies*, Pine Forge Press, ISBN 0803990596, Thousand Oaks, CA Caughlan, S., & Kelly, S. (2004). Bridging methodological gaps: Instructional and

Davidson, H. (2009). Ability Grouping, In: *Psychology of Classroom Learning: An Encyclopedia,* 

Dietrich, D. (2008). Tracking, In: *International Encyclopedia Of The Social Sciences*, W. A. Darity, pp. (409-411), Macmillan Reference USA, ISBN 0028659678, Detroit, MI Eckert, P. (1989). *Jocks and burnouts: Social categories and identity in the high school,* Teachers

Ellison, B.J. (2008). Tracking, In: *Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society*, R.T. Schaefer, pp. (1316-1318), Sage Reference Publication, ISBN 978-0-02-866167-4, London

*English*, Vol. 39, No. 1, (Aug 2004), pp. (20–62), ISSN 0034-527X

institutional effects of tracking in two English classes. *Research in the Teaching of* 

E.M. Anderman & L.H. Anderman, pp. (1-4), Macmillan Reference USA, ISBN

56, No. 2, (Apr 1983), pp. (63-76), ISSN 0038-0407

(Feb 2000), pp. (21-26), ISSN 0272-7757

*Review*, Vol. 19, No. 1, (Feb 2000), pp. (1-15), ISSN 0272-7757

1987), pp. (56–80), ISSN 0195-6744

CA

0038-0407

New York.

ISBN 0803999941, London

0028661680, Detroit, MI

College Press, ISBN 0807729639, New York

295), ISSN 0038-0407

Two Cohorts a Decade Apart. *American Journal of Education*, Vol. 96, No. 1, (Nov

School to Work. *Sociology of Education,*Vol. 68, No. 3, (Jul 1995), pp. (187-204), ISSN

educational stratification. *Sociology of Education*, Vol. 74, No. 4, (Oct 2001), pp. (267–

Achievement and Resource Allocation in Secondary Schools. *Economics of Education* 

Grouping on Student Achievement. *Economics of Education Review*, Vol. 19, No. 1,

system? A cross-national comparison of how different systems of vocational training deal with the changing occupational structure. *International Journal of Comparative Sociology,* Vol. 33, No. 3-4, (Jan 1992), pp. (168-181), ISSN 0020-7152 Boudon, R. (1974). *Education, opportunity and social inequality*, John Wiley, ISBN 0471091057,

should be well acquainted with the opinions and strategies of key actors because they can be expected to block and circumvent any reforms in this area. In some cases, their resistance may be caused by insufficient information but more often it arises out of the personal stakes in the status quo.


### **7. References**


<sup>28</sup> There are also exceptions, for example, Tom Loveless (1999b), former professor at Harvard University and now director of the Brown Center on Education Policy. But they are really exceptions. 29 See review by Betts & Shkolnik (2000b).

3. While many mechanisms of inequality reproduction are apparent and well-known (for example, the sorting of students between various types of schools), the severity and extent of inequality reproduction are usually obscured. On the other hand, empirical evidence is sometimes ambiguous and even researchers may differ in their opinions about the extent and quality of education inequalities. Yet, surprising academic achievement often occurs, showing that the problem's roots are deeper than it seems to most laypersons. Characteristically, an overwhelming majority of people pursuing a deep and long-term interest in the issue of education inequalities believe that the issue is very important and calls for solutions28. There is less agreement on the ways the issue

4. We have varying degrees of knowledge about the mechanisms of inequality reproduction. In some areas (such as differentiation effects at the school and class levels), an immense amount of information has been gathered, while we know very little and necessitate additional information in others (the effects of education system standardization on inequality level and relevant mechanisms). Nevertheless, we will never know everything with absolute certainty. While one should always proceed upon careful consideration and with maximum possible knowledge of data, one cannot wait for "definitive answers and conclusions", as often advised by reform opponents. The research on differentiation effects exemplifies the fact that while more research enables more robust conclusions, it also provokes even more research that contradicts it and

5. There are many methodological issues, not only with respect to the determination of differentiation effects29 but also with respect to the mechanisms of education inequalities in general. There are many different factors and many different levels of the problem, and therefore, research results strongly depend on the methods chosen. There are no simple and universal conclusions (e.g., standardization decreases education inequalities). Instead, conclusions strongly depend on the ways key variables are operationalized and measured and on the set of contextual variables we are able to introduce in our model. Thus, we cannot avoid methodology and theory issues when thinking about the possible measures to reduce education inequalities. Theory,

methodology, empirical evidence and practical implications are all interrelated.

Alexander, K.L., Cook, M. & McDill, E.L. (1978). Curriculum Tracking and Educational

Alexander, K.L., Holupa, S., & Pallas, A.M. (1987). Social Background and Academic

28 There are also exceptions, for example, Tom Loveless (1999b), former professor at Harvard University

and now director of the Brown Center on Education Policy. But they are really exceptions.

Stratification: Some Further Evidence. *American Sociological Review*, Vol. 43, No. 1,

Determinants of Two-Year Versus Four-Year College Attendance: Evidence from

personal stakes in the status quo.

supplies arguments to opponents of change.

(Feb 1978), pp. (47-66), ISSN 0003-1224

29 See review by Betts & Shkolnik (2000b).

should be addressed.

**7. References** 

should be well acquainted with the opinions and strategies of key actors because they can be expected to block and circumvent any reforms in this area. In some cases, their resistance may be caused by insufficient information but more often it arises out of the Two Cohorts a Decade Apart. *American Journal of Education*, Vol. 96, No. 1, (Nov 1987), pp. (56–80), ISSN 0195-6744


Hallinan, M.T. (1994). Tracking: From theory to practice--Comment/reply. *Sociology of* 

Hamilton, S.F. (1990). *Apprenticeship for adulthood: Preparing youth for the future*, The Free

Hargreaves, D.H. (1967). *Social relations in a secondary school*, Routledge and Kegan Paul,

Hattie, J.A. (1993). Measuring the effects of schooling. *SET: research information for teachers*,

Hattie, J.A. (2003). Teachers make a difference: What is the research evidence? *Proceedings of* 

Herrnstein, R.J. (1973). *IQ in the Meritocracy,* Little, Brown & Co., ISBN 0316358649, Boston Herrnstein, R.J., & Murray, C. (1994). *The Bell Curve : Intelligence and class structure in* 

Hilmert, S., & Jacob, M. (2003). Social Inequality in Higher Education: Is Vocational Training

Hoffer, T.B. (1992). Middle school ability grouping and student achievement in science and

Ireson, J. & Hallam, S. (1999). Raising standards: is ability grouping the answer? *Oxford Review of Education*, 1999, Vol. 25, No. 3, (Sep 1999), pp. (343-358), ISSN 0305-4985 Jacoby, R., and N. Glauberman. (Ed.) (1995). *The bell curve debate: History, documents, opinions*.

Jones, J. D., Vanfossen, B. E., & Ensminger, M. E. (1995). Individual and organizational

Kelly, S. (2007). The contours of tracking in North Carolina. *The High School Journal*, Vol. 90,

Kelly, S. (2008). Tracking, In: *Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology,* N. J. Salkind, pp. (983-

Kelly, S., & Covay, E. (2008). Curriculum tracking: Reviewing the Evidence on a

pp. (401-409), Sage Publications, ISBN 9781412950114, Thousand Oaks, CA Kerckhoff, A.C. (1976). Status Attainment Process - Socialization or Allocation. *Social Forces*,

Kerckhoff, A.C. (1986). Effects of ability grouping in British secondary schools. *American Sociological Review*, Vol. 51, No. 6, (Dec 1986), pp. (842–858), ISSN 0003-1224 Kerckhoff, A.C. (2000). Transition from school to work in comparative perspective, In:

Academic/Plenum Publishers, ISBN 0-306-46238-9, New York/Boston Kerckhoff, A.C. (2001). Education and Social Stratification Processes in Comparative. Perspective. *Sociology of Education,* Vol. 74 (Extra Issue), pp. (3–18), ISSN 0038-0407

Jensen, A.R. (1972). *Genetics and Education,* Methuen, ISBN 0416602703, London

No. 4, (Apr-May 2007), pp. (15–31), ISSN 0018-1498

Vol. 55, No. 2, (Dec 1976), pp. (368-381), ISSN 0037-7732

988), Sage, ISBN 1412916887, Thousand Oaks

*the Australian Council for Educational Research Annual Conference on Building Teacher* 

a Pathway Leading to or away from University? *European Sociological Review*, Vol.

mathematics. *Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis*, Vol. 14, No. 3, (Fall 1992),

predictors of high school track placement. *Sociology of Education*, Vol. 68, No. 4, (Oct

controversial but resilient educational policy, In: *21st Century Education,* T. Good,

*Handbook of the Sociology of Education*, M. T. Hallinan, pp. (543–574), Kluwer

*Education*, Vol. 67, No. 2, (Apr 1994), pp. (79), ISSN 00380407

*American Life,* Free Press, ISBN 0029146739, New York

19, No. 3, (Jul 2003), pp. (319-34), ISSN 0266-7215

Press, ISBN 0029137055, New York

Vol. 2, (1993), pp. (1-4), ISSN 0725-4873

ISBN 0710068689, London

*Quality*, Melbourne, Oct 2003

pp. (205–227), ISSN 0162-3737

New York: Random House.

1995), pp. (287–300), ISSN 0142-5692


Estevez-Abe, M., Iversen, T., & Soskice, D. (2001). Social Protection and the Formation of

Fraser, S. Ed. (1995). *The bell curve wars: Race, intelligence, and the future of America*. New York:

Gambetta, D. (1987). *Were They Pushed or Did They Jump? Individual Decision Mechanisms in Education*, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521324904, Cambridge Gamoran, A. (1987). The stratification of high school learning opportunities. *Sociology of* 

Gamoran, A. (1989). Rank, performance, and mobility in elementary school grouping. *Sociological Quarterly*, Vol. 30, No. 1, (Spring 1989), pp. (109–123), ISSN 0038-0253 Gamoran, A. (1992a). Is ability grouping equitable? *Educational Leadership*, Vol. 50, No. 2,

Gamoran, A. (1992b). The variable effects of high school tracking. *American Sociological* 

Gamoran, A. (1993). Alternative uses of ability grouping in secondary schools: Can we bring

Gamoran, A., & Berends, M. (1987). The effects of stratification in secondary schools. *Review of Educational Research*, Vol. 57, No. 4, (Winter 1987), pp. (415-435), ISSN 0034-6543 Gamoran, A., & Mare, R. (1989). Secondary School Tracking and Educational Inequality:

Gamoran, A., Nystrand, M., Berends, M., & Lepore, P.C. (1995). An Organizational Analysis

Gardner, H. (1983). *Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences*, Basic Books, ISBN

Green, A. (1997). Educational Achievement in Centralized and Decentralized Systems, In:

Greger, D. (2004). Koncept spravedlivosti a diferenciace žáků. [The equity concept and

Hallam, S., Ireson, J., Lister,V., Chaudhury, I.A. & Davies, J. (2003). Ability Grouping

Hallinan, M. (1992). The organization of students for instruction in the middle school. *Sociology of Education*, Vol. 65, No. 2, (Apr 1992), pp. (114–127), ISSN 00380407 Hallinan, M. (1996). Track mobility in secondary schools. *Social Forces,* Vol. 74, No. 3, pp.

Hallinan, M.T. (1990). The Effects of Ability Grouping in Secondary Schools: A Response to

high-quality instruction to low-ability classes? *American Journal of Education*, Vol.

Compensation, Reinforcement, or Neutrality? *American Journal of Sociology,* Vol. 94,

of the Effects of Ability Grouping. *American Educational Research Journal,* Vol. 32,

*Education, Culture, Economy, Society*, A. H. Halsey et al*.,* pp. (283-298), Oxford

student differentiation], In: *Úloha školy v rozvoji vzdělanosti* [The role of school in expanding education], E. Walterová et al., pp. (362-370), PAIDO, ISBN 80-7315-083-

Practices in the Primary School: a survey. *Educational Studies*, Vol. 29, No. 1, (Mar

Slavin's Best-Evidence Synthesis. *Review of Educational Research*, Vol. 60, No. 3, (Fall

*Education*, Vol. 60, No. 3, (Jun 1987), pp. (135-155), ISSN 0038-0407

*Review*, Vol. 57, No. 6, (Dec 1992), pp. (812-828), ISSN 0003-1224

183), Oxford University Press, ISBN 0199247757, Oxford

(Oct 1992), pp. (11-17), ISSN 0013-1784

102, No. 1, (Nov 1993), pp. (1–22), ISSN 0195-6744

No. 5, (Mar 1989), pp. (1146–83), ISSN 0002-9602

No. 4, (Winter 1995), pp. (687–715), ISSN 00028312

University Press, Oxford, ISBN 0198781873, New York

0465025080, New York

2003), pp. (69-83), ISSN 0305-5698

1990), pp. (501-504), ISSN 0034-6543

(983-1002), ISSN 0037-7732

2, Brno

Basic Books.

Skills: A Reinterpretation of the Welfare State, In: *Varieties of Capitalism. The institutional Foundations of Comparative Advantage,* P. A. Hall & D. Soskice, pp. (145-


OECD. (2004b). *What Makes Schools Systems Perform? Seeing Schools Systems through the Prism* 

OECD. (2007). *No more Failures. Ten Steps to Equity in Education*, OECD, ISBN 978-92-64-

Page, R.N. (1991). *Lower-track classrooms: A curricular and cultural perspective,* Teachers

Pallas, A. M., Entwistle, D., Alexander, K. L., & Stluka, M. F. (1994). Ability-group effects:

Paulsen, R. (1991). Education, social class, and participation in collective action. *Sociology of* 

Pfeffer, F.T. (2008). Persistent Inequality in Educational Attainment and Its Institutional

Riordan, C. (2003). *Equality and Achievement: An Introduction to Sociology of Education* (2nd edition), Pearson/Prentice Hall, ISBN 0130481777, Upper Saddle River, NJ Robinson, C.D., Raineri, G., Wilkinson, S., & Harrison, P.L. (2005). Ability Grouping, In:

Rochester, J. (1998). What's It All About, Alfie? A parent/educator's response to Alfie Kohn. *Phi Delta Kappan*, Vol. 80, No. 2, (Oct 1998), pp. (165-169), ISSN 0031-7217 Roeber, E.D. (1999). Standards Initiatives and American Educational Reform, In: *Handbook of* 

Rosenbaum, J.E. (1976). *Making inequality: the hidden curriculum of high school tracking*, Wiley,

Rosenthal, J.L. (2008). Ability Grouping, In: *Encyclopedia of Social Problems,* V. N. Parrillo,

Schwartz, F. (1981). Supporting or Subverting Learning: Peer Grouped Patterns in Four

Sewell, W.H., Haller, A.O. & Portes, A. (1969). The Educational and Early Occupational

Sewell, W.H. & Shah, V.P. (1967). Socioeconomic Status, Intelligence, and the Attainment of

Shavit, Y., & Blossfeld, H.-P. (1993). *Persistent Inequality: Changing Educational Attainment in* 

Shavit, Y., & Müller, W. (Ed.(s).). (1998). *From school to work a comparative study of educational* 

Shavit, Y. & Müller, W. (2000). Vocational Secondary Education, Tracking, and Social

*Thirteen Countries*, Westview Press, ISBN 0813311217, Boulder, CO

Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, ISBN 0306462389, New York

Sage Publications, ISBN 1412941652, Thousand Oaks, CA

*Education*, Vol. 64, No. 2, (Apr 1991), pp. (96–110), ISSN 0142-5692

Instructional, social, or institutional? *Sociology of Education*, Vol. 67, No. 1, (Jan

Context. *European Sociological Review,* Vol. 4, No. 5, (May 2008), pp. (543-565), ISSN

*Encyclopedia of School Psychology,* S. W. Lee, pp. (1-3), Sage Publications, ISBN

*Educational Policy*, G. J. Cizek, pp. (151-181), Academic Press, ISBN 0121746984, San

Tracked Schools. *Anthropology and Education Quarterly,* Vol. 12, No. 2, (Summer

Attainment Process. *American Sociological Review*, Vol. 34, No. 1, (Feb 1969), pp. (82–

Higher Education. *Sociology of Education*, Vol. 40, No. 1, (Winter 1967), pp. (1–23),

*qualifications and occupational destinations,* Clarendon Press, ISBN ISBN 0-19-829322-

Stratification, In: *Handbook of the Sociology of Education*, M. T. Hallinan, pp. (437-452),

*of PISA*, OECD, Paris

College Press, ISBN 0807730920, New York

1994), pp. (27–46), ISSN 0142-5692

0761930809, Thousand Oaks, CA

ISBN 0471736058, New York.

92), ISSN 0003-1224

ISSN 0038-0407

4, Oxford

1981), pp. (99–121), ISSN 0161-7761

03259-0, Paris

0266-7215

Diego, CA


Kulik, J.A., & Kulik, C.-L.C. (1982). Effects of ability grouping on secondary school students:

Lacey, C. (1966). Some sociological concomitants of academic streaming in a grammar

Loveless, T. (1999a). *The tracking wars: State reform meets school policy*, Brookings Institution,

Loveless, T. (1999b). Will Tracking Reform Promote Social Equity? *Educational Leadership*,

Lucas, S.R. (1999). *Tracking Inequality. Stratification and Mobility in American High Schools*.

Lucas, S.R. (2001). Effectively Maintained Inequality: Education Transitions, Track Mobility,

Lucas, S.R. (2008). School Tracking, In: *Encyclopedia of the Life Course and Human Development*,

Manlove, J., & Baker, D. (1995). Local constraints and opportunity to learn, In: *Restructuring* 

Mortimer, J. T., & Krüger, H. (2000). Pathways from School to Work in Germany and the

497), Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, ISBN 0306462389, New York Müller, W., & Shavit, Y. (1998). The Institutional Embeddedness of the Stratification Process:

Nystrand, M., & Gamoran, A. (1997). The big picture: Language and learning in hundreds of

Oakes, J. (1992). Can tracking research inform practice? Technical, normative, and political

Oakes, J. (1997). Ability Grouping and Tracking in Schools, In: *International Encyclopedia of* 

Oakes, J. (2005). *Keeping track: How schools structure inequality* (2nd edition). Yale University

OECD. (1998). *Pathways and participation in vocational and technical education and training*,

OECD. (2004a). *Learning for tomorrow's world: First results from PISA* 2003, OECD, ISBN 92-

and Social Background Effects. *American Journal of Sociology*, Vol. 106, No. 6, (May

D. Carr, pp. (405-411), Macmillan Reference USA, ISBN 978-0028661629,

*schools: Promising Practices and Policy,* M. Hallinan, pp. (133-153), Plenum, ISBN

United States, In: *Handbook of the Sociology of Education,* M. T. Hallinan, pp. (475-

A Comparative Study of Qualifications and Occupations in Thirteen Countries, In: *From School to Work: A Comparative Study of Educational Qualifications and Occupational Destinations,* Y. Shavit, W. Müller & C. Tame, pp. (1–48), Oxford

English lessons, In: *Opening dialogue: understanding the dynamics of language and learning in the English classroom,* M. Nystrand, pp. (30–74), Teachers College Press,

considerations. *Educational Researcher*, Vol. 21, No. 4, (May 1992), pp. (12–21), ISSN

*the Sociology of Education*, L. J. Saha, pp. (395–401), Pergamon Press, ISBN

1999b, Vol. 56, No. 7, (Apr 1999), pp. (28-32), ISSN 0013-1784

Teachers College Press, ISBN 0807737984, New York.

19, No. 3, (Fall 1982), pp. (415- 428), ISSN 0002-8312

ISBN 0815753063, Washington, DC

2001), pp. (1642–1690), ISSN 0002-9602

University Press, ISBN 0198293224, Oxford

Press, ISBN 0300108303, New Haven, CT

OECD, ISBN 9789264153684, Paris

ISBN 0807735736, New York

0013-189X

0080429904, Oxford

64-00724-5, Paris

Farmington Hills, MI

0306450348, New York

0007-1315

A meta-analysis of evaluation findings. *American Educational Research Journal*, Vol.

school. *British Journal of Sociology*, Vol. 17, No. 3, (Sep 1966), pp. (245–262), ISSN


**13** 

*Italy* 

Simone Ghezzi

*Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca,* 

**Small-Scale Entrepreneurship in Modern Italy – An Ethnographic** 

**Analysis of Social Embeddedness in the Access to Capital and Credit** 

Nowadays probably no social scientist would deny that the entrepreneur is a central figure in economics and plays a pivotal role in economic development. Yet, with some remarkable exceptions (such as Schumpeter) for a long time the study of entrepreneurship has been neglected in mainstream economics, as well as in sociology. Both in the history of sociology and economics the entrepreneur has been "a shadowy and elusive figure" (Cole, 1968, p.60), less studied than more impersonal structures, i.e. markets and firms. This absence is not difficult to explain. There has been little room for the entrepreneur in the abstract theory of the neoclassical model of the firm (Baumol, 1968, 1993); and, in contemporary sociology no serious attention has been devoted to considering the sociological relevance of this role beyond the influential insight of Weber. Economic anthropology has sporadically dealt with entrepreneurship, as post-war interest in development (Stewart, 1991), but has tended to focus on non Western or mainly rural societies (Barth,1963, 1967a,1967b; Belshaw, 1965; Geertz, 1963; Strathern, 1972; Greenfield et al.,1979). There have mainly been three ways in which anthropologists have shown interest in the study of entrepreneurship. Firstly, they have assessed the function of enterprise in the economies of small scale social groups or peasant societies. Consequently, they have studied entrepreneurs as individuals involved in the process of social and cultural change in their own social setting. What linked those two approaches was the implication that change would occur out of the expansion and growth of entrepreneurial activity. This made the entrepreneur's role significant from both the point of view of cultural change and that of economic development. Thirdly, anthropologists have begun to turn their interest to former agrarian societies which have been de-ruralized and modernized through processes of industrial decentralization and the development of local

It is only recently that the topic in entrepreneurship has finally gained more constant interest across the social sciences. Its increasing popularity certainly benefited from the hegemonic expansion of neoliberal ideology worldwide (Harvey, 2005). The political–ideological dimensions of neoliberalism have more emphatically endorsed entrepreneurialism and a risk taking attitude to cope with the global restructuring of the capitalist economy, the dismantling of the welfare state and the downsizing of the workforce. The "re-discovery" of the

**1. Introduction** 

petty commodity production.

