**3. Lycopene**

292 Cancer Prevention – From Mechanisms to Translational Benefits

a. Downregulated by genistein b. Inhibited by lycopene in

a. (Cao et al., 2006; Guo et al., 2007; Li & Sarkar, 2002) b. (Yang, 2011)

c. (Ganapathy et al., 2010) d. (Shankar et al., 2007)

a. (Swami et al., 2009)

a. (Gamble et al., 2006) c. (Brizuela, 2010)

DeLuca et al., 2005)

et al., 2005)

Bergan, 2006)

a. (Fang et al., 2007; Skogseth

a. (Gamble et al., 2006; Huang et al., 2005; Kumi-Diaka, 2006; Li & Sarkar, 2002 ; Xu &

c. (Ganapathy et al., 2010) d. (Hong et al., 2006)

a. (Jarred et al., 2002) b. (Forbes et al., 2003)

a. (Booth et al., 2006; Cao et al., 2006; Kuiper et al., 1998; Pike et al., 1999; Wang et al., 2006 ) d. (Shenouda, et al., 2004)

c. Suppressed by resveratrol d. Inhibited by curcumin in

a. Antagonist and partial agonist by genistein; expression reduced by

d. Estradiol binding inhibited by > 85% in PC-3 cells

a. Inhibited by phenoxodiol in

genistein a. (Kyle et al., 1997)

c. Inhibited by resveratrol

methyltransferase activity by

a. MMP2 and 9 downregulated

TNOX a. Inhibited by phenoxodiol a. (Davies & Bozzo, 2006;

a. Reversal of DNA

by genistein; MMP2 expression inhibited by

a. Inhibited by genistein b. Lycopene upregulates UPA

Table 2. Selected molecular targets of phytochemicals in prostate cancer cells: (a), (b), (c), (d) refer to isoflavone, lycopene, resveratrol, and curcumin related literature, respectively. While many of these targets have been shown to be relevant in other cancer cell lines, here

pharmacokinetic study (Fischer et al., 2004), though serum dehydroepiandrosterone was reduced by 31.7% (P = 0.0004) at the end of the study, and estrogenic side effects were encountered. Biologically relevant concentrations of genistein, commensurate with *in vitro*  activity, can be achieved with high doses of genistein - enriched isoflavone extracts (Takimoto et al., 2003). Peak plasma concentrations reached between 4.3 and 16.3uM at

doses up to 8mg/kg orally (equivalent to 560mg for a 70kg person) in this study.

genistein

phenoxodiol c. MMP3 and MMP9 suppressed by resveratrol d. Curcumin inhibited expression of MMP2 and

MMP9

receptor

we have focused on publications on prostate cancer cell lines.

a. mRNA and protein expression reduced by genistein in LNCaP and PC3

endothelial cells

Focal adhesion kinase a. Activity reduced by

xenografts

genistein

LNCaP xenografts

VEGF

ERβ

COX-2

Sphingosine Kinase

Hypermethylation

Urokinase plasminogen

MMP

activator

Once water is reduced, the lycopene content of tomato products surpasses all other foods, weight for weight. Although lycopene melts at 172-173 degrees Celsius (Zapalis & Beck, 1985), processing and cooking improves availability of tomato-sourced lycopene. Being fat soluble, tomato sources of lycopene are best absorbed when cooked or consumed with a fat, such as with olive oil in Mediterranean cooking (Itsiopoulos et al., 2009). As lycopene synthesis correlates with tomato ripening, it is older, vine ripened-in-the sun tomatoes that offer the highest lycopene content (Ronen et al., 1999). Other sources of lycopene, in descending order of content are: guava, watermelon, pink grapefruit (Mangels et al., 1993), apricots (Curl, 1960) and rosehips (Böhm et al., 2003).
