**5. Viability of probiotics in food products during delivery through gastrointestinal tract**

The gastrointestinal tract (GIT) with its diverse and concentrated microbial population (at birth 1014 cfu g-1 and between 400 and 500 species) is one of the key organs of the human body, and it is in fact an ecosystem of highest complexity that mediates numerous interactions with the chemical (and nutritional) environment. The gastrointestinal tract starts in mouth, travels through the stomach, intestines and ends at the anus. In each section of the gastrointestinal tract, different types and quantities of microbes are found. The average adult carries about four pounds of microbes in their intestinal tract (Tannis, 2008). Nonetheless, diversity at a division level is among the lowest (Bäckhead et al., 2005) and the lactobacilli and bifidobacteria comprise less than 5% of the total microbiota (Lay et al., 2005; Lee and Salminen, 2009).

Probiotics targeting the intestine clearly encounter the greatest hurdles in order to be delivered to their targeted site. The main factors to be considered that influence the viability

Delivery of Probiotic Microorganisms into Gastrointestinal Tract by Food Products 135

(cholic and deoxycholic) toward intestinal aerobic and anaerobic bacteria (Rivera-Espinoza and Gallardo-Navarro, 2010). The results of viability obtained are strain dependent and, in general, bifidobacteria strains are less tolerant to acidic conditions than lactobacilli, whereas the first seems to be more tolerant to bile challenge (Lee and Salminen, 2009). The recovered strains were intrinsically resistant to acid gastric conditions (pH 2.0) and also showed good tolerance to high concentrations of bile salts and NaCl. This cross-resistance between low pH and bile salts was previously described in bile-adapted strains (Noriega et al 2004). It is known that exposure to one stress can induce a response that protects cells against multiple stresses (Duwat et al 2000). As the stress response is already induced at that stage, it may be capable of surviving the bile in the duodenum. This is pertinent as many candidate isolates may be overlooked if they do not display direct resistance to bile, when in reality the ability

The development of intestinal microbiota is of major importance for the health of newborns. Especially lysozyme present in human milk may affect colonization of newborn intestinal tract by specific bifidobacterial strains. Lysozyme is an antimicrobial enzyme (EC 3.2.1.17) found in tears, saliva, human milk, mucus, neutrophil granules and egg white (Field, 2005). It hydrolyses the *ß*-(1,4) linkage between N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid in bacterial cell wall and Gram-positive bacteria are more susceptible to lysozyme than Gramnegative bacteria. The effect of saliva on the intestinal survival of probiotic bacteria is insufficiently studied. The resistance to lysozyme at 25–35 mg L-1 was recommended as a criterion for the selection of a lactic acid bacterial strain suitable for use in milk industry (Guglielmonti et al., 2007). The resistance to lysozyme at 25–35 mg L-1 was recommended as a criterion for the selection of a lactic acid bacterial strain suitable for use in milk industry (Guglielmonti et al., 2007). According to findings, the tolerance of probiotics to lysozyme is strain-dependent (Rada et al., 2010). Bifidobacteria naturally occur within the whole intestinal tract from oral cavity to large intestine. Lysozyme is naturally present in saliva and other biological fluids (tear fluid). Hence, the interaction of inhabitant bifidobacteria or bifidobacteria-containing food products and lysozyme is inevitably occurred. The salivary lysozyme may also interact with other probiotic bacteria and can vary from 17 to 181 µg mL-1 (Koh et al., 2004). Some bifidobacteria seems to be also completely lysozyme-resistant (Rada et al., 2010). Therefore, being resistance to lysozyme is a criterion for the selection of new probiotic bifidobacterial strains. Figure 3 represents main factors affecting viability of

Probiotic functional foods, one of the largest markets of functional foods, represent a huge growth potential for the food industry and may be explored through the development of innovative ingredients, processes, and products. Therefore, the process of producing and manufacturing probiotic functional foods should have standardized protocols and quality control procedures. Safety and functional efficiency of the probiotic food products in the body and technological characteristics (viability, sensory properties, economic aspects and physicochemical and rheological characteristics) has been under special attention in recent years and many achievements in mentioned aspects have been attained. To provide health benefits related to probiotic organisms, maintaining viable counts of each probiotic strain in gram or milliliter of probiotic products above a minimum standard level (e.g., 106 cfu mL-1)

to induce sufficient tolerance is all that is required (O'Sullivan, 2006).

probiotics during transition through the GIT.

**6. Conclusion** 

of food-containing probiotics in GIT conditions are: 1) Food matrix, 2) very low pH in the stomach, 3) bile salts and gastro-enzymes in the small intestine, 4) Lysozyme in saliva, and 5) colonic environments (competitions with other microorganisms including pathogens).

The effect of food matrix on the intestinal survival of probiotic bacteria is insufficiently studied. Rochet et al. (2008) did not see any difference in the faecal level of B. animalis strain, when 6×1010– 2×1011 cfu g-1 were administered in fermented milk or in freeze-dried form, but the food matrix improved significantly the survival of *L. plantarum* MF1298 (Klingberg and Budde, 2006) and *L*. *rhamnosus* GG (Saxelin et al., 1993), when lower doses (6×109 cfu and 1–2×109 cfu, respectively) were used (Saxelin et al., 2010). Fresh dairy products are the most common product forms of probiotic delivery, but ripened cheeses have also been successfully tested as a carrier matrix. Data from Saxelin et al. (2003) showed an increased recovery of *L. rhamnosus* in human stools resulting from the following delivery matrices: powder<juice or fermented milk<unfermented milk<cheese. The appropriate protecting effect of cheese matrix toward probitic cells can be attributed to its dense matrix, high buffering capacity and relatively high fat content (Gardiner et al., 1999; Karimi et al., 2011). The buffering ability of the food matrix is arguably a critical factor. But the presence of a fermentable carbohydrate also improves a culture's ability to survive a simulated gastric environment (Corcoran et al., 2005). In this regard, the carbohydrate provides the cell with the ability to produce ATP, which is required for pumping out acid from the cytoplasm. Not surprisingly, the fibre/carbohydrate content of the food matrix strongly affects the stability of probiotic bacteria during storage in a fruit juice (Saarela et al., 2006; Farnworth and Champagne, 2010).

Among the hurdles and stressful conditions against safe transition of probiotic cells to the intestine, harsh acid conditions in stomach and the bile substances in the duodenum (The first part of the small intestine) are the most important (Lee and Salminen, 2009). The first barrier that bacteria must overcome is the very low pH values of the stomach with values ranging from 1 to 3 and mean exposure times of 90 min. Into the duodenum the pH value rises to 6–6.5, but bile salts are poured from the gallbladder to reach concentrations ranging from 1.5 to 2% during the first hour of digestion and decreasing afterwards to 0.3% w/v or lower (Noriega et al., 2004). The residence period in the small intestine until 50% emptying oscillate between 2.5 and 3 h and the transit through the colon could take up to 40 h (Camilleri et al., 1989). Even when product formulation procedures that ensure viability during production and storage have been used as described above, the live bacteria must survive transit of the upper GIT. Ethics, cost, and complexity of tests prevent the testing of foods containing probiotics using human feeding trials. *In vitro* tests, using models of the GIT, can be used to provide data about the ability of bacteria to survive the harsh conditions of the upper GIT. Several pH values and bile concentrations are tested for variable times in order to determine the survival of the strain(s) under test. Many studies that have used testtube experiments to simulate the acidic conditions in the stomach, and exposure to bile salts and digestive enzymes that occur in the small intestine have been reported (Boza et al., 2004; Horaczek and Viernstein, 2004; Farnworth and Champagne, 2010; Pascual et al., 1999). De Smet et al., (1995) indicated that a concentration of 0.3% bile salts is critical for the screening of human probiotics, and this ability was associated to the presence of bile salt hydrolase activity. Nevertheless, Schmidt et al., (2001) showed that at least in lactobacilli, bile salt resistance could not be correlated to the presence of this enzyme. The study performed by Floch et al. (1972) indicated that conjugated bile acids are less inhibitory than free bile acids (cholic and deoxycholic) toward intestinal aerobic and anaerobic bacteria (Rivera-Espinoza and Gallardo-Navarro, 2010). The results of viability obtained are strain dependent and, in general, bifidobacteria strains are less tolerant to acidic conditions than lactobacilli, whereas the first seems to be more tolerant to bile challenge (Lee and Salminen, 2009). The recovered strains were intrinsically resistant to acid gastric conditions (pH 2.0) and also showed good tolerance to high concentrations of bile salts and NaCl. This cross-resistance between low pH and bile salts was previously described in bile-adapted strains (Noriega et al 2004). It is known that exposure to one stress can induce a response that protects cells against multiple stresses (Duwat et al 2000). As the stress response is already induced at that stage, it may be capable of surviving the bile in the duodenum. This is pertinent as many candidate isolates may be overlooked if they do not display direct resistance to bile, when in reality the ability to induce sufficient tolerance is all that is required (O'Sullivan, 2006).

The development of intestinal microbiota is of major importance for the health of newborns. Especially lysozyme present in human milk may affect colonization of newborn intestinal tract by specific bifidobacterial strains. Lysozyme is an antimicrobial enzyme (EC 3.2.1.17) found in tears, saliva, human milk, mucus, neutrophil granules and egg white (Field, 2005). It hydrolyses the *ß*-(1,4) linkage between N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid in bacterial cell wall and Gram-positive bacteria are more susceptible to lysozyme than Gramnegative bacteria. The effect of saliva on the intestinal survival of probiotic bacteria is insufficiently studied. The resistance to lysozyme at 25–35 mg L-1 was recommended as a criterion for the selection of a lactic acid bacterial strain suitable for use in milk industry (Guglielmonti et al., 2007). The resistance to lysozyme at 25–35 mg L-1 was recommended as a criterion for the selection of a lactic acid bacterial strain suitable for use in milk industry (Guglielmonti et al., 2007). According to findings, the tolerance of probiotics to lysozyme is strain-dependent (Rada et al., 2010). Bifidobacteria naturally occur within the whole intestinal tract from oral cavity to large intestine. Lysozyme is naturally present in saliva and other biological fluids (tear fluid). Hence, the interaction of inhabitant bifidobacteria or bifidobacteria-containing food products and lysozyme is inevitably occurred. The salivary lysozyme may also interact with other probiotic bacteria and can vary from 17 to 181 µg mL-1 (Koh et al., 2004). Some bifidobacteria seems to be also completely lysozyme-resistant (Rada et al., 2010). Therefore, being resistance to lysozyme is a criterion for the selection of new probiotic bifidobacterial strains. Figure 3 represents main factors affecting viability of probiotics during transition through the GIT.

#### **6. Conclusion**

134 New Advances in the Basic and Clinical Gastroenterology

of food-containing probiotics in GIT conditions are: 1) Food matrix, 2) very low pH in the stomach, 3) bile salts and gastro-enzymes in the small intestine, 4) Lysozyme in saliva, and 5) colonic environments (competitions with other microorganisms including pathogens).

The effect of food matrix on the intestinal survival of probiotic bacteria is insufficiently studied. Rochet et al. (2008) did not see any difference in the faecal level of B. animalis strain, when 6×1010– 2×1011 cfu g-1 were administered in fermented milk or in freeze-dried form, but the food matrix improved significantly the survival of *L. plantarum* MF1298 (Klingberg and Budde, 2006) and *L*. *rhamnosus* GG (Saxelin et al., 1993), when lower doses (6×109 cfu and 1–2×109 cfu, respectively) were used (Saxelin et al., 2010). Fresh dairy products are the most common product forms of probiotic delivery, but ripened cheeses have also been successfully tested as a carrier matrix. Data from Saxelin et al. (2003) showed an increased recovery of *L. rhamnosus* in human stools resulting from the following delivery matrices: powder<juice or fermented milk<unfermented milk<cheese. The appropriate protecting effect of cheese matrix toward probitic cells can be attributed to its dense matrix, high buffering capacity and relatively high fat content (Gardiner et al., 1999; Karimi et al., 2011). The buffering ability of the food matrix is arguably a critical factor. But the presence of a fermentable carbohydrate also improves a culture's ability to survive a simulated gastric environment (Corcoran et al., 2005). In this regard, the carbohydrate provides the cell with the ability to produce ATP, which is required for pumping out acid from the cytoplasm. Not surprisingly, the fibre/carbohydrate content of the food matrix strongly affects the stability of probiotic bacteria during storage in a fruit juice (Saarela et al., 2006; Farnworth and

Among the hurdles and stressful conditions against safe transition of probiotic cells to the intestine, harsh acid conditions in stomach and the bile substances in the duodenum (The first part of the small intestine) are the most important (Lee and Salminen, 2009). The first barrier that bacteria must overcome is the very low pH values of the stomach with values ranging from 1 to 3 and mean exposure times of 90 min. Into the duodenum the pH value rises to 6–6.5, but bile salts are poured from the gallbladder to reach concentrations ranging from 1.5 to 2% during the first hour of digestion and decreasing afterwards to 0.3% w/v or lower (Noriega et al., 2004). The residence period in the small intestine until 50% emptying oscillate between 2.5 and 3 h and the transit through the colon could take up to 40 h (Camilleri et al., 1989). Even when product formulation procedures that ensure viability during production and storage have been used as described above, the live bacteria must survive transit of the upper GIT. Ethics, cost, and complexity of tests prevent the testing of foods containing probiotics using human feeding trials. *In vitro* tests, using models of the GIT, can be used to provide data about the ability of bacteria to survive the harsh conditions of the upper GIT. Several pH values and bile concentrations are tested for variable times in order to determine the survival of the strain(s) under test. Many studies that have used testtube experiments to simulate the acidic conditions in the stomach, and exposure to bile salts and digestive enzymes that occur in the small intestine have been reported (Boza et al., 2004; Horaczek and Viernstein, 2004; Farnworth and Champagne, 2010; Pascual et al., 1999). De Smet et al., (1995) indicated that a concentration of 0.3% bile salts is critical for the screening of human probiotics, and this ability was associated to the presence of bile salt hydrolase activity. Nevertheless, Schmidt et al., (2001) showed that at least in lactobacilli, bile salt resistance could not be correlated to the presence of this enzyme. The study performed by Floch et al. (1972) indicated that conjugated bile acids are less inhibitory than free bile acids

Champagne, 2010).

Probiotic functional foods, one of the largest markets of functional foods, represent a huge growth potential for the food industry and may be explored through the development of innovative ingredients, processes, and products. Therefore, the process of producing and manufacturing probiotic functional foods should have standardized protocols and quality control procedures. Safety and functional efficiency of the probiotic food products in the body and technological characteristics (viability, sensory properties, economic aspects and physicochemical and rheological characteristics) has been under special attention in recent years and many achievements in mentioned aspects have been attained. To provide health benefits related to probiotic organisms, maintaining viable counts of each probiotic strain in gram or milliliter of probiotic products above a minimum standard level (e.g., 106 cfu mL-1)

Delivery of Probiotic Microorganisms into Gastrointestinal Tract by Food Products 137

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**Section 2** 

**Pathomechanism and Management of the** 

**Upper Gastrointestinal Tract Disorders** 

