in Table

®

® (*Achillea millefolium*) and Vick

® (*Alternanthera* sp.), which is used as a

available or were less effective than plants present in Diadema (highlighted with

#### **4.2.5 Replacement of use**

494 Pharmacology

\* their popular and scientific names, geographical origin and distribution, if cultivated or spontaneous, uses, parts utilized, formula, route of administration and pharmacological studies. Marked by (□) the 68 plants whose use had been maintained by the respective migrant, while 14, marked by (

Δ) are those whose applications have been incorporated by migrants, finally, 3 (#) are replacements. The matches between the uses

Table 1. The 78 plant specimens used by five Diadema's migrants (MG1, SP1, PE1, PE2, SE1)\* (adapted of Garcia et al., 2010).

proclaimed by the interviewees and pharmacological data have been posted by (\*).

Three plants used by migrants in their cities of origin were replaced because they were not available or were less effective than plants present in Diadema (highlighted with # in Table 1). Most of these replacements were made according to the criteria listed in the previous section. The interviewee MG1 explained that in his homelands, he used "quebra-pedra"\* (*Phyllanthus* cf. *caroliniensis* Walter - Euphorbiaceae) for kidney stone disturbance, but when he arrived in Diadema, he found another plant, "sofre-do-rim-quem-qué" (*Cissus* sp.), that seemed to have a stronger effect.

Another interviewee, PE1, reported that the bark and seeds of "amburana-de-cheiro"\* (*Amburana* cf. *cearensis* (Allemão) A.C. Sm. - Fabaceae s.l.) were widely used for antiinflammatory therapy in Pernambuco state but had to be replaced by "mentruz" (*Chenopodium ambrosioides* L.) because the former was not found in Diadema. In addition, SE1 had to replace "pau-de-sapo"\* (*Pouteria* cf. *melinoniana* Boehni - Sapotaceae), whose leaves were used for chronic wounds, with "carrapicho" (*Acanthospermum australe* (Loefl.) Kuntze). The vernacular names of some plants are registered trademarks of allopathic medicines and active ingredients, e.g., Novalgina® (*Achillea millefolium*) and Vick® (*Eucalyptus globulus*) for sinusitis, and Anador® (*Alternanthera* sp.), which is used as a sedative and for general pain. Contact between migrants and allopathic medicine thus led to the 'baptisms' of these plants, following the observation that both, the commercially available products and herbal source have similar effects, as reported by Pires et al., (2009). Retracted

Biocultural adaptation, negotiation and cultural identity are key-issues for issues anthropological in the displacement of human groups between regions (Belliard & Ramírez-Johnson, 2005; Janes & Pawson, 1986). Research in culturally homogeneous places and/or non-urban has shown that to follow the pattern of changes in traditional knowledge and use of plant among migrants must involve the degree the process of acculturation (Bodeker et al., 2005; Nesheim et al., 2006 as cited in Pieroni & Vandebroek, 2007). This dynamic interaction between migrants and host societies may result in changes pharmacopeial adapted with plants exchanged(Pieroni & Vandebroek, 2007).

#### **4.2.6 Discontinued use**

According to MG1, the following plants used in his homeland fell into disuse because they were not found in Diadema, although he tried to acquire them from local commercial sources: "quina"\* (*Strychnos* cf. *pseudoquina* A. St. Hil - Loganiaceae), whose root is used to combat pain in the stomach and intestine; bark oil of "jatobá"\* (*Hymenaea* cf. *courbaril* L. - Fabaceae s.l.), used for combat wounds; "batata-de-purga"\* (*Operculina* cf. *macrocarpa* (L.) Urb - Convolvulaceae), whose tuber is ingested as a purgative and to clean the blood; bark and leaf of "jalapa"\* (*Mirabilis* cf *jalapa* L. - Nyctaginaceae), used to clean the blood; tea of "junco"\* (*Cyperus* cf. *esculentus* L. - Cyperaceae), whose root is used for inflammation; bark or seed of "emburana"\* (*Amburana* cf. *cearensis* - Fabaceae s.l.), used for migraine and sleeping; and bark of "angico"\* (*Anadenanthera* cf. *colubrine* (Vell.) Brenan - Fabaceae s.l.), prepared as a tea for pain in the body and fever. These plants were not described in Table 1, since they could not be collected and identified as well. Retracted

The Influence of Displacement by Human Groups Among Regions in the

beverage, rich in tannin and therefore extremely astringent.

knowledge and academic science (marked with an asterisk in Table 1).

**4.2.10 Animals used for therapeutic purposes and dynamics of use** 

**4.2.9 Pharmacological data** 

Medicinal Use of Natural Resource: A Case Study in Diadema, São Paulo - Brazil 497

interviewees explained that depending on the dose, the latex of "alamanda- amarela" and "amendoim-bravo" can cause discomfort or even blindness. According to Oliveira et al. (2003), the leaves of *Dieffenbachia picta* Schott contain calcium oxalate, which damages the oral mucosa and provokes pain and oedema, while the leaves of *Allamanda cathartica* contain cardiotonic glycosides and induce intense gastrointestinal disturbances. Although reported as toxic, the latex of two other plants can be used at low doses to treat breast and stomach cancer: "avelóz" (*Euphorbia tirucalli* L.) and "jarnaúba" (*Synadenium grantii* Hook. F.), respectively. The sap of "embaúba" (*Cecropia pachystachya* Tréc.) was indicated as toxic, but its fruits are used to combat bronchitis. Finally, the seeds of "pucunã" (*Fevillea passiflora*  Vell.) are toxic, being indicated as abortive. In a recent study, Rodrigues (2007) also described plants with restrictions of use as reported by three Brazilian cultures: the Krahô Indians use two plants as abortives in a single prescription: "aprytytti" (*Acosmium dasycarpum* (Vogel) Yakovlev) and "ahkryt" (*Anacardium occidentale* L.) (Anacardiaceae); their barks are boiled, and the beverage is ingested in at dawn. It is an extremely bitter

As can be seen in Table 1, 57 species (73.1%) were featured in previous pharmacological studies. For 30 of these species (52.6%), the uses cited by the migrants showed some similarity to the investigated effects/actions, demonstrating concordance between popular

From the five interviewees, only one (PE2) offered knowledge on the medicinal uses of 12 animals. They belong to four taxonomic classes: Reptilia (6 species), Insects (3), Mammalia (2) and Amphibia (1). However, the interviewee has used only two animals since he arrived in Diadema, the other ten animals fell into disuse because they are not available in this city. The two animals were collected, identified and deposited in the Museum of Zoology-USP: ant (*Atta sexdens* L.) and cockroach (*Periplaneta americana* L.). These species belong to the maintenance of use category (highlighted with □ in Table 2). The other ten species therefore belong to the discontinued use category (highlighted with Ο in Table 2) which could not be collected. Their identifications were made by PE2 through consulting images from books (as described in Methodology). For three animals (snake, alligator and giant water bug) PE2 could only hesitantly confirm their identity, probably due to the great diversity of these animals in Brazil. Therefore, they are denoted in Table 2 as probably belonging to one of three possible genera. The animals were used in 14 different medicinal formulas, with the skin most commonly used (33.3%), followed by whole animal (20.0%), bone (13.4%), fat (6.7%), rattle (6.7%), tooth (6.7%), anthill (6.7%) and turtleshell (6.7%). Some studies conducted in Brazil show that concomitant data corroborate and sustain these uses (Alves, 2009; Costa-Neto, 2005; Ferreira et al., 2009; Santos-Fita & Costa-Neto, 2007; Torres et al., 2009). The formulas were cited for the treatment of nine complaints, which were grouped into six functional categories, as shown in Table 5. The most commonly cited formula was powder (66.7%), followed by in natura (20%). The most frequent route of administration was ingestion (78.6%). The most common complaint involved respiratory problems (58.4%; 7 animals) followed by central nervous system (8.3%), inflammatory processes (8.3%),

In a study performed by Waldstein (2008), it became clear that there is great influence of the host culture (USA) on the lifestyles of immigrants (Mexicans). The study reports that immigrants go through an intense process of acculturation and loss of traditional knowledge over the years, adopting the lifestyle of the host country. One of the problems that can affect traditional knowledge is the possibility of loss due to migration of people to industrialized regions (Pieroni et al., 2005). Due to contact with a new routine of life and, often, different environments (flora, fauna, culture, food, language, religion) people moving between regions, usually adapt more to the new location (those more culturally flexible) or not (those culturally less flexible) variable which makes the loss or incorporation of traditional knowledge about medicinal use of natural resources. For newcomers to the host country, it seems that the adoption of values, language, beliefs, traditions of the dominant group are constant, but, alternatively, some groups reject this and maintain their traditional customs(Ceuterick et al., 2007). The use of traditional foods, for example, is often seen as a symbol of maintenance ethnic identity and a cultural trait very resistant to change (Nguyen, 2003 as cited in Ceuterick et al., 2007). Retracted

#### **4.2.7 Plants used for therapeutic purposes**

Of the 78 plants, 10 carry some restrictions, as they can be toxic depending on the dose, route or part utilized (Table 1). The uses described in Table 1 are written just as they were reported by the interviewees. The 68 plants used exclusively for medicinal purposes were cited for 41 complaints, which were grouped into 12 functional categories according to bodily system, as detailed in Table 3. Thus, gastrointestinal disturbances include the following complaints (numbers of medicinal plants reported): endoparasitosis (1), ulcer (1), diarrhoea (1), bellyache (2), heartburn (1), intestinal infections (1), liver pain (3). This category also includes plants used to improve digestion (1), to treat tables of haemorrhoid (1), as laxatives (10) and to purify the stomach (2), comprising a total of 24 plants employed in 44 formulas. The most relevant categories of use, measured by number of species employed, were gastrointestinal disturbances (30.8% of plants), inflammatory processes (24.4%) and respiratory problems (23.1%). As seen in Table 4, the group of illnesses representing immunological problems obtained the highest informant consensus factor value (Fic = 0.66), while the other categories presented Fic values lower than 0.5. These low values reflect the diversity of knowledge displayed by migrants, which can probably be attributed to different cultural influences during their migrations through Brazilian territory. Furthermore, the small number of interviewees may have resulted in low values of Fic. The parts of the plants most often used in the formulas were leaves (45.4%) and other aerial parts (22.7%). The most common formula was the infusion (37.8%), followed by in natura (17.6%) and syrup (10.1%). The most cited route of administration was ingestion (51.3%), followed by inhalation (8.4%) and topical (3.4%). Retracted

#### **4.2.8 Plants with restrictions on use and/or toxic**

Among the 10 specimens with restrictions on use, 6 were designated as only toxic: "alamanda-amarela" (*Allamanda cathartica*), "algodão-do-mato" (*Asclepias curassavica* L.), "amendoim-bravo/burra-leiteira" (*Euphorbia heterophylla* L.), "azaléa" (*Rhododendron simsii*), "comigo-ninguém-pode" (*Dieffenbachia* sp.) and "impatiens" (*Impatiens hawkeri*). The interviewees explained that depending on the dose, the latex of "alamanda- amarela" and "amendoim-bravo" can cause discomfort or even blindness. According to Oliveira et al. (2003), the leaves of *Dieffenbachia picta* Schott contain calcium oxalate, which damages the oral mucosa and provokes pain and oedema, while the leaves of *Allamanda cathartica* contain cardiotonic glycosides and induce intense gastrointestinal disturbances. Although reported as toxic, the latex of two other plants can be used at low doses to treat breast and stomach cancer: "avelóz" (*Euphorbia tirucalli* L.) and "jarnaúba" (*Synadenium grantii* Hook. F.), respectively. The sap of "embaúba" (*Cecropia pachystachya* Tréc.) was indicated as toxic, but its fruits are used to combat bronchitis. Finally, the seeds of "pucunã" (*Fevillea passiflora*  Vell.) are toxic, being indicated as abortive. In a recent study, Rodrigues (2007) also described plants with restrictions of use as reported by three Brazilian cultures: the Krahô Indians use two plants as abortives in a single prescription: "aprytytti" (*Acosmium dasycarpum* (Vogel) Yakovlev) and "ahkryt" (*Anacardium occidentale* L.) (Anacardiaceae); their barks are boiled, and the beverage is ingested in at dawn. It is an extremely bitter beverage, rich in tannin and therefore extremely astringent. Retracted

#### **4.2.9 Pharmacological data**

496 Pharmacology

In a study performed by Waldstein (2008), it became clear that there is great influence of the host culture (USA) on the lifestyles of immigrants (Mexicans). The study reports that immigrants go through an intense process of acculturation and loss of traditional knowledge over the years, adopting the lifestyle of the host country. One of the problems that can affect traditional knowledge is the possibility of loss due to migration of people to industrialized regions (Pieroni et al., 2005). Due to contact with a new routine of life and, often, different environments (flora, fauna, culture, food, language, religion) people moving between regions, usually adapt more to the new location (those more culturally flexible) or not (those culturally less flexible) variable which makes the loss or incorporation of traditional knowledge about medicinal use of natural resources. For newcomers to the host country, it seems that the adoption of values, language, beliefs, traditions of the dominant group are constant, but, alternatively, some groups reject this and maintain their traditional customs(Ceuterick et al., 2007). The use of traditional foods, for example, is often seen as a symbol of maintenance ethnic identity and a cultural trait very resistant to change (Nguyen,

Of the 78 plants, 10 carry some restrictions, as they can be toxic depending on the dose, route or part utilized (Table 1). The uses described in Table 1 are written just as they were reported by the interviewees. The 68 plants used exclusively for medicinal purposes were cited for 41 complaints, which were grouped into 12 functional categories according to bodily system, as detailed in Table 3. Thus, gastrointestinal disturbances include the following complaints (numbers of medicinal plants reported): endoparasitosis (1), ulcer (1), diarrhoea (1), bellyache (2), heartburn (1), intestinal infections (1), liver pain (3). This category also includes plants used to improve digestion (1), to treat tables of haemorrhoid (1), as laxatives (10) and to purify the stomach (2), comprising a total of 24 plants employed in 44 formulas. The most relevant categories of use, measured by number of species employed, were gastrointestinal disturbances (30.8% of plants), inflammatory processes (24.4%) and respiratory problems (23.1%). As seen in Table 4, the group of illnesses representing immunological problems obtained the highest informant consensus factor value (Fic = 0.66), while the other categories presented Fic values lower than 0.5. These low values reflect the diversity of knowledge displayed by migrants, which can probably be attributed to different cultural influences during their migrations through Brazilian territory. Furthermore, the small number of interviewees may have resulted in low values of Fic. The parts of the plants most often used in the formulas were leaves (45.4%) and other aerial parts (22.7%). The most common formula was the infusion (37.8%), followed by in natura (17.6%) and syrup (10.1%). The most cited route of administration was ingestion

Among the 10 specimens with restrictions on use, 6 were designated as only toxic: "alamanda-amarela" (*Allamanda cathartica*), "algodão-do-mato" (*Asclepias curassavica* L.), "amendoim-bravo/burra-leiteira" (*Euphorbia heterophylla* L.), "azaléa" (*Rhododendron simsii*), "comigo-ninguém-pode" (*Dieffenbachia* sp.) and "impatiens" (*Impatiens hawkeri*). The

2003 as cited in Ceuterick et al., 2007).

**4.2.7 Plants used for therapeutic purposes** 

(51.3%), followed by inhalation (8.4%) and topical (3.4%).

**4.2.8 Plants with restrictions on use and/or toxic** 

As can be seen in Table 1, 57 species (73.1%) were featured in previous pharmacological studies. For 30 of these species (52.6%), the uses cited by the migrants showed some similarity to the investigated effects/actions, demonstrating concordance between popular knowledge and academic science (marked with an asterisk in Table 1).

#### **4.2.10 Animals used for therapeutic purposes and dynamics of use**

From the five interviewees, only one (PE2) offered knowledge on the medicinal uses of 12 animals. They belong to four taxonomic classes: Reptilia (6 species), Insects (3), Mammalia (2) and Amphibia (1). However, the interviewee has used only two animals since he arrived in Diadema, the other ten animals fell into disuse because they are not available in this city. The two animals were collected, identified and deposited in the Museum of Zoology-USP: ant (*Atta sexdens* L.) and cockroach (*Periplaneta americana* L.). These species belong to the maintenance of use category (highlighted with □ in Table 2). The other ten species therefore belong to the discontinued use category (highlighted with Ο in Table 2) which could not be collected. Their identifications were made by PE2 through consulting images from books (as described in Methodology). For three animals (snake, alligator and giant water bug) PE2 could only hesitantly confirm their identity, probably due to the great diversity of these animals in Brazil. Therefore, they are denoted in Table 2 as probably belonging to one of three possible genera. The animals were used in 14 different medicinal formulas, with the skin most commonly used (33.3%), followed by whole animal (20.0%), bone (13.4%), fat (6.7%), rattle (6.7%), tooth (6.7%), anthill (6.7%) and turtleshell (6.7%). Some studies conducted in Brazil show that concomitant data corroborate and sustain these uses (Alves, 2009; Costa-Neto, 2005; Ferreira et al., 2009; Santos-Fita & Costa-Neto, 2007; Torres et al., 2009). The formulas were cited for the treatment of nine complaints, which were grouped into six functional categories, as shown in Table 5. The most commonly cited formula was powder (66.7%), followed by in natura (20%). The most frequent route of administration was ingestion (78.6%). The most common complaint involved respiratory problems (58.4%; 7 animals) followed by central nervous system (8.3%), inflammatory processes (8.3%), Retracted

The Influence of Displacement by Human Groups Among Regions in the

1- Gastrointestinal disturbances

2- Inflammatory processes

3- Respiratory problems

4- Anxiolytic/ hypnotics

5-Osteomuscular problems

6- Dermatological

7- Genitourinary disturbances

9- Cardiovascular

10- Immunological

problems

problems

problems

Medicinal Use of Natural Resource: A Case Study in Diadema, São Paulo - Brazil 499

bellyache (2), heartburn (1), intestinal infections (1), liver pain (3), to improve digestion (1), hemorrhoid (1), as laxative (10)

To combat worms (1), ulcer (1), diarrhoea (1),

As anti-inflammatory (3) and healing (6), to treat sty/conjunctivitis (2), inflammation in the mouth/throat (3), rheumatism (2), sinusitis

To combat cough (1), bronchitis (15) and as

To ease back pain (1), muscles pain (6), hip pain (1), prevent osteoporosis (1) and to treat

To combat external allergies (2), wounds in the body (5) and inhibits the growth of skin stains

As diuretic (5), to combat kidney stone (2) and

Treat heart problems (1) and as blood purifier

To combat breast cancer (1) and stomach

8- Endocrine system To reduce cholesterol (1) and diabetes (3) 4

11- Analgesics Earache (2) 2 12- Fever To combat fever (1) 1 **Total** 110\* \*Some plants have been cited for more than one complaint, so the total number of plants above (110) is

Table 3. The 12 categories of use comprising the 41 complaints, their total and partial

dermatological problems (8.3%), analgesics (8.3%), cardiovascular problems (8.3%) as shown in Table 5. The high humidity of the region (with annual rainfall between 1.000 and 1750 mm) (IBAMA, 2011) is known to lead to bronchitis, cough and asthma. This may explain why so many plants and animals were used to treat respiratory disturbances in Diadema, which has been shown in studies of the Sistema Único de Saúde (2011) to be the second largest cause of death in Diadema - 14,4%. Many animals have been used for medical

number of plants cited by the five migrants (adapted of Garcia et al., 2010).

expectorant (2) <sup>18</sup>

As sedative (11) <sup>11</sup>

treating urine with blood (1) <sup>8</sup>

(2) <sup>3</sup>

cancer (1) <sup>2</sup>

**number of plants** 

24

19

10

8

**Category of use Complaints (number of plants cited) Total** 

and for stomach purify (2)

(2) and gingivitis (1)

lesions in bone (1)

(1)

higher than the ones indicated by the interviewees.


Marked by () the two animals whose use had been maintained, while 10, marked by (°) are those whose uses have fallen into disuse. \* Animals that couldn't be collected because were not available in Diadema.

Table 2. The 12 animals indicated by migrant PE2, their popular and scientific names, complaints (part used), formula and route of administration (adapted of Garcia et al., 2010).

**Complaint (part used) - formula -** 

Bronchitis and asthma (whole animal)

Epilepsy (anthill) - in natura - ingested

Apoplexy (skin) - syrup of skin

Bronchitis (bone) - powder - ingested

Back pain (fat) - in natura - ingested Bronchitis (rattle) - tie it in the neck -

Heart problems (tooth) - put it in the

Bronchitis and asthma - (turtleshell) -

Osteoporosis and rheumatism (bone) -

Bronchitis and asthma (whole animal)

Wounds in the body (skin) - powder -

Wounds in the body (skin) - powder -

Cancer of skin (whole animal) - in natura: tie it on the cancer for some

Bronchitis and asthma - (skin) -

**route of administration** 


Snake (cobra)° Bronchitis (skin) - powder - ingested

powder - ingested

topic

pocket of shirt

powder - ingested

powder - ingested

powder - ingested


time each day - topic

ingested

ingested

**Popular name dynamic of** 

Ant (formiga)

Alligator (jacaré)°

Rattlesnake (cascavel)°

Turtle (tartaruga)°

Capybara (capivara)°

Cockroach (barata)

Cururu frog (sapocururu)°

Armadillo-ball (tatubola)°

Marked by () the two animals whose use had been maintained, while 10, marked by (°) are those whose uses have fallen into disuse. \* Animals that couldn't be collected because were not available in

Table 2. The 12 animals indicated by migrant PE2, their popular and scientific names, complaints (part used), formula and route of administration (adapted of Garcia et al., 2010).

Iguana (iguana)°

Lizard (calango)°

**use** 

Water cockroach (barata d'água)°

**Scientific name or only genus (family/class) Voucher** 

*Abedus* sp., *Belostoma* sp. or

(Belostomatidae/Insecta)\*

*Chironius* sp., *Liophs* sp. (Colubridae/Reptilia)\* or

(Viperidae/Reptilia)\*

*Crocodilus* sp., *Cayman* sp. or

(Alligatoridae/Reptilia)\*

(Testudinidae/Reptilia)\*

*Iguana cf. iguana* L. (Iguanidae/Reptilia)\*

Garcia 002

*Placosoma* sp.

*Rhinella* sp.

*Tolypeutes* sp.

Diadema.

*Periplaneta americana* L. (Blattidae/Insecta)

(Bufonidae/Amphibia)\*

(Dasypodidae/Mammalia)\*

*Hydrochoerus* cf. *hydrochaeris* L. (Hydrochaeridae/ Mammalia)\*

(Gymnophthalmidae/Reptilia)\*

*Crotalus* cf. *durissus* L. (Viperidae/Reptilia)\*

*Diplonychus* sp.

*Atta sexdens* L. (Formicidae/Insecta)

Garcia 001

*Bothops* sp.

*Paleosuchus* sp.

*Geochelone* sp.


\*Some plants have been cited for more than one complaint, so the total number of plants above (110) is higher than the ones indicated by the interviewees.

Table 3. The 12 categories of use comprising the 41 complaints, their total and partial number of plants cited by the five migrants (adapted of Garcia et al., 2010). Retracted

dermatological problems (8.3%), analgesics (8.3%), cardiovascular problems (8.3%) as shown in Table 5. The high humidity of the region (with annual rainfall between 1.000 and 1750 mm) (IBAMA, 2011) is known to lead to bronchitis, cough and asthma. This may explain why so many plants and animals were used to treat respiratory disturbances in Diadema, which has been shown in studies of the Sistema Único de Saúde (2011) to be the second largest cause of death in Diadema - 14,4%. Many animals have been used for medical

The Influence of Displacement by Human Groups Among Regions in the

**5. Conclusion** 

studies in the literature.

bioactive potential.

**6. Acknowledgment** 

a result of contact between cultures.

et al. 2005).

Medicinal Use of Natural Resource: A Case Study in Diadema, São Paulo - Brazil 501

The ethnobotanical/ethnopharmacological survey among migrants becomes important in that it rescues the knowledge and values that are rapidly disappearing with the death of older migrants and destruction of biomes around the world (Ososki et al. 2007; Reyes-Garcia

The studies that rescue a large number of uses for different categories (for exemple: gastrointestinal disorders, inflammation, fever and others), can expand several lines of pharmacological and phytochemical investigations. In addition, it may be more important for the development of new drugs with large pharmacological/phytochemicals effects and safer, as well some therapeutic uses mentioned by the migrants were confirmed by previous

The study of case in Diadema (São Paulo – Brazil) the migrant interviewees demonstrated a large knowledge about the toxic and medicinal properties of some plants and animals. Migration contributed to increase of knowledge regarding the use of natural resources,

The seven plants [*Impatiens hawkeri* W. Bull., *Artemisia canphorata* Vill., *Zea mays* L., *Equisetum arvensis* L., *Senna pendula* (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby, *Fevillea passiflora* Vell. and *Croton fuscescens* Spreng] showed maintenance of use among migrants and have not been studied by pharmacologists yet. These species should be highlighted in further investigations because the maintenance of use during human migrations can be indicative of

The interviewed migrants had passed through several Brazilian cities and were exposed to distinct vegetation and cultures. In this migration, they have passed on and incorporated knowledge in an intensive exchange where formulas and uses are mixed and re-invented as

This chapter is an attempt to demonstrate based on some scientific papers, the importance of the field (ethnobotanical/ethnopharmacological) in search of new bioactive molecules and how the information about the use of natural resources for health promotion may be more diverse and enriched when human groups displace among regions. We hope this text can

We thank the interviewees for their hospitality, help, and mainly for providing us with information for the purpose of this study in the city of Diadema – São Paulo - Brazil. We are grateful to Julino Assunção Rodrigues Soares Neto and Valéria Basti. We also appreciate the help of FAPESP (Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo), FIC (Faculdade Integral Cantareira), AFIP (Associação Fundo de Incentivo à Psicofarmacologia), FUNDUNESP (Fundação para o Desenvolvimento da UNESP) and Herbário Municipal de São Paulo (PMSP), which provided financial support which made this research possible. We thank Dr. Lúcia Rossi and Prof. Dr. Hussam El Dine Zaher, for conducting the botanical and animal identification, respectively. Finally, we really like to thank Prof. Eliana Rodrigues and Prof.

assist as a basis for future multidisciplinary research to development new drugs.

Marcus Vinicius Domingues for their participation and orientation.

mainly through the processes of incorporation and/or resource replacement.

purposes since antiquity (Antonio, 1994; Conconi & Pino, 1988; Gudger, 1925; Weiss, 1947). Despite the existence of several ethnopharmacological studies suggesting the bioactive potential of Brazilian fauna (Alves & Delima, 2006; Alves & Dias, 2010; Alves & Rosa, 2005; Costa-Neto, 2002, 2006; Hanazaki et al., 2009; Rodrigues, 2006), only marine animals have been investigated by chemical and pharmacological methods (Berllink et al., 2004; Gray, 2006; Kossuga, 2009). No pharmacological data was found in the literature for the five animals identified in the present study: rattlesnake (*Crotalus* cf. *durissus* L.), capybara (*Hydrochoerus* cf. *hydrochaeris* L.), iguana (*Iguana* cf. *iguana* L.), ant (*Atta sexdens*) and cockroach (*Periplaneta americana*). The lack of information available on medicinal animal products leads us to conclude that this is a largely unexplored topic in Brazil and that future pharmacological studies should confirm the potential therapeutic value of these species. Retracted


Table 4. Values of Informant consensus factor (Fic) for each category of use, considering the plants cited by the five Diadema's migrants (adapted of Garcia et al., 2010).


\* some animals have been cited for more than one complaint, so their total number above (18) is higher than the number of animals indicated: 12.

Table 5. The 6 categories of use comprising the 9 complaints, their respective number of animals mentioned by the migrant PE2 (adapted of Garcia et al., 2010).
