**10. References**


alcohol addiction treatment (Jhonsan et al., 2011). The effect of ondensateron will be higher in individuals possessing the combination of LL genotype and TT genotype of 5-HTT gene.

Fig. 2. Alcoholism Treatment: A Treatment approach to use a trio of Pharmacotherapy using pharmacological agents, where a traditional approach of "One dose for all" is used and Psychotherapy – an important part of treatment in alcoholism and Pharmacogenetics based on Genetic makeup of the Individual for better and effective treatment in alcoholism

Lot of work still needs work still needs to be done in order to improve our understanding of the genetic and environmental factors underlying alcohol dependence and also utilizing the genetic information in prescribing the drugs as per the genetic architecture of the individuals. The integrated approach of incorporating a trio of pharmacogenetic, pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy would be more promising in treatment of alcoholism (Fig 2). As the genetic testing becomes more common in the practice of medicine variety of ethical and practical challenges unique to alcohol addiction, will also need to be addressed.

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Increased attributable risk related to a functional mu-opioid receptor gene polymorphism in association with alcohol dependence in central Sweden.

**9. Conclusion** 

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**13** 

*Spain* 

**Pharmacological** 

**Approaches to Improve Ageing** 

*Department of Physiology, University of Extremadura, Cáceres,* 

Pedro J. Camello, Cristina Camello-Almaraz and Maria J. Pozo

Aging is generally considered as a progressive and irreversible set of structural and functional changes, due both to the genetic background of the individual and the oxidative damage and modifications of intracellular signaling mechanisms. Although the anatomical and physiological alterations associated to aging (e.g. sarcopenia, cognitive and sensorial decline, functional loss in cardiovascular system…) are not a disease, they reduce the functional reserve of the organism, ultimately leading to pathological alterations and death. Improvements of nutrition, hygiene and public health, and medical diagnosis and treatments have dramatically extended life expectancy in the last decades. However, the rate of human aging is to the moment an elusive target in biomedical interventions. The achievement of a slowing of human age is not necessarily linked to an increase of morbid, unhealthy population, but is likely to postpone the onset of age-related pathologies (Blagosklonny, 2010). Pharmacological intervention to decelerate aging and age-related diseases is highly attractive because it would target all the population during many years. If successful, antiaging therapy will be more efficient in reducing mortality than to fight separately each age-related disease (Olshansky *et al.*, 2007). Research on anti-aging interventions has evolved along the main theories of aging. We describe here the available

explanations for aging before presenting the updated status of each approach.

After formulation of the "rate of living" hypothesis at the beginning of the last century, proposing that longevity is determined by the metabolic rate (Pearl, 1928), the main explanation for aging has been oxidative damage due to free radicals, especially when comparative studies made clear that metabolic rate alone could not explain longevity (see Speakman & Selman, 2011). The oxidative theory of aging (Harman, 1956) proposes that aging is driven by the damage inflicted to cellular components by reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by mitochondria in the course of respiration, and has evolved into the mitochondrial free radicals theory of aging pointing to this organelle as a key factor in aging (Harman, 1972;Miquel *et al.*, 1980), including some refinement (de Grey, 2004). Briefly, endogenous ROS (and some nitrogen reactive species derived from them) modify lipids, DNA and proteins,

**2. Oxidative stress, aging and antioxidant treatments** 

**2.1 Mitochondrial free radicals theory of aging** 

**1. Introduction** 
