H. Arnold Bruns

*USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Crop Production Systems Research Unit, Stoneville, MS, USA* 

### **1. Introduction**

#### **1.1 Crop rotations – A historical perspective**

Crop rotation is the production of different economically important plant species in recurrent succession on a particular field or group of fields. It is an agricultural practice that has been followed at least since the Middle Ages. During the rule of Charlemagne crop rotation was vital to much of Europe which at that time followed a two-field rotation of seeding one field one year with a crop and leaving another fallow. The following year the fields were reversed (Butt, 2002). Sometime during the Carolingian period the three-field rotation system was introduced. It consisted of planting one field, usually with a winter cereal, a second with a summer annual legume, and leaving a third field fallow. The following year a switch would occur. Sometime during the 17th and /or 18th centuries it was discovered that planting a legume in the field coming out of fallow of the three-field rotation would increase fodder for livestock and improve land quality, which was later found to be due to increased levels of available soil nitrogen (N). During the 16th century Charles Townshend 2nd Viscount Townshend (aka Turnip Townshend) introduced the four-field concept of crop rotation to the Waasland region of England (Ashton, 1948). This system, which consisted of a root crop (turnips (*Brassica rapa* var. rapa)), wheat (*Triticum aestivum* L.), barley (*Hordeum vulgare* L.), and clover (*Trifolium* spp.) followed by fallow. Every third year introduced a fodder crop and grazing crop into the system, allowing livestock production the year-round and thus increased overall agriculture production. Our present day systems of crop rotation have their beginnings traceable to the Norfolk four-year system, developed in Norfolk County England around 1730 (Martin, et al., 1976). This system was similar to that developed by Townshend except barley followed turnips, clover was seeded for the third year and finally wheat on the fourth year. The field would then be seeded to turnips again with no fallow year being part of the rotation.

In the new world, prior to the arrival of European settlers, the indigenous people in what is now the Northeastern United States, practiced slash-and-burn agriculture combined with fishing, hunting, and gathering (Lyng, 2011). Fields were moved often as the soil would become depleted and despite the tale of Native Americans teaching the European settlers to put a fish into the corn hills at planting, there is little or no evidence of the aboriginal people fertilizing their crops. Maize would be planted in hills using crude wooden hoes with gourds and beans (*Phaseolus* spp. L.) being planting alongside and allowed to climb the

prices being paid for it along with the belief that cotton depleted the soil and required too much hand labor, dissuaded the colonist from planting the crop. Even encouragement from the colonial Governors, William Berkley and Edmund Andors could not convince the settlers to switch to cotton. Small hectarages of *G. hirsutum* L. though were grown along the Mid Atlantic colonies for individual household use. The Revolutionary War halted imports of large quantities of cotton to the former colonies from Britain and forced the Americans to grow their own supply. By the mid 1780's production had expanded and the newly formed

After the development of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793 the key to financial success in the southern states was acquiring large hectares of land for cotton production and large numbers of slaves to tend to the crop. Maize, small grains, forages, and food crops were grown only in sufficient quantities to sustain the plantations that had developed. These crops were not grown for the purpose of commerce and were often relegated to some of the marginal lands on the plantation or near the homestead for convenient harvest. The bulk of all cleared fields were devoted to production of tobacco or "King Cotton" as it would become known. From 1800 to 1830 cotton went from making up 7% (\$5 million) of exports from the United States to 41% (\$30 million) (West, 2004). Tobacco production went from 45.4 million kg at the outbreak of the Revolutionary War to 175.8 million kg prior to the Civil War (Jacobstein, 1907). Crop rotation was not even considered an option with respect to these crops due to the cash value paid for them. By 1835 the top soil of eastern Georgia had eroded away with the remaining clay unsuitable for cotton production. As soils became depleted of nutrients necessary for the crops' production, more wilderness, particularly further west would be cleared and farmed. This resulted in conflicts with the native peoples that resulted in their forced resettlement onto reservations and the spread of slavery westward into newly chartered states in the south. This further deepened political and

The Morrill Act of 1862 and again 1892 established the American Land-Grant colleges in each state and charged them with the responsibility of teaching the agricultural and mechanical disciplines, along with other responsibilities necessary to an advanced education. The Hatch Act of 1887 then established the Agriculture Experiment Station system which, in most states, is administered by the Land-Grant Universities and was to provide further enhancement of agricultural teaching through experimentation. In 1914 the Smith-Lever Act established the State Cooperative Extension Service which disseminates information to the public of advances in agriculture production discovered by the state agricultural experiment stations. All three of these legislative acts came about because of a need to better understand sound farm management practices, including crop rotations, to

The concept of agriculture research stations was not an American idea. The Rothamsted Experiment Station in the United Kingdom is said to be the world's oldest, being established in 1843, while Möcken station in Germany, established in 1850, is said to be the world's oldest state supported agricultural research station. Agricultural research stations can now be found in most all developed countries and even many less developed nations. Research on crop rotations has been and continues to be conducted at virtually all of these stations,

United States became a net exporter of cotton to Britain.

economic conflicts that would explode into the American Civil War.

**1.2 Advent of agricultural education and research** 

improve the nation's farm economy.

maize stalks. When an area would become depleted of plant nutrients, it would be abandoned and over time, would recover its natural fertility. Lyng (2011), describes the Native Americans of the northeast as not so much conscience ecologist but rather people with a strong sense of dependences on nature minus the pressure to provide for consumer demands. Plains Indians on the other hand are classified as being of two cultures. There were the nomadic nations that followed the herds of bison that roamed the region and lived mainly on a diet of bison meat and what they might gather in the way of wild berries, fruits, and nuts with very little farming except for some maize and tobacco (*Nicotiana tabacum* L.). There were then the nations that lived on a combination of meat and crops they would raise. These peoples tended to live in established villages and would fish, hunt, and gather wild fruit and berries. The crop farming they practiced again, were maize, beans, and squash (*Cucubina* spp. L.), sometimes referred to as "The Three Sisters" in Native American society (Vivian, 2001). As with the nations in what would become the northeastern United States, the Plains Indians that practiced crop farming would usually clear their garden areas by slash and burn, grow their crops, and then allow a two-year fallow before planting again. Just prior to planting, some villages would carry in brush and other plant debris to burn along with the refuge that grew in the field during fallow to "enrich" the soil for the crops about to be planted.

The early European settlers attempted to raise those crops (wheat, and rye (*Secale cereal* L.)) which they were accustom to, using cultivation methods they had used in the old country. They also, introduced livestock, (cattle, swine, and sheep) which were not found in the New World but that had been a major source of food for them in their native homeland. They soon discovered that clearing fields for planting and pasturing was an arduous task and in order to survive adopted some of the crop production techniques practiced by the indigenous peoples and allowed their livestock to forage open-range (Lyng, 2011). As colonization expanded and available labor increased along with the demand for food, the permanent clearing of arable land increased along with the introduction of more Old World crops and, unfortunately, their pests that continue to demand time and financial resources to contain today.

The first export from the American colonies to England was tobacco. Though not a food crop, tobacco played a pivotal role in helping sustain the Jamestown colony and gave the settlers something to exchange for necessary items to survive. Tobacco is a high cash value, very labor intensive crop. Even as of 2002, with only about 57,000 total farms in the United States being classed as tobacco farms producing an average of 3 hectares of the crop per farm, the average cash value of those 3 hectares was nearly \$42,000 (Capehart, 2004). Though tobacco preserved the Virginia colony, within seven years of its cultivation and export, its continued production in the New World would usher in the African slave trade, the darkest part of America's past, and would culminate 200 years later into the American Civil War.

Prior to colonization, a species of cotton, *Gossypium barbadense,* was being grown by the indigenous people of the New World (West, 2004). Columbus received gifts from the Arawaks of balls of cotton thread upon making landfall in 1492. Egyptian cotton (G*. hirsutum* L.) was introduced to the colonies as early as 1607 by the Virginia Company in an attempt to encourage its production and help satisfy the European appetite for the fiber that was currently being exported from India . However, tobacco production and the lucrative

maize stalks. When an area would become depleted of plant nutrients, it would be abandoned and over time, would recover its natural fertility. Lyng (2011), describes the Native Americans of the northeast as not so much conscience ecologist but rather people with a strong sense of dependences on nature minus the pressure to provide for consumer demands. Plains Indians on the other hand are classified as being of two cultures. There were the nomadic nations that followed the herds of bison that roamed the region and lived mainly on a diet of bison meat and what they might gather in the way of wild berries, fruits, and nuts with very little farming except for some maize and tobacco (*Nicotiana tabacum* L.). There were then the nations that lived on a combination of meat and crops they would raise. These peoples tended to live in established villages and would fish, hunt, and gather wild fruit and berries. The crop farming they practiced again, were maize, beans, and squash (*Cucubina* spp. L.), sometimes referred to as "The Three Sisters" in Native American society (Vivian, 2001). As with the nations in what would become the northeastern United States, the Plains Indians that practiced crop farming would usually clear their garden areas by slash and burn, grow their crops, and then allow a two-year fallow before planting again. Just prior to planting, some villages would carry in brush and other plant debris to burn along with the refuge that grew in the field during fallow to "enrich" the soil for the crops

The early European settlers attempted to raise those crops (wheat, and rye (*Secale cereal* L.)) which they were accustom to, using cultivation methods they had used in the old country. They also, introduced livestock, (cattle, swine, and sheep) which were not found in the New World but that had been a major source of food for them in their native homeland. They soon discovered that clearing fields for planting and pasturing was an arduous task and in order to survive adopted some of the crop production techniques practiced by the indigenous peoples and allowed their livestock to forage open-range (Lyng, 2011). As colonization expanded and available labor increased along with the demand for food, the permanent clearing of arable land increased along with the introduction of more Old World crops and, unfortunately, their pests that continue to demand time and financial resources

The first export from the American colonies to England was tobacco. Though not a food crop, tobacco played a pivotal role in helping sustain the Jamestown colony and gave the settlers something to exchange for necessary items to survive. Tobacco is a high cash value, very labor intensive crop. Even as of 2002, with only about 57,000 total farms in the United States being classed as tobacco farms producing an average of 3 hectares of the crop per farm, the average cash value of those 3 hectares was nearly \$42,000 (Capehart, 2004). Though tobacco preserved the Virginia colony, within seven years of its cultivation and export, its continued production in the New World would usher in the African slave trade, the darkest part of America's past, and would culminate 200 years later into the American

Prior to colonization, a species of cotton, *Gossypium barbadense,* was being grown by the indigenous people of the New World (West, 2004). Columbus received gifts from the Arawaks of balls of cotton thread upon making landfall in 1492. Egyptian cotton (G*. hirsutum* L.) was introduced to the colonies as early as 1607 by the Virginia Company in an attempt to encourage its production and help satisfy the European appetite for the fiber that was currently being exported from India . However, tobacco production and the lucrative

about to be planted.

to contain today.

Civil War.

prices being paid for it along with the belief that cotton depleted the soil and required too much hand labor, dissuaded the colonist from planting the crop. Even encouragement from the colonial Governors, William Berkley and Edmund Andors could not convince the settlers to switch to cotton. Small hectarages of *G. hirsutum* L. though were grown along the Mid Atlantic colonies for individual household use. The Revolutionary War halted imports of large quantities of cotton to the former colonies from Britain and forced the Americans to grow their own supply. By the mid 1780's production had expanded and the newly formed United States became a net exporter of cotton to Britain.

After the development of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793 the key to financial success in the southern states was acquiring large hectares of land for cotton production and large numbers of slaves to tend to the crop. Maize, small grains, forages, and food crops were grown only in sufficient quantities to sustain the plantations that had developed. These crops were not grown for the purpose of commerce and were often relegated to some of the marginal lands on the plantation or near the homestead for convenient harvest. The bulk of all cleared fields were devoted to production of tobacco or "King Cotton" as it would become known. From 1800 to 1830 cotton went from making up 7% (\$5 million) of exports from the United States to 41% (\$30 million) (West, 2004). Tobacco production went from 45.4 million kg at the outbreak of the Revolutionary War to 175.8 million kg prior to the Civil War (Jacobstein, 1907). Crop rotation was not even considered an option with respect to these crops due to the cash value paid for them. By 1835 the top soil of eastern Georgia had eroded away with the remaining clay unsuitable for cotton production. As soils became depleted of nutrients necessary for the crops' production, more wilderness, particularly further west would be cleared and farmed. This resulted in conflicts with the native peoples that resulted in their forced resettlement onto reservations and the spread of slavery westward into newly chartered states in the south. This further deepened political and economic conflicts that would explode into the American Civil War.
