Preface

Despite the title the present book is not a classical manual. For instance, the reader should not expect to find the usual treatment of animal groups, or an evolutionary approach to animal diversity. The book does not deal with the study of the different groups of animals known to date from a traditional point of view, that is, mainly their morphological and anatomical aspects and in some cases with notes on their physiology, ecology... Some people may feel disappointed when consulting the index, mainly if searching for something that is considered standard. But the reader, if interested in Zoology, should not be disappointed when trying to find novelties on different topics that will help to improve the knowledge on animals.

When thinking about Zoology, the first thought that comes to mind is animals, although this term is very often restricted to only vertebrates. Yet, from an etymological point of view, Zoology refers to the knowledge of animals. Without any doubt, this is such a wide concept that it is hardly understood without some type of meditation. What does it mean the knowledge of animals? Does it mean their identification or recognition? Does it mean to understand how they are constructed and how they function? As a matter of fact, Zoology means all those and many other things. Zoology is one of those "natural sciences" as old as the human being. It is the result of the humans' tireless curiosity and desire for knowledge that from the beginning of humanity interacted with the nearby environment trying to control it and, in order to do so, they first needed to understand it.

Thus, Zoology, as a "science", existed even before the name was assigned. It is easy to imagine that hunting was one of the principal incentives behind animal knowledge, in particular those aspects that concern the anatomy of the species of cynegetic value. However, in a hunter-gathered society, hunting was not its only fundamental aspect. In addition, knowing all those things that could be gathered and be taken advantage of and all those organisms that took advantage of what humans had gathered and stored is important. These organisms competed with the humans themselves, causing a clear prejudice which, undoubtedly, should be avoided. This empirical knowledge, driven by those aspects that concern the human beings (food, coat, and even magic and religious fundamentals (Grassé, 1963)) led to the study of animals in all their imaginable aspects. As the University of Cambridge proclaims (http://www.zoo.cam.ac.uk/) "*Zoology is central to our understanding of the world.* 

## XII Preface

*Zoologists seek to discover the fundamental principles that underpin animal life focusing on the diversity, function and evolution of animals and thus providing the scientific basis for our knowledge both of the creatures with whom we share this planet and of ourselves*". In fact, Zoology is devoted to any aspect related to all living animals, such as their morphology, structure, embryology and development, evolution, behavior, distribution…, since the extinct animals are the subject of study of a different, but related, discipline, Paleontology.

Preface XI

will be learn more of them? How will we know which animals became extinct? In addition, once animal diversity is understood, we must use some method(s) to classify them in order to understand, even in a simple way, this enormous diversity. However, despite the importance of these facts, there are others of interest in Zoology. As it concerns biodiversity, there exists great interest in the precise knowledge of the geographical distributions of species, in the development of predictive elements of the distribution of species, mainly the harmful ones, in behavioural, physiological, genetic ... aspects, all of which somehow contribute to the overall knowledge of the animals

Thus, at the present time, when considering Zoology in its global term, the knowledge of the animals begins, without any doubts, with knowledge of their biodiversity. Once the species are known, or rather recognized (morphology), biodiversity continues with the knowledge of the internal organization (anatomy), stage forced for the ultra-structural knowledge (cytology and histology) which, in turn, will allow knowledge of how such structures work (physiology, biochemistry). All these studies run in parallel with the information, descriptive or analytical, of how the animals act and behave (ethology), and without losing perspective of which origin such an animal could have and with which other animals is related (phylogeny, genetics). All this information allows determining its location in the complex tree of the animal life and, somehow, closes the cycle of the knowledge of biodiversity since all this knowledge allows to conclude if what it was once considered to be a species it is a true species or not. But zoological knowledge also includes other scientific and applied aspects; it is not only a question of knowing about an animal in an isolated space but, also, about its relationships with other forms of life, with its environment (Ecology) where humans exist, and how influences on the environment, or on the own human species, contributing benefits or causing injuries (applied Zoology). Currently, biodiversity research requires a multidisciplinary approach (Boero, 2009) and the study of biodiversity should proceed with the

Despite the fact that the modern concept of Zoology is clearly multidisciplinary, the consideration of this science is different between academic and research environments. In the Universities, there are Faculties of Zoology, Institutes of Zoology and many Departments of Zoology with different academic contents, some multidisciplinary, others exclusively focused on the strictest zoological and traditional theme, but all with a common purpose, the integrated knowledge of animals. In the area of research, the different fields of knowledge clearly affect this science. In the ISI Web of Knowledge one can find, among others, categories such as Behavioural sciences, Biodiversity conservation, Ecology, Entomology, Evolutionary biology, Marine and freshwater biology, Parasitology or Zoology which gather reviews publishing very diverse aspects related to Zoology. In most cases, the final aim of many articles is not the knowledge of the animals themselves but to be able to better deriv the mechanisms or fundamentals of a specific discipline (Biochemistry, Genetics, Physiology …). For example, studying the DNA structure of many insect species in order to know the

thus contributing, among others, to their hierarchic arrangement.

contribution of integrative taxonomy (Boero, 2010).

The idea that Zoology has been an object of interest to human beings is obvious when considering all the findings dedicated to animals. Independently of the prehistoric paintings that exist all over the world that represent animals of large size, which are usually subject of hunting, and activities related to other animals of utility, such as bees, there are a number of documents that concern different and varied aspects of animals. In addition to several passages in the Bible, such as those dedicated to different animals in the books of Leviticus 11 and Proverbs 30, it is worth mentioning the works of Aristotle (*Historia Animalium* and *De Partibus Animalium*), Plinio (*Naturalis Historia*), Claudio Eliano (*De Natura Animalium*) and Opiano (*Cynegetica* and *Halieutica*). All these authors already attempted the study of animals from a scientific point of view, even if, in some cases, they gathered the information from tradition, whether it was right or not. On the other hand, the constant presence of animals appears to be fundamental in the symbolic and transcendental thinking of the different human cultures, including old (i.e. ancient Egypt) as well as current ones (i.e. Aymara from northern Chile (Grebe, 1984)). This aspect of animal knowledge forms part, of Ethnozoology (i.e. Alves & Souto, 2011).

Zoology, as a scientific discipline, is significantly disconnected from other sciences dedicated to particular animal species that are included in the Health Sciences. These sciences refer to Veterinary (the stable animals, or those who offer a clear profit to the human beings), and Medicine (the man, himself, as the animal species that he is). Though these sciences contemplate methodological aspects also used in Zoology, their studies have a different purpose, since they devote themselves to supporting, resetting, and improving the health of animals and humans.

Zoology has been the "mother" science of many scientific disciplines that, nowadays, have their own identity. Animal Physiology, for example, derived from Zoology and remained together until it became an independent discipline with methods and specific fundaments of its own. The same can be said about animal Cytology and Histology, Ethology, Parasitology, Pathology..., and even Genetics, among others, when applied to animals. The rapid technological development that started in the last century has enabled further specialization of these disciplines, separating them conceptual and methodologically of the mother science, i.e. the most traditional Zoology. To many scientists that study other disciplines, Zoology is thought to focus on the knowledge of the morphology and the anatomy of the animals from a descriptive point of view and, clearly, in the taxonomy. It is true that the knowledge of animal diversity is critical because if we do not know which animals exist, then how will be learn more of them? How will we know which animals became extinct? In addition, once animal diversity is understood, we must use some method(s) to classify them in order to understand, even in a simple way, this enormous diversity. However, despite the importance of these facts, there are others of interest in Zoology. As it concerns biodiversity, there exists great interest in the precise knowledge of the geographical distributions of species, in the development of predictive elements of the distribution of species, mainly the harmful ones, in behavioural, physiological, genetic ... aspects, all of which somehow contribute to the overall knowledge of the animals thus contributing, among others, to their hierarchic arrangement.

X Preface

related, discipline, Paleontology.

Ethnozoology (i.e. Alves & Souto, 2011).

setting, and improving the health of animals and humans.

*Zoologists seek to discover the fundamental principles that underpin animal life focusing on the diversity, function and evolution of animals and thus providing the scientific basis for our knowledge both of the creatures with whom we share this planet and of ourselves*". In fact, Zoology is devoted to any aspect related to all living animals, such as their morphology, structure, embryology and development, evolution, behavior, distribution…, since the extinct animals are the subject of study of a different, but

The idea that Zoology has been an object of interest to human beings is obvious when considering all the findings dedicated to animals. Independently of the prehistoric paintings that exist all over the world that represent animals of large size, which are usually subject of hunting, and activities related to other animals of utility, such as bees, there are a number of documents that concern different and varied aspects of animals. In addition to several passages in the Bible, such as those dedicated to different animals in the books of Leviticus 11 and Proverbs 30, it is worth mentioning the works of Aristotle (*Historia Animalium* and *De Partibus Animalium*), Plinio (*Naturalis Historia*), Claudio Eliano (*De Natura Animalium*) and Opiano (*Cynegetica* and *Halieutica*). All these authors already attempted the study of animals from a scientific point of view, even if, in some cases, they gathered the information from tradition, whether it was right or not. On the other hand, the constant presence of animals appears to be fundamental in the symbolic and transcendental thinking of the different human cultures, including old (i.e. ancient Egypt) as well as current ones (i.e. Aymara from northern Chile (Grebe, 1984)). This aspect of animal knowledge forms part, of

Zoology, as a scientific discipline, is significantly disconnected from other sciences dedicated to particular animal species that are included in the Health Sciences. These sciences refer to Veterinary (the stable animals, or those who offer a clear profit to the human beings), and Medicine (the man, himself, as the animal species that he is). Though these sciences contemplate methodological aspects also used in Zoology, their studies have a different purpose, since they devote themselves to supporting, re-

Zoology has been the "mother" science of many scientific disciplines that, nowadays, have their own identity. Animal Physiology, for example, derived from Zoology and remained together until it became an independent discipline with methods and specific fundaments of its own. The same can be said about animal Cytology and Histology, Ethology, Parasitology, Pathology..., and even Genetics, among others, when applied to animals. The rapid technological development that started in the last century has enabled further specialization of these disciplines, separating them conceptual and methodologically of the mother science, i.e. the most traditional Zoology. To many scientists that study other disciplines, Zoology is thought to focus on the knowledge of the morphology and the anatomy of the animals from a descriptive point of view and, clearly, in the taxonomy. It is true that the knowledge of animal diversity is critical because if we do not know which animals exist, then how Thus, at the present time, when considering Zoology in its global term, the knowledge of the animals begins, without any doubts, with knowledge of their biodiversity. Once the species are known, or rather recognized (morphology), biodiversity continues with the knowledge of the internal organization (anatomy), stage forced for the ultra-structural knowledge (cytology and histology) which, in turn, will allow knowledge of how such structures work (physiology, biochemistry). All these studies run in parallel with the information, descriptive or analytical, of how the animals act and behave (ethology), and without losing perspective of which origin such an animal could have and with which other animals is related (phylogeny, genetics). All this information allows determining its location in the complex tree of the animal life and, somehow, closes the cycle of the knowledge of biodiversity since all this knowledge allows to conclude if what it was once considered to be a species it is a true species or not. But zoological knowledge also includes other scientific and applied aspects; it is not only a question of knowing about an animal in an isolated space but, also, about its relationships with other forms of life, with its environment (Ecology) where humans exist, and how influences on the environment, or on the own human species, contributing benefits or causing injuries (applied Zoology). Currently, biodiversity research requires a multidisciplinary approach (Boero, 2009) and the study of biodiversity should proceed with the contribution of integrative taxonomy (Boero, 2010).

Despite the fact that the modern concept of Zoology is clearly multidisciplinary, the consideration of this science is different between academic and research environments. In the Universities, there are Faculties of Zoology, Institutes of Zoology and many Departments of Zoology with different academic contents, some multidisciplinary, others exclusively focused on the strictest zoological and traditional theme, but all with a common purpose, the integrated knowledge of animals. In the area of research, the different fields of knowledge clearly affect this science. In the ISI Web of Knowledge one can find, among others, categories such as Behavioural sciences, Biodiversity conservation, Ecology, Entomology, Evolutionary biology, Marine and freshwater biology, Parasitology or Zoology which gather reviews publishing very diverse aspects related to Zoology. In most cases, the final aim of many articles is not the knowledge of the animals themselves but to be able to better deriv the mechanisms or fundamentals of a specific discipline (Biochemistry, Genetics, Physiology …). For example, studying the DNA structure of many insect species in order to know the

### XIV Preface

recombination mechanisms is not Zoology but Genetics of animals. In this area, there exists a notable bias of the major indexes of impact towards the topics of molecular nature to the detriment of zoological topics of more traditional court. It is also worth noting the large asymmetry on the number of magazines gathered in every category, with those concerning zoological aspects being much less than those dedicated to Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. Some aspects of Zoology are, in fact, reviled.

Preface XIII

the human point of view. One can imagine that when Meigen, in 1830, described *Drosophila melanogaster*, initiating the knowledge of this species, he would not do it thinking about the usefulness for allowing the development of Genetics, as some years later occurred. Nevertheless, it is not possible to imagine modern Genetics without any of the advances achieved thanks to this species. In another order of things, we must have in mind that, for example, the first multicellular organism genome that was completely sequenced (The *C. elegans* Sequencing Consortium, 1998), was a small Nematode worm, *Caenorhabditis elegans* Maupas, 1900, an animal frequently used nowadays as a model for studying the aging process (i.e. Cypser et al., 2006, Johnson, 2006; Luo & Murphy, 2011) or pathologies, such as diabetes or Alzheimer's disease (i.e. Morcos & Hutter, 2009; McColl et al., 2009), or in studies on genetics of the development (Gent et al., 2009), among others, and which is the preferential object of study of, nobody else, but two Nobel prizes (Sydney Brenner and Martin Chalfie). There are many examples of animals that are facilitating enormously research in other fields. Besides those already mentioned, and among many others, it is worth mentioning *Rhodnius prolixus* Stål, 1859 that, in addition to being important as a vector of Chagas's disease (i.e. Spurling et to., 2005), it is an animal frequently used as model for biochemical (i.e. Cricket et al., 2007), physiological (i.e. O'Donnel et al., 1983) and, even behavioural studies (i.e. Abramson et al., 2005, Ferreira et al., 2007). It would be impossible, because of the amount of work , to try to make a relation of the animals directly or indirectly involved in the vegetable or in the human health, including in the latter one aspects of forensic interest, though their importance as species themselves is huge to global scale. For instance, one can think about the vectors of diseases so relevant as the malaria (*Anopheles* sp.), the contagious disease that causes more deaths with the exception of the tuberculosis, the trypanosomiasis (*Glossina* sp.), the onchocerciasis (*Simulium* sp.) and the schistosomiasis (*Bulinus* sp., *Biomphalaria* sp., *Neotricula* sp. among others)... Undoubtedly, research on these animals is completely active in all the fronts, including more traditional aspects, as the morphologic ones (i.e. Reis dos Santos-Mallet et al., 2005), the ecological ones (i.e. Morgan et al., 2005) or those related to the distribution (i.e. Antonio-Nkondjio et al., 2011, El-Badry & Al-Ali, 2010, Kengluecha et al., 2005), relevant aspects to bear in mind when managing the control of their populations. But, as mentioned above, the studies on animal species of not obvious utility and that, therefore, are only an object of study by themselves are also active, both in still little explored environments, as the Antarctica (i.e. Eakin et al., 2009, Matallanas, 2009, Kuhn et al., 2011) as in other more explored environments (i.e. Marin, 2011, Pilato et al., 2011), so much in relation with the description of species as

in their behaviour (i.e. Lorier et al., 2010) or distribution (i.e. Thomas, 2005).

some of which proceed from it.

It would not be possible to report here the immense possibilities of knowledge offered by the animals, both because of the space and the time that would be necessary to accomplish this task. The intention that has guided me has been, meanly, to expose the modern concept of Zoology that, besides its technologies and own methods, is nourished of and complemented by those developed for other scientific disciplines,

For example, although politicians have supported efforts to increase the knowledge of global biodiversity, and there is an understanding for a need to learn and name the existing species, Taxonomy, which is the discipline in charge of that mission, has fallen in disregard for not obvious reasons. This is not just the result of recent science policies, based on certain "objective" indicators (i.e., impact index of the Institute for Scientific Information) that ignore, in general, the publications devoted to taxonomy, and in particular to traditional taxonomy (Boero 2010). The result of this policy is a continuous drop of traditional taxonomic practices for the benefit of other studies which provide more advantages and benefits to the authors, but probably contribute less to scientific knowledge. But Taxonomy is the basis of scientific knowledge in regard to Zoology, and to Biology in general. Even in relation to more technologically advanced biological disciplines (Biochemistry, Genetics, Physiology...), Taxonomy is critical. For example, there are databases such as Gene Bank, which may contain sequences attached to misidentified taxa (Boero 2009). Just for determining whether the reference database is appropriate for a particular research work, it would be necessary to know in detail the specific species that are involved (Wells & Stevens 2010). Thus, the recognition of species, through the study of phenotypes (Boero 2009), remains central to all levels of knowledge of biodiversity.

I wish at this time, to highlight the work of taxonomists for their scientific and public recognition. Without a taxonomical basis, there will not be any applied work that is based on species. And we should not consider that the existing knowledge is sufficient. As Boero (2009, 2010) points out, about 2 million species are known and have been named so far, but there should be up to about 10 to 15 million more species that we need to identify and, of course, to name. And, once known and named, their study will proceed on other levels of depth, until their overall knowledge is achieved.

Though many people may think that almost everything is already known in Zoology and that, at most, some species remain to be discovered, which may not be considered a critical issue, the fact is that a lot of things still remain to be discovered. In fact, not a long time ago a new large group was described, the Micrognathozoa (Kristensen & Funch, 2000), nowadays with level of phylum, that continues contributing with anatomical innovations (Sørensen, 2003) and, more recently, a new organizational type of sponges has been described (Cavalcanti & Klautau, 2011) as well as some new species and news in the systematic and the evolution of that group (Dohrmann et al., 2011). But, even if it is only a question of learning about a few species still not discovered or described, this would be already important, because basic knowledge is fundamental for developing applied knowledge, which is the most useful aspect from the human point of view. One can imagine that when Meigen, in 1830, described *Drosophila melanogaster*, initiating the knowledge of this species, he would not do it thinking about the usefulness for allowing the development of Genetics, as some years later occurred. Nevertheless, it is not possible to imagine modern Genetics without any of the advances achieved thanks to this species. In another order of things, we must have in mind that, for example, the first multicellular organism genome that was completely sequenced (The *C. elegans* Sequencing Consortium, 1998), was a small Nematode worm, *Caenorhabditis elegans* Maupas, 1900, an animal frequently used nowadays as a model for studying the aging process (i.e. Cypser et al., 2006, Johnson, 2006; Luo & Murphy, 2011) or pathologies, such as diabetes or Alzheimer's disease (i.e. Morcos & Hutter, 2009; McColl et al., 2009), or in studies on genetics of the development (Gent et al., 2009), among others, and which is the preferential object of study of, nobody else, but two Nobel prizes (Sydney Brenner and Martin Chalfie). There are many examples of animals that are facilitating enormously research in other fields. Besides those already mentioned, and among many others, it is worth mentioning *Rhodnius prolixus* Stål, 1859 that, in addition to being important as a vector of Chagas's disease (i.e. Spurling et to., 2005), it is an animal frequently used as model for biochemical (i.e. Cricket et al., 2007), physiological (i.e. O'Donnel et al., 1983) and, even behavioural studies (i.e. Abramson et al., 2005, Ferreira et al., 2007). It would be impossible, because of the amount of work , to try to make a relation of the animals directly or indirectly involved in the vegetable or in the human health, including in the latter one aspects of forensic interest, though their importance as species themselves is huge to global scale. For instance, one can think about the vectors of diseases so relevant as the malaria (*Anopheles* sp.), the contagious disease that causes more deaths with the exception of the tuberculosis, the trypanosomiasis (*Glossina* sp.), the onchocerciasis (*Simulium* sp.) and the schistosomiasis (*Bulinus* sp., *Biomphalaria* sp., *Neotricula* sp. among others)... Undoubtedly, research on these animals is completely active in all the fronts, including more traditional aspects, as the morphologic ones (i.e. Reis dos Santos-Mallet et al., 2005), the ecological ones (i.e. Morgan et al., 2005) or those related to the distribution (i.e. Antonio-Nkondjio et al., 2011, El-Badry & Al-Ali, 2010, Kengluecha et al., 2005), relevant aspects to bear in mind when managing the control of their populations. But, as mentioned above, the studies on animal species of not obvious utility and that, therefore, are only an object of study by themselves are also active, both in still little explored environments, as the Antarctica (i.e. Eakin et al., 2009, Matallanas, 2009, Kuhn et al., 2011) as in other more explored environments (i.e. Marin, 2011, Pilato et al., 2011), so much in relation with the description of species as in their behaviour (i.e. Lorier et al., 2010) or distribution (i.e. Thomas, 2005).

XII Preface

recombination mechanisms is not Zoology but Genetics of animals. In this area, there exists a notable bias of the major indexes of impact towards the topics of molecular nature to the detriment of zoological topics of more traditional court. It is also worth noting the large asymmetry on the number of magazines gathered in every category, with those concerning zoological aspects being much less than those dedicated to Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. Some aspects of Zoology are, in fact, reviled.

For example, although politicians have supported efforts to increase the knowledge of global biodiversity, and there is an understanding for a need to learn and name the existing species, Taxonomy, which is the discipline in charge of that mission, has fallen in disregard for not obvious reasons. This is not just the result of recent science policies, based on certain "objective" indicators (i.e., impact index of the Institute for Scientific Information) that ignore, in general, the publications devoted to taxonomy, and in particular to traditional taxonomy (Boero 2010). The result of this policy is a continuous drop of traditional taxonomic practices for the benefit of other studies which provide more advantages and benefits to the authors, but probably contribute less to scientific knowledge. But Taxonomy is the basis of scientific knowledge in regard to Zoology, and to Biology in general. Even in relation to more technologically advanced biological disciplines (Biochemistry, Genetics, Physiology...), Taxonomy is critical. For example, there are databases such as Gene Bank, which may contain sequences attached to misidentified taxa (Boero 2009). Just for determining whether the reference database is appropriate for a particular research work, it would be necessary to know in detail the specific species that are involved (Wells & Stevens 2010). Thus, the recognition of species, through the study of phenotypes (Boero 2009),

I wish at this time, to highlight the work of taxonomists for their scientific and public recognition. Without a taxonomical basis, there will not be any applied work that is based on species. And we should not consider that the existing knowledge is sufficient. As Boero (2009, 2010) points out, about 2 million species are known and have been named so far, but there should be up to about 10 to 15 million more species that we need to identify and, of course, to name. And, once known and named, their study will proceed on other levels of depth, until their overall knowledge is achieved.

Though many people may think that almost everything is already known in Zoology and that, at most, some species remain to be discovered, which may not be considered a critical issue, the fact is that a lot of things still remain to be discovered. In fact, not a long time ago a new large group was described, the Micrognathozoa (Kristensen & Funch, 2000), nowadays with level of phylum, that continues contributing with anatomical innovations (Sørensen, 2003) and, more recently, a new organizational type of sponges has been described (Cavalcanti & Klautau, 2011) as well as some new species and news in the systematic and the evolution of that group (Dohrmann et al., 2011). But, even if it is only a question of learning about a few species still not discovered or described, this would be already important, because basic knowledge is fundamental for developing applied knowledge, which is the most useful aspect from

remains central to all levels of knowledge of biodiversity.

It would not be possible to report here the immense possibilities of knowledge offered by the animals, both because of the space and the time that would be necessary to accomplish this task. The intention that has guided me has been, meanly, to expose the modern concept of Zoology that, besides its technologies and own methods, is nourished of and complemented by those developed for other scientific disciplines, some of which proceed from it.

In the current background of the science, no aspect must be disregarded; all them have value themselves, individualy and in synergy with the others. And, in this background, Zoology turns out to be a paradigm of multidisciplinary science.

Preface XV

**References**

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*Genetics,* 183(4): 1297–1314. ISSN: 0016-6731.

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Abramson, C.I.; Sulbaran Romero, E.; Frasca, J.; Fehr, R.; Lizano, E. & Aldana, E.

Alves, R.R.N. & Souto, W.M.S. (2011). Ethnozoology in Brazil: current status and

Antonio-Nkondjio, Ch., Tene Fossog, B., Ndo, C., Menze Djantio, B., Zebaze Togouet,

Boero, F. (2009). Zoology in the era of biodiversity. *Italian Journal of Zoology*, Vol. 76,

Boero, F. (2010). The study of species in the era of biodiversity: a tale of stupidity.

Cavalcanti, F.F. & Klautau, M. (2011). Solenoid: a new aquiferous system to Porifera.

Cypser, J.R., Tedesco, P. & Johnson, T.E. (2006). Hormesis and aging in *Caenorhabditis elegans.* Experimental Gerontology*,* 41, 10: 935-939. ISSN: 0531-5565. Dohrmann, M., Göcke, Ch., Janussen, D., Reitner, J., Lüter, C. & Wörheide, G. (2011).

Eakin, R.R., Eastman, J.T. & Near, T.J. (2009). A new species and a molecular

Saudi Arabia. *Journal of Entomology*, 7, 2: 80-88. ISSN: 1812-5670. Ferreira, R.A.; Lazzari, C.R., Lorenzo, M.C. & Pereira, M.H. (2007). Do

Gent, J.I., Schvarzstein, M., Villeneuve, A.M., Gu, S.G., Jantsch, V., Fire, A.Z. &

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Systematics and spicule evolution in dictyonal sponges (Hexactinellida: Sceptrulophora) with description of two new species. *Zoological Journal of the*

phylogenetic analysis of the Antarctic fish genus Pogonophryne (Notothenioidei: Artedidraconidae). *Copeia*, 4:705–713. ISSN: 0045-8511. El-Badry, A.A. & Al-Ali, K.H. (2010). Prevalence and seasonal distribution of dengue

mosquito, *Aedes aegypti* (Diptera: Culicidae) in Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah,

Haematophagous Bugs Assess Skin Surface Temperature to Detect Blood

Baudrimont, A. (2009). A *Caenorhabditis elegans* RNA-Directed RNA Polymerase in Sperm Development and Endogenous RNA Interference.

(2005). Psychology of learning: a new approach to study behavior of Rhodnius prolixus Stal under laboratory conditions. *Psychological reports,* 97,

perspectives. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 7: 22. doi:

S., Awono-Ambene, P., Costantini, C., Wondji, Ch.S. & Ranson, H. (2011). *Anopheles gambiae* distribution and insecticide resistance in the cities of Douala and Yaoundé (Cameroon): influence of urban agriculture and

http://www.malariajournal.com/content/pdf/1475-2875-10-154.pdf (1 December

This book is a compendium of contributions to some of the many different topics that can be considered in relation to the knowledge of animals. Individual chapters have been written by authors concerned with different scientific questions. Thus, contributions are quite heterogeneous. Some of them deal with more or less general aspects, such as those concerning biodiversity which include molecular aspects related to animal variation. Others are related to applied zoology and technologies under development not only to study animals but also to control them when acting as pests. Others, finally, deal with ultra-structural and physiological topics that surely will help to understand other overall processes within animals. In this way, this issue includes recent contributions to Zoology illustrating the diversity of research conducted in this discipline and providing new data to be considered in future overall publications. It would have been desirable to include more diverse contributions, in order to provide a wider outlook of what is being investigated about animals and the novelties it provides, but I think the contributions included are a good outlook of that research. Because of the diversity and number of contributions, this book is not divided in "Sections"; the chapters have been arranged in a "logical" manner, from the most overall questions to the most specific ones. Of course, this arrangement could have been the opposite, in the same way as the scientific achievement are usually pursued, that is, from the specific to the global aspects, but I have considered the current arrangement as the most pedagogical, which would guide the readers into progressively deeper questions related to animals.

At this point, I wish to thank InTech - Open Access Publisher for the initiative of publishing such a book on Zoology and for having trusted me with the editing task. Thanks are also due to all the contributors for the efforts they made to accomplish their chapters and others who helped me to review some of the chapter proposals which, in some cases, are far removed from my own research field. I wish all of them successful future research careers, which will help to maintain this science, Zoology, a fundamental and still alive one. Thanks are due especially to the Publishing Process Manager assigned to this task for their patience with all of us, especially me. She has been very helpful during the time of writing and editing this book.

I hope this initiative will encourage other scientists to share some of their achievements and engage in a more complete work on this exciting science in the future.

> **Dr. María-Dolores Garcia**  Department of Zoology, Faculty of Biology, University of Murcia, Spain

## **References**

XIV Preface

future.

In the current background of the science, no aspect must be disregarded; all them have value themselves, individualy and in synergy with the others. And, in this

This book is a compendium of contributions to some of the many different topics that can be considered in relation to the knowledge of animals. Individual chapters have been written by authors concerned with different scientific questions. Thus, contributions are quite heterogeneous. Some of them deal with more or less general aspects, such as those concerning biodiversity which include molecular aspects related to animal variation. Others are related to applied zoology and technologies under development not only to study animals but also to control them when acting as pests. Others, finally, deal with ultra-structural and physiological topics that surely will help to understand other overall processes within animals. In this way, this issue includes recent contributions to Zoology illustrating the diversity of research conducted in this discipline and providing new data to be considered in future overall publications. It would have been desirable to include more diverse contributions, in order to provide a wider outlook of what is being investigated about animals and the novelties it provides, but I think the contributions included are a good outlook of that research. Because of the diversity and number of contributions, this book is not divided in "Sections"; the chapters have been arranged in a "logical" manner, from the most overall questions to the most specific ones. Of course, this arrangement could have been the opposite, in the same way as the scientific achievement are usually pursued, that is, from the specific to the global aspects, but I have considered the current arrangement as the most pedagogical, which would guide the readers into

At this point, I wish to thank InTech - Open Access Publisher for the initiative of publishing such a book on Zoology and for having trusted me with the editing task. Thanks are also due to all the contributors for the efforts they made to accomplish their chapters and others who helped me to review some of the chapter proposals which, in some cases, are far removed from my own research field. I wish all of them successful future research careers, which will help to maintain this science, Zoology, a fundamental and still alive one. Thanks are due especially to the Publishing Process Manager assigned to this task for their patience with all of us, especially me. She has

I hope this initiative will encourage other scientists to share some of their achievements and engage in a more complete work on this exciting science in the

Department of Zoology, Faculty of Biology, University of Murcia,

**Dr. María-Dolores Garcia** 

Spain

background, Zoology turns out to be a paradigm of multidisciplinary science.

progressively deeper questions related to animals.

been very helpful during the time of writing and editing this book.


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**1** 

**Mapping a Future** 

*Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai,* 

Alice C. Hughes

*Thailand* 

**for Southeast Asian Biodiversity** 

Globally, biodiversity levels are currently changing at an unprecedented rate due to a myriad of anthropogenically induced factors (Sala et al., 2000). Over the next century these negative trends in biodiversity are set to continue, and therefore the identification of areas for conservation prioritisation are necessary in order to best protect areas of greatest diversity (Brook et al., 2006). Though studies have used different criteria in prioritisation of areas, some studies have combined a number of criteria (Myers et al., 2000) which have led to the identification of 25 global hotspots of biodiversity and species endemicity, which only comprise 1.4% of the global land surface, but contain 44% of all known plant species and

In this chapter I will principally dwell on three of these biodiversity hotspots, which join to form Southeast Asia (SEA). The following section details the biodiversity present through the region, followed by a brief discussion of the threats to biodiversity. To effectively conserve species present, knowledge of distributions and identification of species is essential, and thus appropriate techniques will be discussed and demonstrated. This will be followed by an analysis of methods to quantify the impacts of such threats, and thus develop the most suitable strategies to effectively conserve the maximum number of species

Though this chapter focuses predominantly on Southeast Asia many regions round the world currently face similar situations. The techniques and approaches discussed here will

Southeast Asia (SEA) contains a number of the biodiversity hotspots identified by Myers et al. (2000) and has some of the richest biodiversity and endemicity on the planet (Gaston, 1995a). The area consists of a number of biotas including the Indo-Burmese region, Wallacea, Sundaland and the Philippines. When considering the number of endemic plants and vertebrates, three Southeast Asian regions rank in the global top ten (Sundaland-2nd,

be broadly applicable to other regions, and species, than those discussed here.

**1. Introduction** 

**1.1 Global conservation priorities** 

35% of currently described vertebrates.

**1.2 The biodiversity of Southeast Asia** 

throughout the region.
