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**2** 

*1Canada 2USA* 

**Protein Limitation Explains Variation** 

**in Primate Colour Vision Phenotypes:** 

*1University of Toronto, Department of Anthropology, Toronto, Ontario, 2Dartmouth College, Department of Anthropology, Hanover, New Hampshire,* 

Primate colour vision has intrigued scientists for many decades and will likely continue to do so for the foreseeable future. Primates are the most visually adapted order of mammals and a considerable proportion of their large brain size is devoted to processing visual information (e.g. Barton, 2006). Most eutherian mammals have dichromatic (two-colour) vision, and chromatic distinctions are based on discriminating relatively shorter from relatively longer wavelengths within the visual spectrum (~400-700nm). These distinctions are made by neural comparison of cone cells possessing short (S) wavelength-sensitive photopigments, which are maximally sensitive to bluish light, and long (L) wavelengthsensitive pigments, which are maximally sensitive to greenish light. These photopigments are encoded by an autosomal S opsin gene and an X-chromosomal L opsin gene respectively. Primates have an additional colour channel enabling trichromatic vision via a duplication and divergence of the L opsin gene, resulting in long and middle (L-M) wavelength-sensitive photopigments (reviewed in Hunt et al., 2009; Regan et al., 2001). This arrangement permits enhanced discrimination of light and perception of different shades of

Old World monkeys, apes and humans are routinely trichromatic, having two loci for L-M opsin genes on each X-chromosome due to a gene duplication event (Jacobs, 2008), in addition to the autosomal S opsin locus. Alternatively, New World monkeys and some lemurs exhibit polymorphic trichromacy (Jacobs, 2007; Tan & Li, 1999; Tan et al., 2005; Veilleux & Bolnick, 2009). This alternate path to trichromacy results from a genetic polymorphism at a single locus of the X-chromosomal L-M opsin gene. Females with two different L-M opsin genes, combined with the common autosomal S opsin gene, possess trichromacy (Mollon et al., 1984). However, males, being hemizygotes, can inherit only one L-M opsin gene and are always dichromatic; homozygous females are also dichromatic. Variation in primate trichromacy and the selective pressures that led to trichromacy are

**1. Introduction** 

green, yellow, orange and red.

under considerable debate (Caine et al., 2010).

**A Unified Model for the Evolution of** 

**Primate Trichromatic Vision** 

Kim Valenta1 and Amanda D. Melin2

