**1. Introduction**

56 From Preconception to Postpartum

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Human beings are unavoidably exposed to ambient electromagnetic fields (EMFs) generated by every instrument that uses electricity. Electromagnetic fields are made by the combination of an electric field and a magnetic field and is propagated in a wave like manner. Thus sometimes called electromagnetic waves and or electromagnetic radiation. Under such condition the indoor and outdoor environment we live are bombarded by electromagnetic waves/radiations produced by home appliances; such as computer, television , mobile phone, industrial instruments; such as power transmission lines railway stations, medical and diagnostic tools; such as MRI, physiotherapy equipments and so on. The EMF which we are encountered everywhere, have a non ionizing nature and has two distinct parts; electrical and magnetic. The electrical part is generated by a voltage gradient and measured in volts. The magnetic part is produced by current flow and is measured in tesla. Therefore in any field, we are exposed to an electrical voltage gradient and a magnetic field. The electrical field is due to the difference between the voltage of the electricity used by the device and earth. The magnetic field is proportional to the current flowing through the device. Both types of field would induce biological effects, but magnetic field is more damaging because it penetrates living tissue more easily. Magnetic fields as low as around one microtesla can produce biological effects ( Goldsworthy 2007; Sage et al. 2007; Jokela et al. 2004 ). The effect of EMF on human health vary widely depending on the frequency and intensity of the fields. Extremely low frequencies (ELF) such as those from home appliances are more potent than higher frequencies of radio waves (Genuis 2007; Zymslony 2007; Torregrossa 2005). According to WHO, EMFs of all frequencies represent one of the most common and fastest growing environmental influences, about which anxiety and speculation are spreading. All populations are now exposed to varying degree of EMF, and the levels will continue to increase as technology advances. It is obvious that in almost all societies the ambient EMFs are encountered everywhere and cause unavoidable exposure. There are body of information regarding adverse effects of EMF, especially chronic exposure to EMF (Wu 2008; Marek 2004; Adey 1993). Thus the concern about the public health hazards of EMFs has highly increased.

Based on the functional and or structural disorders it is shown that in a biological system, EMF may harm any organ. Epidemiological studies suggest a possible link between EMF exposures and clinically recognized medical disorders such as leukemia, brain cancer,

Environmental Electromagnetic Field and Female Fertility 59

function may lead to the folliculogenesis disorder and or ceasing of ovulation. Several factors including hormonal disturbances, changes in ovarian stroma and or any factor that

Light microscopy showed that, in control group, oocyte had a euchromatic nucleus and was encompassed with a homogenous zona pellucida, and well organized corona radiate and granulosa cells (Figure 1-A). In experimental group, the oocyte had a condensed nucleus so that it appeared small and darkly stained ( Figure 1B). The cytoplasm of the oocytes were condensed and surrounding zona pellucida had changed and appeared narrower than that in control group (Figure 1B). The cells in granulosa and corona radiata layers were

A B

Ovarian stroma both in cortex and medulla contained several macrophages wich was rarely seen in control group and their number was higher in cortex than the medulla (Figure 2). Morphometric studies revealed that the number of ovarian follicles, in different stages of development, were higher in EMF-exposed group, but the number of corpora lutea were fewer than the control group. Atretic follicles in the EMF-exposed group were numerous

Ultra structural studies revealed that granulosa cells in control group, were regularly arranged and the corona radiate layer was composed of columnar cells that were attached to eachother by intercellular junctions. Their microvilli were penetrated into zona pellucid and could be recognized in it. The cytoplasm of coronal cells contained different organels

Fig. 1. Photomicrographs of ovarian sections from rat ovaries. A-from control group, showing part of a graffian follicle with oocyte and cumulus. B-from EMF-exposed group, showing an oocyte with condensed nucleus, surrounded with a faint zona pellucida and an

irregularly arranged cumulus and corona radiata. H&E staining. 300X.

including spherical or ovoid mitochondria with limited cristae (Figure 3).

affect oocyte maturation would affect oogenesis.

disorganized and contained dense nuclei (Figure 1B).

**3.1.1 Light microscopic studies** 

than the control group.

**3.1.2 Electron microscopic studies** 

breast cancer, kidney cancer and or cardiovascular disease (Kovacic and Pozos 2006; NRC 1996; UNEP/WHO/IRPA 1987). An ultra-structural study on rats shows that long term exposure to EMF could result in lymphatic organ disturbances and consequently weakening of immune system ( Mohammadnejad et al. 2010). Some authors have reviewed risks of EMF exposure on reproduction and demonstrated that experimental exposure to EMF in laboratory animals has several adverse effects (Djeridane et al. 2008; Ozguner et al. 2005; Chung et al. 2005; Ahmed et al. 2002; elbetieha et al. 2002; Cheronff et al. 1992). There are numerous studies showing that EMF exposure of male rat/mice affects testicular architecture , spermatogenesis, sperm motility, leydig cell reduction, increased apoptosis of germ cells and in general subfertility and or infertility ( Khaki et al. 2006; Lee et al. 2004; Soleimani Rad and Katebi 1997; Devita et al. 1995; Lokmatova 1993). In human and animal studies, it has been reported that female exposure to EMF cause some adverse effects and reviewed the potential effect of EMFs on infertility, implantation rate, number of living fetuses, sex ratio, miscarriages, premature births, growth retardation, low birth weight, congenital malformations and prenatal deaths (Roshangar and Soleimani Rad 2007; Lahijani et al. 2007; Feychting et al. 2005; Chiang et al. 1995; Huuskonen et al. 1993; Juutilainen et al. 1993; Mc Govern et al. 1990). 

Although the epidemiological studies on the effect of EMF exposure in human, are not conclusive but the experimental findings on the effect of EMF on different organs would act as a corner stone for exploring the complicated topic of EMF effect on reproduction. As several organs are involved in the fertility of females and their well being are necessary for fertility, the present chapter will deal with the effect of EMF on three major female reproductive organs i.e. ovary, fallopian tubes and uterus.
