**5. Opportunities for space exploration**

The most important mechanism for overcoming difficulties encountered along the way to realizing space exploration missions is international cooperation. Countries may share the costs and risks of expensive and ambitious projects. Partners may also benefit from complementary capabilities and geographic distribution of available ground stations. Another advantage pointed out by Petroni et al. (Petroni et al., 2010) is that collaboration enriches the capabilities of both sides by "exchange of knowledge and skills". Even the big space powers collaborate on several aspects of space explorations. For example, China and Russia worked together to explore Mars via the Phobos-Grunt program. While Russian Phobos Grunt is supposed to go to Mars, it would also provide a launch and transportation opportunity for the Chinese Mars orbiter Yinghuo-1. However, the satellite failed to leave Earth's orbit after launch.

Another mechanism for cooperation in space is the joint collaboration between a newcomer and an experienced agency. Taiwanese Formosat satellite project is a good example of this kind of cooperation. Formosat-1 and 2 spacecrafts and their payloads were developed jointly by the Taiwanese National Space Organization (NSPO), US and European suppliers 20 Space Science

recent mission to Jupiter costed 1.1 billion US dollars. Most newcomers have difficulty in fronting that kind of expenditure. Even the Indian Space Agency, ISRO, who has had tremendous success in their space programs, is having difficulty to defend budget allocation

Another basic problem for newcomers seems to be the dependency on other nations for specialized spacecraft technologies, such as radiation tolerance, propulsion technologies for complicated orbital manoeuvres, geographic distribution of ground stations networks, launchers, and the employment of international standards that are different than national ones. Unfortunately, many of these technologies are protected by national or well known international safeguards. Once a qualified space technology is protected and distribution is limited, newcomers are compelled to depend on other components, which may be less reliable or result in reduced performance, thereby slowing progress and increasing the risk

Although the space industry cannot be considered to be labour-intensive, the cost of recruiting the necessary high-skilled staff is an important component of space program costs. In developing and newly-industrialized countries, the labour costs of the engineers, scientists and other technical people are considerably lower compared to equivalent workers

In (Leloglu, 2009), the advantages of latecomers in space technologies have been discussed in detail. To summarize, some of the advantages are the ability to exploit literature published based on the difficultly-acquired experience of others; the accessibility of space equipment from various suppliers, which facilitates integration of space systems; a rich spectrum of technology transfer options; and developments in nano- and micro-satellites

The most important mechanism for overcoming difficulties encountered along the way to realizing space exploration missions is international cooperation. Countries may share the costs and risks of expensive and ambitious projects. Partners may also benefit from complementary capabilities and geographic distribution of available ground stations. Another advantage pointed out by Petroni et al. (Petroni et al., 2010) is that collaboration enriches the capabilities of both sides by "exchange of knowledge and skills". Even the big space powers collaborate on several aspects of space explorations. For example, China and Russia worked together to explore Mars via the Phobos-Grunt program. While Russian Phobos Grunt is supposed to go to Mars, it would also provide a launch and transportation opportunity for the Chinese Mars orbiter Yinghuo-1. However, the satellite failed to leave

Another mechanism for cooperation in space is the joint collaboration between a newcomer and an experienced agency. Taiwanese Formosat satellite project is a good example of this kind of cooperation. Formosat-1 and 2 spacecrafts and their payloads were developed jointly by the Taiwanese National Space Organization (NSPO), US and European suppliers

that enable the acquisition of basic capabilities with relatively modest resources.

for future Chandrayaan programs.

in newly designed spacecraft.

**4.2.4 Advantages** 

in developed countries.

Earth's orbit after launch.

**5. Opportunities for space exploration** 

**4.2.3 Dependency** 

and launched by US launch vehicles in 1999 and 2004, respectively. Formosat-3, aka, COSMIC (Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate) was launched in 2006 and consisted of six spacecrafts. Taiwanese and US agencies not only shared the cost but also shared the data gathered from these ionospheric research satellites. On this project, Taiwan has mainly focused on payload development and benefitted from reliable, qualified US launch vehicles and the widely distributed US ground station network. Although only one of the satellites remains active today, the technology that Taiwanese institutions developed and hands on experience for NSPO employees paved the way for the Formosat-5 program, involving joint Taiwan-Canada-Japan collaboration and also resulted in an efficient use of resources.

The cooperation between ESA and other countries is another example. ESA has relationships with non-European countries such as Argentina, Brazil, China, Japan, India, Canada, US and Russia. Argentina is different from the others with respect to its space capabilities, however, the country benefits from its geographical location and supports ESA's future deep space missions to Mars and beyond. In return, ESA provides joint training courses for Argentinean students in various areas.

The EU Framework Programs is another example. The 7th Framework Program (2007 - 2013) is open to non-EU countries such as Turkey, Israel, Switzerland, Norway, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Croatia, Macedonia, Serbia, Albania, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina and the Faroe Islands. The FP7 Space Work Programme covers areas like "Space Exploration" and "RTD for Strengthening Space Foundations" (European Union, 2006). If these countries could succeed in becoming partners to space projects, in theory they would also be able to jointly develop key technologies. However, in practicality, it is not easy to take part in such projects due to the requirements of space heritage for products and compatibility with mainly ESA driven international standards such as The European Cooperation for Space Standardization (ECSS) and Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS).

Regional cooperation is another type of cooperation for which ESA is a very bright example. Two such initiatives in Asia are the APRSAF led by Japan and APSCO led by China. In these cases, at least one nation possesses launch vehicle capability and existing distributed ground station networks are needed.

Another example is International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG) formed by 14 space agencies, namely Italian, French, Chinese, Canadian, Australian, US, UK, German, European, Indian, Japanese, Korean, Ukrainian and Russian space agencies in 2007. ISECG aims to formalize the vision for future robotic and human space exploration to solar system destinations, starting from the Moon and Mars, based on voluntary work approach and exchange information regarding the named space agencies' interests, plans and activities in space exploration with their "The Global Exploration Strategy: The Framework for Coordination" approach. ISECG is a good model for newcomers to pursue the way ahead for joint outer space exploration and be part of the coordination, basically to eliminate the duplication in this area.

On the other hand, regardless of the composition or existence of partners, there are technological solutions that can reduce costs or increase launch options. An important revolutionary mission is SMART-1, an ESA-funded satellite developed by the Swedish

How Newcomers Will Participate in Space Exploration 23

These examples show that innovative solutions can be possible for the purpose of space exploration missions with limited resources. Newcomers can find novel creative solutions to realize their missions by optimizing their capabilities and cooperation opportunities. Moreover, cube-satellites and small satellites provide low-cost experimenting opportunities for scientific instruments, solar sails, formation flight technologies, tether tests and similar

As indicated by Petroni et al., to create an innovative mission to decrease the costs or increase the reliability, one important path that needs attention is to transfer technologies

Another crucial way to communalize outer space exploration is to benefit from distributed, common ground stations and communication systems that are designed according to CCSDS protocols and standards to collectivize different systems can work in harmony and communicate with each other, especially on deep space missions, where spacecraft is seen commonly on the other side of the earth and throughout the day, forcing owners to use deep

For example, integration of Chinese, Indian, Russian, European and US Deep Space Networks via CCSDS standards could facilitate the achievement of distributed and sustainable outer space exploration, benefitting all mankind and eliminating duplication of

Space exploration has been a privilege for a few developed countries during most of the space age; however, as more nations get involved, space is becoming increasingly democratized. This has been made possible by technological developments as well as political changes as the global level. As the space programmes of nations new to space race advance, investments in space science and space exploration have increased, and, as a result, even more countries are getting involved. Although these new nations can benefit from the latecomer's advantages, they still need to overcome many obstacles to be able to contribute meaningfully to space exploration. There is a strong relationship between national science and technology policies, and advancement in space science and technology. Hence, investment in R&D backed by sound policies is a must for a successful program. Newcomers also need to seek international cooperation with strong space agencies and/or peers to share risks, costs and create synergy. Rather than imitating the missions of pioneers, they may try to find novel innovative solutions enabled by new technologies and an increasing number of international players and missions. Finally, aspiring nations should

Anokhin, A. V. (1924). *Materialy po shamanstvy u altaitsev*, Akademija Nauk SSSR, Leningrad

Futron Corporation. (2011). *Futron's 2010 Space Competitiveness Index*, www.futron.com

European Union. (2000) Decision No 1982/2006/EC, *Official Journal of the European* 

from non-space sectors and from the universities. (Petroni et al., 2010)

space ground stations owned by other countries.

individual efforts and unnecessary spending.

prepare for the future by following a sound but flexible plan.

technologies.

**6. Conclusion**

**7. References** 

*Union*, 30.12.2000

(access: 10 April 2011)

Space Corporation. Using the French-made Hall effect thruster, the satellite could reach lunar orbit in more than one year from its initial geostationary transfer orbit. The Hall Effect thruster is in fact relatively old technology and has been in use since the 1960's in Russia. Although this technology is generally used in geostationary telecommunication satellites for station keeping manoeuvres, Smart-1 is one of the first examples of using the Hall Effect thrusters out of a geostationary earth orbit. Smart-1 has about 80 kg on board xenon and has managed to reach a total of 3.9 km/s ΔV in 5000 hours of operation. The spacecraft has demonstrated a cheaper, safer (with respect to hydrazine propulsion) version of space exploration by means of non-conventional propulsion technologies. Some standards designed for deep space communication that enable the reliable transfer for large amounts of satellite data over a very limited-bandwidth communication link by CCSDS, an international organization were also successfully qualified by Smart-1 and enabled future deep space missions to transmit larger volume of data back to earth from a distance of thousands and millions of kilometres away. In the final analysis, this mission provided very valuable experience to ESA and paved the way for the future, long, relatively cheap and safer missions to the Moon, Mars and beyond. The equipment qualified on board Smart-1, such as infrared and X-ray instruments, were also used in Indian lunar mission, Chandrayaan-1. Also, this mission enabled ESA to sign cooperation agreements with China, India, Japan, Russia and NASA regarding joint lunar programs.

Another groundbreaking and extraordinary example of a relatively low-cost space exploration mission to Mars was Beagle-2. The Mars Express Orbiter carried Beagle-2 to the orbit of Mars. Although the mission failed, it had the possibility of success due to strong support from ESA by means of ground stations, NASA by allowing a co-passenger on the mothership Mars Express, and Russian Space Agency with launch service support. Again, international collaboration was the only feasible way for this kind of space exploration mission. This was facilitated by a consortium set up by the project management office, and included universities and industry. After the development phase started, a European defence and space conglomerate took over the responsibility for managing the entire program. Thereafter, one of the most outstanding financial support campaigns was organized in which British pop music artists and painters were called upon to increase the awareness of the project in the public, mainstream media, and schools. In fact, the beacon signal of the spacecraft was composed by a British pop music band and several subsystems, including the cameras, were polished by a British painter to attract the attention of mainstream media. Given the enormous public support, the main ground control station was kept open to public to show where the funds had been used. Although the mission failed at the end, the Beagle-2 was used in several science fiction movies to strengthen the image that the spacecraft actually reached the planet Mars. Nevertheless, the Beagle-2 project continues to serve as a valuable example for how support from popular artists can be used to increase public awareness. For the first time, financial donations from ordinary citizens of all ages, wealth, and occupation were used to fund a space project, and as such Beagle-2 will always remain a unique project development success story.

In keeping with the low cost theme of the mission, the control software was the first of its type deployed on a laptop and several on board systems, which were not designed and manufactured with space qualification criteria, procured from the industry; similarly, mass spectrometer was provided by University of Leicester and University of Aberdeen.

These examples show that innovative solutions can be possible for the purpose of space exploration missions with limited resources. Newcomers can find novel creative solutions to realize their missions by optimizing their capabilities and cooperation opportunities. Moreover, cube-satellites and small satellites provide low-cost experimenting opportunities for scientific instruments, solar sails, formation flight technologies, tether tests and similar technologies.

As indicated by Petroni et al., to create an innovative mission to decrease the costs or increase the reliability, one important path that needs attention is to transfer technologies from non-space sectors and from the universities. (Petroni et al., 2010)

Another crucial way to communalize outer space exploration is to benefit from distributed, common ground stations and communication systems that are designed according to CCSDS protocols and standards to collectivize different systems can work in harmony and communicate with each other, especially on deep space missions, where spacecraft is seen commonly on the other side of the earth and throughout the day, forcing owners to use deep space ground stations owned by other countries.

For example, integration of Chinese, Indian, Russian, European and US Deep Space Networks via CCSDS standards could facilitate the achievement of distributed and sustainable outer space exploration, benefitting all mankind and eliminating duplication of individual efforts and unnecessary spending.
