**3.3.1 Israel**

10 Space Science

Following the same development patterns of Japan and China, India invested in earth observation, communication, meteorology, scientific and outer space exploration programs (e.g., the Moon) and formulated its own launch vehicle program to guarantee the access to Earth's orbit. While the space program was formulated with little foreign consultancy and support, the lunar program, Chandrayaan, was supported by international institutions and several countries. Chandrayaan-1 was launched in 2008 and is one of the best and so far, one of the most successful international outer space exploration programs, even though the mission ended earlier than expected. Bulgaria, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Canada, ESA and the United States participated in the mission, contributing various payloads and flew onboard the spacecraft free of charge. Recently, ISRO allocated funds for Chandrayaan-2 & 3 that includes lunar lander and rover segments. Although NASA and ESA would like to participate this project as well, Chandrayaan-2 will mainly be performed with Russian support and estimated launch dates are after 2013 and 2015, respectively. Another key aspect of Chandrayaan-1 is that 11 different instruments, designed by different organizations, worked well and with each other on a single satellite platform. This represents a tremendous achievement in terms of gathering different organizations and technologies under the same umbrella on board a single satellite platform and enabled them to benefit from the same technological standards on a totally non-commercial space mission. According to Indian officials, the main drive behind the lunar exploration program is to expand scientific knowledge, develop the country's technical capabilities, and provide working opportunities for valuable human resources in the areas of space technologies and

The Indian Lunar Exploration program has included international cooperation from the beginning and will hopefully continue to do so in the upcoming Chandrayaan missions as well. Invitation to these types of prestigious cooperation programs could well serve as an appetizer for newcomers in the future. Additionally, India aims to demonstrate independent

Although totally initiated and funded by the Indian Government to promote development, the program has many accomplishments, including the development of a home grown launch vehicle and indigenous satellite platform, boosting scientific interest, technological capability and public and institutional the awareness about the Moon within India. Moreover, providing a free-ride for international contributors has marked the Chandrayaan-1 initiative itself as one of the best and most successful opportunities to discover outer space together with other nations. It is the most international lunar

Futron Corporation released the 2010 Space Competitiveness Index in which countries are ranked according to their space competitiveness, which was measured using a method developed by the company. The top 10 Countries (Europe being considered as one entity)

The first six countries have already been discussed up to this point. Three other countries that can be considered as newcomers are shortly introduced in following sub-

science, which are the crème de la crème of the Indian nation.

and their ranks are reported as follows (Futron, 2011):

human spaceflight after 2020.

spacecraft ever designed.

**3.3 Others** 

sections.

Despite being the geographically smallest country among other newcomers, Israel reached its indigenous launch capabilities much earlier than many of the countries mentioned in this chapter. This success is based on its ballistic missile program in 1980's, and the help of a very strong local defence industry. Although recently many scientific applications have been developed, mainly by scientists originating from the Ukraine and Russian Federation, the main scope of the Israeli space program is defence needs and the country has no restrictions to use export licensed space products.

Due to geographic constraints, Israel is planning to launch its rockets from aircraft, similar to Indonesia and thereby avoid drop zone problems. Israel also cooperates with ESA via EU 7th Framework Programme (FP7) programs, Ukraine, the Russian Federation and also generally with the US.

#### **3.3.2 South Korea**

The South Korean Aerospace Research Institute, KARI, was founded in 1989 and so far has invested in earth observation, meteorology, communication and ocean monitoring satellites, launch vehicles and human space flight. Today a lunar lander prototype is ready and KARI would like to realize its lunar exploration program until 2025, following the successful qualification of the KSLV (Korean Space Launch Vehicle) rocket, many other spacecraft technologies, and procurement of necessary funds.

#### **3.3.3 Brazil**

The Brazilian space program, initiated in 1961, is primarily launch vehicle oriented. After several sounding rocket trials, a collaboration agreement with China was signed in 1988 resulting in the China-Brazil Earth Resources Satellite program (CBERS). So far, three satellites have been launched and two more are on the way. Brazil has also signed cooperation agreements with Canada, ESA, NASA, Russia, Ukraine and France and is also looking for partnership opportunities with Israel. The country has owned the Alcântara Launch Centre since 1982, and has collaboration programs with Ukraine based on the Cyclone-4 launch vehicle.

How Newcomers Will Participate in Space Exploration 13

Turkey started benefitting from space technologies in early 1990's by communication satellites. Towards the end of 1990, the country signed know-how and technology transfer agreement with the same source of Algeria and Nigeria. As a result, the first earth

So far, Turkey procured six more communication satellites, one earth observation satellite and also manufactured two more earth observation satellites at its own premises in the capital city, Ankara. One of the indigenously developed satellites, RASAT, was launched in August 2011. Among several space industry companies, TUBITAK UZAY, as an ambitious newcomer, is planning space exploration projects in the medium term in parallel to the National Space Research Program adopted by Supreme Council for Science and Technology

In the meantime, some necessary capabilities are acquired; an on-board computer that can be used in interplanetary missions was developed. Some other hardware that can survive high radiation environment, including communication and power modules and vital software packages are in the process of development and project for establishing infrastructure and development environment for electric propulsion is being conducted. Hall Effect thrusters are being developed in parallel. An international project was also

TUBITAK UZAY also takes part in several EU FP7 projects and has submitted various projects with foreign partners. The European Cooperation for Space Standardization (ECSS) and Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS) standards and various established industry practices are followed to facilitate future international cooperation.

Apart from the experiences of Thaicom in telecommunication satellites, Thailand's Remote Sensing Centre (GISTDA) ordered the first earth observation satellite, Theos, from France in 2004. Today, Theos still operates successfully to serve the daily imagery needs. In additional to five telecommunication satellites and one earth observation satellite, Thai universities have invested in Ka-band transponder development studies and several balloon experiments to observe the ionosphere both indigenously and in cooperation with the other South Asian nations participating in the Asia Pacific Space Cooperation Organization

Malaysia is an interesting case as it established its space agency relatively recently in 2002 and has invested in human spaceflight, purely for prestige and public awareness. The first

The satellite experience of Malaysia started with a small technology transfer project and continued with complicated and operational Razaksat satellite project, which is a technology transfer from South Korea. The satellite was launched in 2009. Similar to Thailand and many other countries, Malaysia has invested heavily in commercial telecommunication satellites. The local telecommunication satellite operator has procured three satellites, similar to

launched with Middle East Technical University and Ukrainian institutions.

(APSCO) and Asia Pacific Regional Space Agency Forum (APRSAF) initiatives.

Malaysian astronaut visited the ISS under the Angkasawan program in 2007.

**3.3.6 Turkey** 

in 2005 (TÜBİTAK, 2005).

**3.3.7 Thailand** 

**3.3.8 Malaysia** 

observation satellite, BiLSAT is launched in 2003.

South Korea and Brazil clearly show promise as future players in space exploration, thanks to the political support from their governments, financial capabilities of their economies, and promising launch vehicles for independent access to Earth's orbit.

\*\*\*

However, countries aspiring for space are not limited to the list given above. Many countries are already operating satellites, as shown in Figure 3. Some countries who are not contented with being the final users and operators of space systems created by a few industrialized countries, and who have a certain economic, demographic and technological capacity, have already initiated space programs to create their own space industry. The problem of establishing basic space technology capabilities with limited budgets and creating a sustainable, sound industry that can at least fulfil domestic needs is already well addressed in the literature (Leloglu & Kocaoglan, 2008; Jason et al., 2010; Waswa and Juma, 2012), so we do not discuss this topic in this study. The activities of some newcomers, namely South Africa, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia, which are in the category of newly industrialized countries, and some other countries are summarized as follows.

### **3.3.4 Taiwan**

Taiwan is one of the more interesting examples with its Formosat satellite program and desire to develop its own indigenous launch vehicle. Unlike mainland China, they have no problem in procuring western products. The main aim of Taiwanese National Space Organization is to establish national self-reliant satellite technology. Taiwan, being technologically and financially more advanced than most of the newcomers with an export oriented economy, aims to develop local space technology infrastructure as well as to employ competitive resources that would favour Taiwan's space application industries for future international space markets. This would in turn benefit the development of space technology for basic daily needs, increase the breadth of scientific applications, and keep valuable human resources inside Taiwan, thereby increasing competitiveness and added value for domestic high technology industries such as telecommunications, nanotechnology, electronics and defence.

Due to the political balance in South East Asia, Taiwan generally allies with the United States and Europe, rather than pursue regional cooperation, and thus faces no obstacles inhibiting it from benefiting from International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR) restricted US space technologies and launching its satellites via US military launch vehicles like Minotaur, Athena and Taurus. In this way, Taiwan has solved generic "procurement of export licensed qualified components" and "arrangement of launch campaign" problems.

#### **3.3.5 South Africa**

South Africa launched its first indigenous satellite, Sumbandilasat, in 2009, which continues to operate successfully. Future plans include establishing a space agency, and investing in launch vehicles and earth observation satellites. Although external funding for future projects is uncertain, South Africa aims to pursue its space-based goals with maximum local contribution and governmental support.

## **3.3.6 Turkey**

12 Space Science

South Korea and Brazil clearly show promise as future players in space exploration, thanks to the political support from their governments, financial capabilities of their economies,

\*\*\* However, countries aspiring for space are not limited to the list given above. Many countries are already operating satellites, as shown in Figure 3. Some countries who are not contented with being the final users and operators of space systems created by a few industrialized countries, and who have a certain economic, demographic and technological capacity, have already initiated space programs to create their own space industry. The problem of establishing basic space technology capabilities with limited budgets and creating a sustainable, sound industry that can at least fulfil domestic needs is already well addressed in the literature (Leloglu & Kocaoglan, 2008; Jason et al., 2010; Waswa and Juma, 2012), so we do not discuss this topic in this study. The activities of some newcomers, namely South Africa, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia, which are in the category of newly industrialized countries, and some other countries are summarized

Taiwan is one of the more interesting examples with its Formosat satellite program and desire to develop its own indigenous launch vehicle. Unlike mainland China, they have no problem in procuring western products. The main aim of Taiwanese National Space Organization is to establish national self-reliant satellite technology. Taiwan, being technologically and financially more advanced than most of the newcomers with an export oriented economy, aims to develop local space technology infrastructure as well as to employ competitive resources that would favour Taiwan's space application industries for future international space markets. This would in turn benefit the development of space technology for basic daily needs, increase the breadth of scientific applications, and keep valuable human resources inside Taiwan, thereby increasing competitiveness and added value for domestic high technology industries such as telecommunications, nanotechnology,

Due to the political balance in South East Asia, Taiwan generally allies with the United States and Europe, rather than pursue regional cooperation, and thus faces no obstacles inhibiting it from benefiting from International Traffic in Arms Regulations (ITAR) restricted US space technologies and launching its satellites via US military launch vehicles like Minotaur, Athena and Taurus. In this way, Taiwan has solved generic "procurement of export licensed qualified components" and "arrangement of launch campaign" problems.

South Africa launched its first indigenous satellite, Sumbandilasat, in 2009, which continues to operate successfully. Future plans include establishing a space agency, and investing in launch vehicles and earth observation satellites. Although external funding for future projects is uncertain, South Africa aims to pursue its space-based goals with maximum local

and promising launch vehicles for independent access to Earth's orbit.

as follows.

**3.3.4 Taiwan** 

electronics and defence.

**3.3.5 South Africa** 

contribution and governmental support.

Turkey started benefitting from space technologies in early 1990's by communication satellites. Towards the end of 1990, the country signed know-how and technology transfer agreement with the same source of Algeria and Nigeria. As a result, the first earth observation satellite, BiLSAT is launched in 2003.

So far, Turkey procured six more communication satellites, one earth observation satellite and also manufactured two more earth observation satellites at its own premises in the capital city, Ankara. One of the indigenously developed satellites, RASAT, was launched in August 2011. Among several space industry companies, TUBITAK UZAY, as an ambitious newcomer, is planning space exploration projects in the medium term in parallel to the National Space Research Program adopted by Supreme Council for Science and Technology in 2005 (TÜBİTAK, 2005).

In the meantime, some necessary capabilities are acquired; an on-board computer that can be used in interplanetary missions was developed. Some other hardware that can survive high radiation environment, including communication and power modules and vital software packages are in the process of development and project for establishing infrastructure and development environment for electric propulsion is being conducted. Hall Effect thrusters are being developed in parallel. An international project was also launched with Middle East Technical University and Ukrainian institutions.

TUBITAK UZAY also takes part in several EU FP7 projects and has submitted various projects with foreign partners. The European Cooperation for Space Standardization (ECSS) and Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS) standards and various established industry practices are followed to facilitate future international cooperation.

## **3.3.7 Thailand**

Apart from the experiences of Thaicom in telecommunication satellites, Thailand's Remote Sensing Centre (GISTDA) ordered the first earth observation satellite, Theos, from France in 2004. Today, Theos still operates successfully to serve the daily imagery needs. In additional to five telecommunication satellites and one earth observation satellite, Thai universities have invested in Ka-band transponder development studies and several balloon experiments to observe the ionosphere both indigenously and in cooperation with the other South Asian nations participating in the Asia Pacific Space Cooperation Organization (APSCO) and Asia Pacific Regional Space Agency Forum (APRSAF) initiatives.

#### **3.3.8 Malaysia**

Malaysia is an interesting case as it established its space agency relatively recently in 2002 and has invested in human spaceflight, purely for prestige and public awareness. The first Malaysian astronaut visited the ISS under the Angkasawan program in 2007.

The satellite experience of Malaysia started with a small technology transfer project and continued with complicated and operational Razaksat satellite project, which is a technology transfer from South Korea. The satellite was launched in 2009. Similar to Thailand and many other countries, Malaysia has invested heavily in commercial telecommunication satellites. The local telecommunication satellite operator has procured three satellites, similar to

How Newcomers Will Participate in Space Exploration 15

for testing on board the Chinese-made Paksat-1R communication satellite launched on

Iran is developing its space technology mostly with the local resources. The country's launch vehicle program currently employs technologies enabling orbital distances of about 260 km and capable of carrying payloads in the 30 kg class. Although announcements about human spaceflight may not be realized in the foreseeable future, it is clear that Iran achieves more because of the embargo by developing applications and technologies with its own sources, rather than relying on technology transfer programs as other nations have done.

Vietnam is about the join the "Others" soon, with its two remote sensing satellites from France and Belgium, and a second telecommunication satellite from the US, currently on

Clearly, these latecomers are highly motivated and possess modest funding schemes mainly for "space for improving daily life" applications. Participation of the pioneers' space race with their local contribution will be valuable nationally and also encourage the rest of the

Fig. 3. Satellite operating nations. Dark blue: LEO, GEO and outer space, blue: LEO only

In this section, we first visit the prerequisites of an ambitious program for space exploration. Then we discuss the major difficulties that an aspiring nation will face. Some advantages that the newcomers will enjoy are the subject of the following sub-section. Finally, we

(excluding cubesats), light blue: countries operating turnkey satellites systems

**4. Newcomers in space exploration** 

world to join in this prestigious but very expensive work.

August 2011.

**3.3.14 Iran** 

**3.3.15 Vietnam** 

assembly.

Thailand, to serve communication applications and benefit from the financial return. Malaysia is an active member of APRSAF and collaborates not only with other nations in this organization on space technologies, but also works together with the Russian Federation on suborbital launch vehicle technologies.
