Preface

Inquiring on the sky (i.e., the Universe) has been present as affair of concern of the human kind since the early days of the first hominids like *homo floresiensis* and late *homo sapiens*. Fascination of sky watchers on a starry night, with its planets and the Moon, still today invites the best human minds to struggle for unveiling its secrets. To extending farther out the reach of our eyes, the telescope was introduced to astronomy in 1609 by Galileo Galilei. Since then, technological advances in many branches of physics and astronomy have driven the mankind to more and more astonishing discoveries in the Universe. Such findings were stimulated by a vigorous research enterprise in many areas of the modern technological era, which extends from development of technologies for building spacecrafts, spaceships and for space travel (including space medicine), to modern methods for scrutinizing the Universe in all the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, and beyond via gravitational wave observatories. Thus, the all-encompassing term *Space Science* was coined to describe all of the various fields of research in science (originally, such fields were considered part of astronomy) that are concerned with the study of the Universe, and generally means either *excluding the Earth* or *outside of the Earth's atmosphere*. This special volume on *Space* Science was prepared upon a scientifically rigorous selection process of each of the contributed chapters making up of it. Its structure drives the reader into a fascinating journey starting from the surface of our planet to reach a boundary where something lurks at the edge of the observable, light-emitting Universe, presenting four Sections running over a timely review on the most recent developments in space exploration and the role being played by newcomer nations, an overview on the early evolution of our planet during its long ancient ice age, a reanalysis of some aspects of satellites and planetary dynamics, to end up with intriguing discussions on recent advances in physics of cosmic microwave background radiation and cosmology.

Section I presents an update on the state-of-the-art on *space exploration*. This term stands for all activities leading to study the Earth outer space by using either space technology or observations from the surface or from our close circumplanetary environment. With the advances in space technology our knowledge on the outer space has been increasing with an accelerating pace. The mankind succeeded to send satellites, landers, rovers and even manned spacecrafts to the Moon. The chapter recalls that the activities of nations involved in the exploration and use of the outer space is governed by the *Outer Space Treaty,* which defines basic principles for using the outer space. Despite the *Treaty* states that "The exploration and use of outer space shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all States", until recent years space exploration was a privilege of a few countries (United States, Japan, Europe and Russian Federation), which managed to develop the technologies necessary to adventure far out of our planet. This chapter discusses extensively a very innovative and recently introduced concept in this field: *the democratization of the space*. Countries wanting to use the space for the good of their citizens and to boost their development stepped into the space technology arena. In the late years China and India made great achievements. As of today, these countries managed to put their own launch vehicles on serial production and even reached lunar orbit. Meanwhile, late industrialized nations like Brazil, South Africa, Turkey, Thailand, Malaysia and some other countries had their first steps mostly through relatively low-cost small satellite technology transfer programs based on technological partnerships with the countries strong in technology for navigation through the solar system. The chapter ends up by listing the set of technological requirements that countries newcomers into outer space research needs to accomplish, and stresses the large investments (man-power and financial) that are expected in order to succeed in such adventure out there.

Preface XI

communication cables are a special category regarding GIC since their lengths imply that the end-to-end voltages associated with GIC are very large. Many other technological structures lying on the Earth surface can be affected by GIC. Understanding this phenomenon, and envisioning solutions and prevention techniques is essential for the progress continued of our modern society, which depends so much on electric power supply. This chapter addresses in an extremely clear manner all the issues related to GIC. Meanwhile, the other chapter in this Section argues that if protoplanets formed from 10 to 20 kilometers in diameter planetesimals, in a runaway accretion process prior to the oligarchic growth into the terrestrial planets, then is logical to ask where these planetesimals may have formed in order to assess the initial composition of the Earth. By following a well-stablished scenario for describing such process the authors compute the efficiency factor for the formation of planetesimals from the pre-solar system nebula, to then using such factor to compute, as a function of the nebula mass, the feeding zones that contributed to material contained within 10, 15 and 20 kilometers in diameter planetesimals at a distance of about 1. A.U. from the Sun. Upon selecting reasonable nebula masses, the planetesimals contain a minimum of 3% water as ice by mass. The fraction of ice increases as the planetesimals enlarge in size and as the nebula mass decreases, since both factors increase the feeding zones from which solids in the planetesimals are drawn. In virtue of this estimate, a couple of questions are raised: Is there really a problem with the current scenario which makes the Earth too dry? Or, is it possible that the nascent Earth lost significant quantities of water in the final stages of accretion till reaching its late (to the present) configuration. The answer found by the authors to those queries appears to suggest that such a

In Section III three articles are offered. One invokes the phenomenon of gravitational slingshot of planets to support an argument in favor of a new mechanism for featuring the evolution of the solar system. Planet fly-by, gravity assist is routinely used to boost the mission spacecrafts to explore the far reaches of our solar system. Voyager I and II used the boost provided by Jupiter to reach Uranus and Neptune. Cassini utilized 4 such assists to reach Saturn. A spacecraft which passes *behind* the moon gets an increase in its velocity (and orbital energy) relative to the primary body. In effect, the primary body launches the spacecraft on an outward spiral path. If the spacecraft flies *infront* of a moon, the speed and the orbital energy decreases. Traveling *above* and *below* a moon alters the direction modifying only the orientation (and angular momentum magnitude). Intermediate fly-by orientation change both energy and angular momentum. Accompanying these actions there are reciprocal reactions in the corresponding moon. The above slingshot effect takes place in a three body problem. In a three body configuration, the heaviest body is the primary body. With respect to the primary body the secondary system of two bodies is analyzed. In case of planet fly-by, the planet is the primary body and the moonspacecraft constitute the secondary system. While analyzing planetary satellites, the Sun is the primary body and the planet-satellite is the secondary system, although in

transition indeed took place.

Section II focuses on the evolution of our planet. It offers a couple of articles. One discusses the effects on the ground due to geomagnetically induced currents, and the other addressing why our planet is not fully covered by water, despite it passed through an extremely long ice era during its early evolution as a planet, thousands of millions of years ago. *Space Weather* refers to electromagnetic and particle conditions in the near-Earth near space. It is controlled by solar activity. The whole space weather chain extending from the Sun to the Earth's surface is very complicated and includes plasma physical processes, in which the interaction of the solar wind with the geomagnetic field plays an essential role. Space weather phenomena statistically follow the eleven-year sunspot cycle but large space weather storms can also occur during sunspot minima. Changes of currents in the Earth's magnetosphere and ionosphere during a space weather storm produce temporal variations of the geomagnetic field, i.e. geomagnetic disturbances and storms. Technological systems, even humans, in space and on the ground may experience adverse effects from space weather. At the Earth's surface, space weather manifests itself as "Geomagnetically Induced Currents" (GIC) in technological conductor networks, such as electric power transmission grids, oil and gas pipelines, telecommunication cables and railway circuits. Telecommunication systems have suffered from GIC problems several times in the past. In fact, a few years ago our telecommunication satellites network was severely affected by a very distance stellar explosion within our Galaxy. Optical fibre cables generally used today are not directly affected by space weather. However, metal wires lying in parallel with fibre cables are used to provide power to repeater stations, and they may be prone to GIC impacts. Trans-oceanic submarine communication cables are a special category regarding GIC since their lengths imply that the end-to-end voltages associated with GIC are very large. Many other technological structures lying on the Earth surface can be affected by GIC. Understanding this phenomenon, and envisioning solutions and prevention techniques is essential for the progress continued of our modern society, which depends so much on electric power supply. This chapter addresses in an extremely clear manner all the issues related to GIC. Meanwhile, the other chapter in this Section argues that if protoplanets formed from 10 to 20 kilometers in diameter planetesimals, in a runaway accretion process prior to the oligarchic growth into the terrestrial planets, then is logical to ask where these planetesimals may have formed in order to assess the initial composition of the Earth. By following a well-stablished scenario for describing such process the authors compute the efficiency factor for the formation of planetesimals from the pre-solar system nebula, to then using such factor to compute, as a function of the nebula mass, the feeding zones that contributed to material contained within 10, 15 and 20 kilometers in diameter planetesimals at a distance of about 1. A.U. from the Sun. Upon selecting reasonable nebula masses, the planetesimals contain a minimum of 3% water as ice by mass. The fraction of ice increases as the planetesimals enlarge in size and as the nebula mass decreases, since both factors increase the feeding zones from which solids in the planetesimals are drawn. In virtue of this estimate, a couple of questions are raised: Is there really a problem with the current scenario which makes the Earth too dry? Or, is it possible that the nascent Earth lost significant quantities of water in the final stages of accretion till reaching its late (to the present) configuration. The answer found by the authors to those queries appears to suggest that such a transition indeed took place.

X Preface

to succeed in such adventure out there.

recalls that the activities of nations involved in the exploration and use of the outer space is governed by the *Outer Space Treaty,* which defines basic principles for using the outer space. Despite the *Treaty* states that "The exploration and use of outer space shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all States", until recent years space exploration was a privilege of a few countries (United States, Japan, Europe and Russian Federation), which managed to develop the technologies necessary to adventure far out of our planet. This chapter discusses extensively a very innovative and recently introduced concept in this field: *the democratization of the space*. Countries wanting to use the space for the good of their citizens and to boost their development stepped into the space technology arena. In the late years China and India made great achievements. As of today, these countries managed to put their own launch vehicles on serial production and even reached lunar orbit. Meanwhile, late industrialized nations like Brazil, South Africa, Turkey, Thailand, Malaysia and some other countries had their first steps mostly through relatively low-cost small satellite technology transfer programs based on technological partnerships with the countries strong in technology for navigation through the solar system. The chapter ends up by listing the set of technological requirements that countries newcomers into outer space research needs to accomplish, and stresses the large investments (man-power and financial) that are expected in order

Section II focuses on the evolution of our planet. It offers a couple of articles. One discusses the effects on the ground due to geomagnetically induced currents, and the other addressing why our planet is not fully covered by water, despite it passed through an extremely long ice era during its early evolution as a planet, thousands of millions of years ago. *Space Weather* refers to electromagnetic and particle conditions in the near-Earth near space. It is controlled by solar activity. The whole space weather chain extending from the Sun to the Earth's surface is very complicated and includes plasma physical processes, in which the interaction of the solar wind with the geomagnetic field plays an essential role. Space weather phenomena statistically follow the eleven-year sunspot cycle but large space weather storms can also occur during sunspot minima. Changes of currents in the Earth's magnetosphere and ionosphere during a space weather storm produce temporal variations of the geomagnetic field, i.e. geomagnetic disturbances and storms. Technological systems, even humans, in space and on the ground may experience adverse effects from space weather. At the Earth's surface, space weather manifests itself as "Geomagnetically Induced Currents" (GIC) in technological conductor networks, such as electric power transmission grids, oil and gas pipelines, telecommunication cables and railway circuits. Telecommunication systems have suffered from GIC problems several times in the past. In fact, a few years ago our telecommunication satellites network was severely affected by a very distance stellar explosion within our Galaxy. Optical fibre cables generally used today are not directly affected by space weather. However, metal wires lying in parallel with fibre cables are used to provide power to repeater stations, and they may be prone to GIC impacts. Trans-oceanic submarine

In Section III three articles are offered. One invokes the phenomenon of gravitational slingshot of planets to support an argument in favor of a new mechanism for featuring the evolution of the solar system. Planet fly-by, gravity assist is routinely used to boost the mission spacecrafts to explore the far reaches of our solar system. Voyager I and II used the boost provided by Jupiter to reach Uranus and Neptune. Cassini utilized 4 such assists to reach Saturn. A spacecraft which passes *behind* the moon gets an increase in its velocity (and orbital energy) relative to the primary body. In effect, the primary body launches the spacecraft on an outward spiral path. If the spacecraft flies *infront* of a moon, the speed and the orbital energy decreases. Traveling *above* and *below* a moon alters the direction modifying only the orientation (and angular momentum magnitude). Intermediate fly-by orientation change both energy and angular momentum. Accompanying these actions there are reciprocal reactions in the corresponding moon. The above slingshot effect takes place in a three body problem. In a three body configuration, the heaviest body is the primary body. With respect to the primary body the secondary system of two bodies is analyzed. In case of planet fly-by, the planet is the primary body and the moonspacecraft constitute the secondary system. While analyzing planetary satellites, the Sun is the primary body and the planet-satellite is the secondary system, although in the Keplerian approximate analysis implemented in such research, the Sun has been neglected without any loss of generality and without any loss of accuracy. This is a well understood method in astrodynamics. The *Basic Physics of the Gravitational Sling-Shot Mechanism* is that when there is considerable differential between Earth's spin velocity (ω) and Moon's orbital velocity (Ω) there is oscillatory changes in the tidal deformation of Earth and Moon. The tidally deformed shape oscillates between extreme oblateness (or stretching) to extreme prolateness (or squeezing). It is this rapid oscillation between the two extremes which leads to dissipation of energy and tidal heating because of the anelastic nature of Earth as well as Moon. This heating takes away energy from Moon's rotation. Moon's rotation slows down until its spin and orbital period are the same. Once spin and orbital periods are synchronized energy loss from Moon stops. This way the chapter offers to the reader a very reach analysis to reinforce its mainstream advocating for an alternative channel (with respect to the standard model for the solar system formation and evolution) for the evolution of the planetary and satellite dynamics, which had led to the present configuration in the solar system. The second article in this Section has as main goal to compare results generated by OrbFit with results presented by the CLOMON2 system which uses also the OrbFit software, and with the results of the JPL NASA SENTRY software, by focusing on how differently small effects in motion of the asteroid change impact solutions. It was possible thanks to public available source code of the OrbFit software. The orbital uncertainty of an asteroid is viewed as a cloud of possible orbits centered on the nominal solution, where density is greatest. This is represented by the multivariate Gaussian probability density and the use of this probability density relies on the assumption that the observational errors are Gaussian. For accomplishing this research the authors benefited of having at disposal the new version of the OrbFit software, v.4.2, which implements the new error model based upon a very recent research. The third article entitled: *Secular evolution of satellites by tidal effect* offers several significant and differentiated features. The article is extremely well structured, and elegantly presented, including the fashion in which the variables in the Y-axis of its Figure 1 are indicated. It is selfconsistently developed, and the astrodynamical motivation to readdress the tidal effects on the evolution of satellite systems is clear and well-supported by very appropriated references on the subject. The re-analisys of the dynamics of the system Neptune-Triton is of particular interest since it provides new insight on the system evolution if one implements not averaging of the equations of motion over the argument of the periastron, an approach that the author himself had presented in a previous research. Such approach renders important differences, particularly in the early evolution of such systems.

Preface XIII

radiation that can be expected to find if the physics needed to describe the electromagnetic interaction is nonlinear in the field, *F,* in the lagrangian of the theory. The CMB anisotropies detected by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) mission is of great importance in understanding the birth and evolution of the universe. However, by re-analyzing the WMAP raw data, the authors have found significantly different CMB results with respect to the WMAP official release, especially at the largest-scale structure detectable for the CMB quadrupole anisotropy, the l = 2 component. It was first shown the existence of such anomalies in the early released WMAP data, and then some basic principles of the WMAP raw data processing are given, which help to understand the problem under discussion. The analysis then shows the new CMB maps obtained from the same raw data, and explain in detail the difference between their result and the WMAP official one, and why the WMAP official release should be questioned. It is shown that the differences respect to WMAP are caused by a series of complex systematical effects, and thus it points out to what is still uncertain and needs to be addressed in future analysis. The consistent frame introduced by these authors stresses that some of the early discovered nomalies are still present, which suggests that perhaps for the issue of WMAP problems, they may have uncovered just a corner of the whole carpet. Based on this result, it is discussed why the reliability of, probably, all CMB detecting experiments is under questioning in virtue of such systematical effects. They conclude that it appears too early to claim presently about a closed (self-consistent) model for the Universe. Meanwhile, the other chapter stresses that WMAP and BOOMERanG experiments have recently set stringent constraints on the polarization angle of photons propagating in an expanding universe: Delta alpha =(-2.4 +/- 1.9 degrees. Having in mind such figures, the article proposes to study the polarization of the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation in the context of nonlinear electrodynamics (NLED), by using the Pagels-Tomboulis (PT) Lagrangian density, which uses a parameter featuring the non-Maxwellian character of the PT nonlinear description of the electromagnetic interaction. The polarization angle of photons propagating in a cosmological background with planar symmetry is then computed. After looking at the polarization components in the plane orthogonal to the direction of propagation of the CMB photons, the polarization angle is defined in terms of the eccentricity of the universe, a geometrical property whose evolution on cosmic time (from the last scattering surface to the present) is constrained by the strength of magnetic fields over extragalactic distances. The main result of this research suggests that the CMB polarization may be circular in nature, and that such feature can be discovered by

Finally, as the book editor, I can guarantee that the process of acceptance of each contribution to this book fully matches the InTech publication policy and further criteria from his own mind as editor. I am specially indebted to the book publishing manager, Ms. Romana Vukelic, for her permanent assistance, dedicated work and patience in handling with all the technical issues that enormously contributed to the

PLANCK satellite in the near feature.

The cosmology Section IV presents two articles addressing open issues in the understanding of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation. One article argues on the way the data collected by WMAP, and other space missions, have been analized over the last years. The other chapter focuses on the imprint on the CMB radiation that can be expected to find if the physics needed to describe the electromagnetic interaction is nonlinear in the field, *F,* in the lagrangian of the theory. The CMB anisotropies detected by the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) mission is of great importance in understanding the birth and evolution of the universe. However, by re-analyzing the WMAP raw data, the authors have found significantly different CMB results with respect to the WMAP official release, especially at the largest-scale structure detectable for the CMB quadrupole anisotropy, the l = 2 component. It was first shown the existence of such anomalies in the early released WMAP data, and then some basic principles of the WMAP raw data processing are given, which help to understand the problem under discussion. The analysis then shows the new CMB maps obtained from the same raw data, and explain in detail the difference between their result and the WMAP official one, and why the WMAP official release should be questioned. It is shown that the differences respect to WMAP are caused by a series of complex systematical effects, and thus it points out to what is still uncertain and needs to be addressed in future analysis. The consistent frame introduced by these authors stresses that some of the early discovered nomalies are still present, which suggests that perhaps for the issue of WMAP problems, they may have uncovered just a corner of the whole carpet. Based on this result, it is discussed why the reliability of, probably, all CMB detecting experiments is under questioning in virtue of such systematical effects. They conclude that it appears too early to claim presently about a closed (self-consistent) model for the Universe. Meanwhile, the other chapter stresses that WMAP and BOOMERanG experiments have recently set stringent constraints on the polarization angle of photons propagating in an expanding universe: Delta alpha =(-2.4 +/- 1.9 degrees. Having in mind such figures, the article proposes to study the polarization of the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation in the context of nonlinear electrodynamics (NLED), by using the Pagels-Tomboulis (PT) Lagrangian density, which uses a parameter featuring the non-Maxwellian character of the PT nonlinear description of the electromagnetic interaction. The polarization angle of photons propagating in a cosmological background with planar symmetry is then computed. After looking at the polarization components in the plane orthogonal to the direction of propagation of the CMB photons, the polarization angle is defined in terms of the eccentricity of the universe, a geometrical property whose evolution on cosmic time (from the last scattering surface to the present) is constrained by the strength of magnetic fields over extragalactic distances. The main result of this research suggests that the CMB polarization may be circular in nature, and that such feature can be discovered by PLANCK satellite in the near feature.

XII Preface

the early evolution of such systems.

the Keplerian approximate analysis implemented in such research, the Sun has been neglected without any loss of generality and without any loss of accuracy. This is a well understood method in astrodynamics. The *Basic Physics of the Gravitational Sling-Shot Mechanism* is that when there is considerable differential between Earth's spin velocity (ω) and Moon's orbital velocity (Ω) there is oscillatory changes in the tidal deformation of Earth and Moon. The tidally deformed shape oscillates between extreme oblateness (or stretching) to extreme prolateness (or squeezing). It is this rapid oscillation between the two extremes which leads to dissipation of energy and tidal heating because of the anelastic nature of Earth as well as Moon. This heating takes away energy from Moon's rotation. Moon's rotation slows down until its spin and orbital period are the same. Once spin and orbital periods are synchronized energy loss from Moon stops. This way the chapter offers to the reader a very reach analysis to reinforce its mainstream advocating for an alternative channel (with respect to the standard model for the solar system formation and evolution) for the evolution of the planetary and satellite dynamics, which had led to the present configuration in the solar system. The second article in this Section has as main goal to compare results generated by OrbFit with results presented by the CLOMON2 system which uses also the OrbFit software, and with the results of the JPL NASA SENTRY software, by focusing on how differently small effects in motion of the asteroid change impact solutions. It was possible thanks to public available source code of the OrbFit software. The orbital uncertainty of an asteroid is viewed as a cloud of possible orbits centered on the nominal solution, where density is greatest. This is represented by the multivariate Gaussian probability density and the use of this probability density relies on the assumption that the observational errors are Gaussian. For accomplishing this research the authors benefited of having at disposal the new version of the OrbFit software, v.4.2, which implements the new error model based upon a very recent research. The third article entitled: *Secular evolution of satellites by tidal effect* offers several significant and differentiated features. The article is extremely well structured, and elegantly presented, including the fashion in which the variables in the Y-axis of its Figure 1 are indicated. It is selfconsistently developed, and the astrodynamical motivation to readdress the tidal effects on the evolution of satellite systems is clear and well-supported by very appropriated references on the subject. The re-analisys of the dynamics of the system Neptune-Triton is of particular interest since it provides new insight on the system evolution if one implements not averaging of the equations of motion over the argument of the periastron, an approach that the author himself had presented in a previous research. Such approach renders important differences, particularly in

The cosmology Section IV presents two articles addressing open issues in the understanding of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation. One article argues on the way the data collected by WMAP, and other space missions, have been analized over the last years. The other chapter focuses on the imprint on the CMB

Finally, as the book editor, I can guarantee that the process of acceptance of each contribution to this book fully matches the InTech publication policy and further criteria from his own mind as editor. I am specially indebted to the book publishing manager, Ms. Romana Vukelic, for her permanent assistance, dedicated work and patience in handling with all the technical issues that enormously contributed to the

#### XVI Preface

book final presentation. I also appreciate the work done by the book typesetter, and for the support received from the InTech Scientific Board, which helped to make it real this project.

> **Herman J. Mosquera Cuesta (Astrophysicist)**  Departamento de Física, Centro de Ciências Exatas e Tecnológicas (CCET), Universidade Estadual Vale do Acaraú, Brazil International Center for Relativistic Astrophysics Network (ICRANet), Italy Instituto de Cosmologia, Relatividade e Astrofísica (ICRA-BR), Centro Brasileiro de Pesquisas Físicas, Brazil International Institute for Theoretical Physics and High Mathematics Einstein-Galilei,

Italy
