**2. A short summary of space exploration**

From the very beginning, humanity's desire to reach celestial objects was reflected in the mythologies of various civilizations. An example from Turkic mythology is the celestial journey of the Shaman to the fifth level of the Sky, Polaris, after sacrificing a white horse. According to their belief, the Moon was on the sixth level where humans could not reach (Gömeç; 1998). However, with Kepler's laws describing the movement of planets around the Sun and following breathtaking scientific and technological developments, travel to the Moon became a reality during the space age.

Following the end of WWII, the Soviet Union shocked much of the world with its launching of the Sputnik-1 satellite that transmitted periodic pulses and Sputnik-2 satellite carrying a dog as a passenger, launched onboard the modified Russian R-7 ballistic missiles on October 4, 1957 and November 3, 1957, respectively. The US responded immediately with its own launch of the Explorer-1 satellite on January 31, 1958.

<sup>1</sup> The term is generally used to refer the right of individuals to reach orbit in the context of space tourism, however, here we use it for the right of nations to reach orbit and benefit from space in the collective sense.

4 Space Science

trend that can be called "democratization of space"1. These newcomers, mostly from newly industrialized countries, and Asian nations in particular, are paving the way for intensive

Fig. 1. Outer Space Treaty Signatory States. Blue: signed and ratified, green: signed only.

In this chapter, after a short summary of space exploration, we first try to draw a picture of the democratization of space, i.e. the joining of more nations to the space club. Then, with a focus on space exploration, we discuss possible opportunities and advantages as well as

From the very beginning, humanity's desire to reach celestial objects was reflected in the mythologies of various civilizations. An example from Turkic mythology is the celestial journey of the Shaman to the fifth level of the Sky, Polaris, after sacrificing a white horse. According to their belief, the Moon was on the sixth level where humans could not reach (Gömeç; 1998). However, with Kepler's laws describing the movement of planets around the Sun and following breathtaking scientific and technological developments, travel to the

Following the end of WWII, the Soviet Union shocked much of the world with its launching of the Sputnik-1 satellite that transmitted periodic pulses and Sputnik-2 satellite carrying a dog as a passenger, launched onboard the modified Russian R-7 ballistic missiles on October 4, 1957 and November 3, 1957, respectively. The US responded immediately with its own

1 The term is generally used to refer the right of individuals to reach orbit in the context of space tourism, however, here we use it for the right of nations to reach orbit and benefit from space in the

space exploration activities.

difficulties for the newcomers.

collective sense.

**2. A short summary of space exploration** 

Moon became a reality during the space age.

launch of the Explorer-1 satellite on January 31, 1958.

Fig. 2. A drawing of a shaman's drum depicting the conceptualization of the universe by ancient people. Upper part is the sky. (from Wikimedia, originally from (Anokhin, 1924))

The ensuing Cold War between the US and Soviet Union fuelled a fierce race to achieve tactical and strategic space superiority. Space technology developed from, sending first animals then robotic rovers, probes to the Moon, Mercury, Venus and Mars then finally humans to different targets in space including the Earth's orbit and the Moon. In this short period of about 50 years, even the frontiers of our own solar system were explored after Galileo; plans to send probes beyond Jupiter became part of everyday life and space proved to be an economic, diplomatic and strategic tool for those participating the race. Missile race in the 40's resulted in the Moon race in the 50's, followed by the deep space race in the 60's. The countries who pioneered the space race not only led space exploration but also benefited from the return on investment through the technological spin-offs that later achieved commercial success; and industrial mechanisms that turned into political power. Although these scientific, technical, and financial rewards improved mainly the lives of their own citizens, the increase in the base of knowledge, advances in productive capabilities, expansion of the range of economic activities, and enhancements of geopolitical positioning also served to inspire all of mankind.

#### **2.1 Moon rush**

Following the successes of the Sputniks and Explorer-1, the Russian Luna-1 satellite became the first spacecraft to escape Earth's orbit in January 2, 1959. On September 12, 1959, the Russian Luna-2 was launched and impacted on the Moon's surface two days after the launch. Luna-3 was launched in October 4, 1959 and became the first manmade object to reach and photograph the dark side of the Moon while the American Pioneer 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 satellites failed during their launch towards the Moon. In April 12, 1961, Soviet Russia made an enormous step in the history of space exploration when cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first man to successfully orbit the Earth. Shortly thereafter, American astronaut Alan Shepard completed the first suborbital flight in May 1961. On February 3, 1966, the Russian Luna-9 satellite completed a soft landing on the lunar surface. In the same year, the Luna-10, 11, 12 and 13 successfully reached the Moon orbit and the Luna-13 landed on the Moon's surface.

Between 1966 and 1968, unmanned Apollo-1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 spacecrafts were launched on board of Saturn-1B and Saturn-5 launch vehicles. Manned missions of Apollo started with

How Newcomers Will Participate in Space Exploration 7

European Space Agency (ESA). In 1970's when Russia and America were flying to Mars and Venus, Europe had just formed its organization devoted to scientific, civilian space

Europeans started developing sounding rockets in 1964, which were followed by several scientific satellite projects in 1968 called ESRO I and ESRO II. After that, Highly Eccentric Orbit Satellite (HEOS) for measurements of plasma, magnetic field and cosmic ray particles

The race to the Moon, Venus, Mars and comets did not generate the same interest in Europe as among Russians and Americans during the height of the Cold War. Rather, Europe's long term projects mainly focused on remote sensing, space science, the International Space Station (ISS) and telecommunication. ESA's only mission to the Moon was launched in 2006,

Japan is the first country in Asia to follow the developments in the rest of the world, founding the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (ISAS) in 1950. The first satellite was launched in 1970 with the indigenous L-4S rocket. In the beginning of its developmental phase, the National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) used a US license to produce rocket engines, which paved the way to the first launch vehicle developed in Japan,

The first Japanese missions beyond Earth orbit were launched in 1985 to observe the Halley comet with two observation satellites. The missions were performed together with the Russian and European Space Agencies as part of a joint space exploration program. Japan is also the first Asian country to launch a lunar probe with a satellite called Hiten in 1990. They even sent an orbiter to the Sun in 1991 and sponsored an astronaut mission as part of US Shuttle program in 1992. The first Japanese interplanetary mission, the Mars Orbiter Nozomi

Briefly, Japan invested heavily in exploration of space and space science; astronomy, technology tests, lunar explorations, solar sail research and even sent probes to asteroids

In April 2005, Japan announced ambitious new plans for a manned space programme, including landing on the Moon by 2025. The country now wants to have human presence in space along with unmanned scientific planetary missions and also has ambitions to open a

The Japanese ride to space is supported by their ability to access to space by means of their own indigenous launch vehicle, just like Russia and the US. Sufficient financial support from the government and moral support from society also stimulate Japan's special interest in space. However, it is uncertain today if Japan will continue to invest at the same pace, due to the devastating impact of the Sendai Earthquake and Tsunami in 2011, whose estimated cost is around several hundred billion US \$. Probably, some of the funds, which were allocated for space projects, like other government spending, will be transferred to the recovery of earthquake devastated areas and export oriented Japanese

permanent base on the Moon and manned spaceflights around the year 2020.

and the Thor Delta program for stellar astronomy were started.

applications.

**2.4 Japan** 

31 years after its establishment.

the H-II, which was launched in 1994.

(Planet-B), was launched in 1998.

and the Moon.

economy.

Apollo-7 in 1968, which carried a crew of three into the Earth orbit. It was followed by Apollo-8 with a crew of three that completed the world's first manned mission around the Moon between December 21 and 27.

Meanwhile, Soviet Russia was developing "Zond" and a prototype of the spacecraft for manned circumlunar flight flew around the Moon.

Between July 16 and 24, 1969, The astronauts of Apollo-11 landed and walked on the surface of the Moon. They became the first men to walk on a celestial object other than the Earth. After the success of Apollo-11, the USA successfully completed five more Moon expeditions with the Apollo series. After several Russian launch vehicles and sample-return spacecrafts failed to reach the Moon, the Soviet government officially cancelled the N1-L3 program in 1976. Until that date, Russian rovers Lunokhod-1 and 2 landed on the Moon safely in 1970 and 1973, respectively. Following these events, moon rush, turned into deep space rush starting from Mars and Venus.

### **2.2 Deep space rush**

In light of the experiences and developments of the Moon race, Soviet Russia and the United States considered exploration of the inner planets as well. Unsuccessful Mars and Venus probes were launched towards their destinations in the early 1960's. After many disappointments and very expensive trials, for the first time in the history, the American Mariner-4 satellite transmitted 21 images and bountiful scientific data in 1964 at a distance of approximately 10,000 km from Mars. US Mars-1 to Mars-7 and Russian Phobos-1 & 2 were also sent to Mars until 1988, and some of them returned valuable data. The Russians responded with the Venera-3 satellite. The lander penetrated the atmosphere of Venus in 1966, another first time event. Following Venera-3's success, a series of landers, Venera-5 to - 16 were sent to Venus until 1983. Exploration of Mars and Venus continues even today, with the US sending two Pioneers to Venus; six more Mariners, two Vikings to the Mars and two Voyagers, three Pioneers to Jupiter until 1978 and many more up to day. Although the space race may seem to have slowed down after the 1980's due to financial reasons, it is unlikely that it will ever end as human interest in space continues to this day with major projects such as the International Space Station.

The technology derived from the Sputnik missions has led to key developments in modern communication, earth observation, meteorology, early warning and scientific satellites that have improved and become the part of everyday life on Earth.

While Soviet Russia and the US were continuously conquering the outer space, the rest of the world seemed reluctant to proceed on the same way and did not join the race for some time. Recently, the investments made by the Asian states in lunar programmes have also increased global interest in the Moon. It is likely that the US, Russia and the European Union will also make significant investments in this direction soon.

#### **2.3 Europe**

In 1964, the European Space Research Organization (ESRO) was founded by 10 European nations with the intention of jointly pursuing scientific research in space. ESRO was merged with ELDO (European Launcher Development Organisation) in 1975 to form the European Space Agency (ESA). In 1970's when Russia and America were flying to Mars and Venus, Europe had just formed its organization devoted to scientific, civilian space applications.

Europeans started developing sounding rockets in 1964, which were followed by several scientific satellite projects in 1968 called ESRO I and ESRO II. After that, Highly Eccentric Orbit Satellite (HEOS) for measurements of plasma, magnetic field and cosmic ray particles and the Thor Delta program for stellar astronomy were started.

The race to the Moon, Venus, Mars and comets did not generate the same interest in Europe as among Russians and Americans during the height of the Cold War. Rather, Europe's long term projects mainly focused on remote sensing, space science, the International Space Station (ISS) and telecommunication. ESA's only mission to the Moon was launched in 2006, 31 years after its establishment.
