**Monitoring Land Suitability for Mixed Livestock Grazing Using Geographic Information System (GIS)**

Fazel Amiri, Abdul Rashid B. Mohamed Shariff and Taybeh Tabatabaie

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/47939

## **1. Introduction**

240 Application of Geographic Information Systems

do Sul. Porto Alegre, Brasil.

Travessas, F.A. 2003. *Estratigrafia e evolução no Holoceno Superior da barreira costeira entre Tramandaí e Cidreira (RS).* Instituto de Geociências, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande

> Combining land and land use in a land evaluation procedure defines land suitability, which is the fitness of a land unit for a land use type assessed by comparing land use requirements of each land utilization type with the land (FAO, 1976; 2007). Land suitability analysis is an important tool in making locational and sitting decisions in planning studies. Broadly defined, land-use suitability analysis aims at identifying the most appropriate spatial pattern of future land use according to specified requirements, preferences, and predictors of specific activities (Collins, Steiner, Rushman, 2001; Hopkins, 1977).

> In Ghara-Aghch region, center Iran, the need for rangeland suitability evaluation is due to increasing livestock population, which causes an increased demand for forage. In This area, livestock and pasture is a very important business for the community to sustain living. Livestock (Sheep and goats) are fed from pasture. Land management, therefore, is a real issue that requires proper attention from the authorities to ensure sustainability of the rangeland sector in the state. The regeneration rate of rangeland resources is very slow, so it is not able to cope with the ever increasing livestock population growth; hence this imbalance situation leads to regional economic development problems. Proper evaluation based on land planning is essential to solve this problems (Sonneveld, Hack-ten Broeke, van Diepen, Boogaard, 2010).

> Definition of the term "mixed livestock grazing" was first used in rangeland forage grazing of livestock by Cook (1954) and subsequently by Smith (1965). They defined the term "mixed livestock grazing" as the use of a pasture's forage for more than one variety of livestock (cattle, sheep and goats) with the aim of achieving maximum productivity. Holechck et al. (1995) explained the rationale for stability improvement of rangelands against the mixed

© 2012 Amiri et al., licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2012 Amiri et al., licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

livestock grazing as follows: better distribution of livestock in the pasture, harvesting more than one plant species, and more uniform use of pasture lands. In terms of the economy of the rangeland, "mixed livestock grazing" can be studied in three aspects: firstly, with 'mixed livestock grazing' there is an increase in livestock products and the income will increase; secondly, the risk hazard will decrease; and thirdly, the invading species will be controlled. On the other hand, with "mixed livestock grazing" the preservation costs will increase, and rangeland management becomes more difficult (Coffey, 2001). Heady (1975) reported that with mixed livestock grazing, the efficiency of forage use will increase due to combined use of the grasses, forbs, and shrubs. However, Smith (1965) observed that topography, water resources, and priority of management goals are among the factors determining the success or failure of management of "mixed livestock grazing" rangelands. Coffey (2001) noted that selective grazing species by the livestock in 'mixed livestock grazing' is very important. The cattle prefer grasses to the forbs and shrubs, while the sheep prefer the forbs to the grasses and the goats prefer the shrubs and small branches compared to the grasses and forbs. Therefore, the common grazing of cattle, sheep and goats on rangelands results in all vegetation being grazed and as a result the woody plants and shrubs which form a large part of the rangeland will be grazed in large quantities with common grazing. Luginbuhl et al. (2000) observed that by adding goats to a pasture being grazed by cattle showed a decrease in shrubs and provision of sufficient time for regeneration of the grasses. In fact, by adding the goats to the pasture grazed by the cattle controlled woody plants without influencing the cattle's grazing preference, and thus grazing capacity was increased with a rise in income. Adding the sheep in a pasture which is being grazed by the cattle showed similar results, although sheep in comparison with goats consume fewer woody species; however, the sheep can be used to control the woody species with suitable grazing pressure and thus cause an improvement in the rangeland. Several studies have reported model suitability of the rangelands for livestock grazing (Alizadeh, Arzani, Azarnivan, Mohajeri, Kaboli, 2011; Amiri, 2009a; b; Arzani, Jangjo, Shams, Mohtashamnia, Fashami, Ahmadi, Jafari, Darvishsefat, Shahriary, 2006; Bizuwerk, Peden, Taddese, Getahun, 2005; Gavili, Ghasriani, Arzani, Vahabi, Amiri, 2011; Javadi, Arzani, Farahpour, Zahedi, 2008; Thornton, Herrero, 2001). The allocation of limited rangeland resources to various land uses, lack of sufficient environmental policies for sustainable use of rangelands as well as degradation of these areas have caused increasing concern among managers and revealed the importance of land suitability analysis. However, no research has been reported on the mixed livestock grazing of sheep and goats. Therefore, the objectives of this study, while recognizing important factors affecting model suitability for 'mixed livestock grazing' of the rangelands, was also designed to determine the kind and rate of the limitations and factors reducing the suitability for an adequate plan for grazing.

Monitoring Land Suitability for Mixed Livestock Grazing Using Geographic Information System (GIS) 243

A number of technological developments have facilitated the implementation of land evaluation principles and models. In order to incorporate the different land attributes that differ spatially and to identify the best suitable land use, GIS has proved to be the best tool (Bizuwork, Taddese, Peden, Jobre, Getahun, 2006). The powerful query, analysis and integration mechanism of GIS makes it an ideal scientific tool to analyze data for land use planning. Management of natural resources based on their potential and limitation is essential for development of rangeland on a sustainable basis. GIS technology is being increasingly employed by different users to create resource database and to arrive at appropriate solutions/strategies for sustainable development of rangelands (Venkataratnam, 2002). Today, GIS is a tool that can assist a community to plan and to support the information management during the rangeland production process, while at the same time ensures the proper balance between competing resource values. It can enhance the accessibility and flexibility of information and can improve the linkages and understanding

The study area is located in the Ghara-Aghch catchment in Isfahan province (10 kilometers northeast of Semirom), in the central part of Iran. The area under study (51º, 34´, 54 to 51º, 45´, 53 E and 31º, 26´, 19 to 31º, 03´, 28 N) comprises of 8962.25-hectares of which 79.9% is rangeland (Figure.1). The climate is semi-arid with an average annual rainfall of 358 mm yr-1, falling mainly in the autumn and winter. The average minimum and maximum temperatures are 3.1 and 16.7 ºC, respectively. The Mean annual temperature is about 10 degrees Celsius) and the climate based on the classification using the Dumbarton method is semi-arid. Sheep and goats were the two main sources of animal production. In Ghara-Aghch, the rangeland area is negatively affected by inappropriate land management practices, e.g. over utilization. Uncontrolled utilization of the vegetation of the rangelands affects forage quality because of the transition from a plant community with a higher

Site evaluation and data collection was carried out during the spring until autumn of 2010. Vegetation segments, pasture boundaries, agricultural lands, fruit gardens, urban settlements, bare soils, out cropped rocks and stony areas were mapped in field studies using 1:50,000 scale map and aerial photographs. Preliminary vegetation types were distinguished with the physiognomic-floristic-ecologic method. Meanwhile with the determination of the pasture types, the boundaries were checked on the map according to the features of vegetation entities and dominant species. In this study, a visual scoring method of the available dominant species was used to report the vegetation cover map, botanical composition, and forage production in 17 vegetation types (Figure2; Table1). Overstocking and extended grazing periods are characteristics of inappropriate

of relationship between different types of information (Baniya, 2008).

nutritive value to one with lower nutritional value.

**2. Methodology** 

**2.2. Vegetation type** 

**2.1. Study area** 

As complexity of decisions increases, manual processes become time consuming and are liable to errors, resource managers may increasingly lack the necessary expertise, and, therefore, capacity to make resource management decisions that integrates the range of issues involved. One of the reasons is that the decision may be based on very little information. Other reasons may be the lack of module with flexible user interface (Barbari, Conti, Koostra, Masi, Guerri, Workman, 2006).

A number of technological developments have facilitated the implementation of land evaluation principles and models. In order to incorporate the different land attributes that differ spatially and to identify the best suitable land use, GIS has proved to be the best tool (Bizuwork, Taddese, Peden, Jobre, Getahun, 2006). The powerful query, analysis and integration mechanism of GIS makes it an ideal scientific tool to analyze data for land use planning. Management of natural resources based on their potential and limitation is essential for development of rangeland on a sustainable basis. GIS technology is being increasingly employed by different users to create resource database and to arrive at appropriate solutions/strategies for sustainable development of rangelands (Venkataratnam, 2002). Today, GIS is a tool that can assist a community to plan and to support the information management during the rangeland production process, while at the same time ensures the proper balance between competing resource values. It can enhance the accessibility and flexibility of information and can improve the linkages and understanding of relationship between different types of information (Baniya, 2008).

## **2. Methodology**

## **2.1. Study area**

242 Application of Geographic Information Systems

suitability for an adequate plan for grazing.

Conti, Koostra, Masi, Guerri, Workman, 2006).

livestock grazing as follows: better distribution of livestock in the pasture, harvesting more than one plant species, and more uniform use of pasture lands. In terms of the economy of the rangeland, "mixed livestock grazing" can be studied in three aspects: firstly, with 'mixed livestock grazing' there is an increase in livestock products and the income will increase; secondly, the risk hazard will decrease; and thirdly, the invading species will be controlled. On the other hand, with "mixed livestock grazing" the preservation costs will increase, and rangeland management becomes more difficult (Coffey, 2001). Heady (1975) reported that with mixed livestock grazing, the efficiency of forage use will increase due to combined use of the grasses, forbs, and shrubs. However, Smith (1965) observed that topography, water resources, and priority of management goals are among the factors determining the success or failure of management of "mixed livestock grazing" rangelands. Coffey (2001) noted that selective grazing species by the livestock in 'mixed livestock grazing' is very important. The cattle prefer grasses to the forbs and shrubs, while the sheep prefer the forbs to the grasses and the goats prefer the shrubs and small branches compared to the grasses and forbs. Therefore, the common grazing of cattle, sheep and goats on rangelands results in all vegetation being grazed and as a result the woody plants and shrubs which form a large part of the rangeland will be grazed in large quantities with common grazing. Luginbuhl et al. (2000) observed that by adding goats to a pasture being grazed by cattle showed a decrease in shrubs and provision of sufficient time for regeneration of the grasses. In fact, by adding the goats to the pasture grazed by the cattle controlled woody plants without influencing the cattle's grazing preference, and thus grazing capacity was increased with a rise in income. Adding the sheep in a pasture which is being grazed by the cattle showed similar results, although sheep in comparison with goats consume fewer woody species; however, the sheep can be used to control the woody species with suitable grazing pressure and thus cause an improvement in the rangeland. Several studies have reported model suitability of the rangelands for livestock grazing (Alizadeh, Arzani, Azarnivan, Mohajeri, Kaboli, 2011; Amiri, 2009a; b; Arzani, Jangjo, Shams, Mohtashamnia, Fashami, Ahmadi, Jafari, Darvishsefat, Shahriary, 2006; Bizuwerk, Peden, Taddese, Getahun, 2005; Gavili, Ghasriani, Arzani, Vahabi, Amiri, 2011; Javadi, Arzani, Farahpour, Zahedi, 2008; Thornton, Herrero, 2001). The allocation of limited rangeland resources to various land uses, lack of sufficient environmental policies for sustainable use of rangelands as well as degradation of these areas have caused increasing concern among managers and revealed the importance of land suitability analysis. However, no research has been reported on the mixed livestock grazing of sheep and goats. Therefore, the objectives of this study, while recognizing important factors affecting model suitability for 'mixed livestock grazing' of the rangelands, was also designed to determine the kind and rate of the limitations and factors reducing the

As complexity of decisions increases, manual processes become time consuming and are liable to errors, resource managers may increasingly lack the necessary expertise, and, therefore, capacity to make resource management decisions that integrates the range of issues involved. One of the reasons is that the decision may be based on very little information. Other reasons may be the lack of module with flexible user interface (Barbari, The study area is located in the Ghara-Aghch catchment in Isfahan province (10 kilometers northeast of Semirom), in the central part of Iran. The area under study (51º, 34´, 54 to 51º, 45´, 53 E and 31º, 26´, 19 to 31º, 03´, 28 N) comprises of 8962.25-hectares of which 79.9% is rangeland (Figure.1). The climate is semi-arid with an average annual rainfall of 358 mm yr-1, falling mainly in the autumn and winter. The average minimum and maximum temperatures are 3.1 and 16.7 ºC, respectively. The Mean annual temperature is about 10 degrees Celsius) and the climate based on the classification using the Dumbarton method is semi-arid. Sheep and goats were the two main sources of animal production. In Ghara-Aghch, the rangeland area is negatively affected by inappropriate land management practices, e.g. over utilization. Uncontrolled utilization of the vegetation of the rangelands affects forage quality because of the transition from a plant community with a higher nutritive value to one with lower nutritional value.

## **2.2. Vegetation type**

Site evaluation and data collection was carried out during the spring until autumn of 2010. Vegetation segments, pasture boundaries, agricultural lands, fruit gardens, urban settlements, bare soils, out cropped rocks and stony areas were mapped in field studies using 1:50,000 scale map and aerial photographs. Preliminary vegetation types were distinguished with the physiognomic-floristic-ecologic method. Meanwhile with the determination of the pasture types, the boundaries were checked on the map according to the features of vegetation entities and dominant species. In this study, a visual scoring method of the available dominant species was used to report the vegetation cover map, botanical composition, and forage production in 17 vegetation types (Figure2; Table1). Overstocking and extended grazing periods are characteristics of inappropriate

Monitoring Land Suitability for Mixed Livestock Grazing Using Geographic Information System (GIS) 245

**No. Abbreviations Vegetation type Area (ha)**  1 Ag.tr *Agropyron trichophoum* 122.77 2 Ag.tr-As.pa *Agropyron trichophoum-Astragalus parroaianus* 305.59 3 Ag.tr-As.ca-Da.mu *Agropyron trichophoum- Astragalus canesens- Daphne macronata* 898.36 4 As.ad-Ag.tr-Da.mu *Astragalus adsendence-Agropyron trichophoum-Daphne macronata* 385.59 5 As.pa-Ag.tr *Astragalus parroaianus-Agropyron trichophoum* 162.77 6 As.ly-Ag.tr-Da.mu *Astragalus lycioides-Agropyron trichophoum-Daphne macronata* 237.51 7 As.ca-Br.to-Co.cyl *Astragalus canesens-Bromus tomentellus-Cousinia cylianderica* 2029.68 8 As.br-Br.to-Da.mu *Astragalus brachycalyx-Bromus tomentellus-Daphne macronata* 116.2 9 As.go-Co.cyl *Astragalus gossipianus-Cousinia cylanderica* 362.66 10 As.pa-Co.cyl-Da.mu *Astragalus parroaianus-Cousinia cylanderica-Daphne macronata* - 11 As.cy-Fe.ov *Astragalus cyclophylus-Ferula ovina* 105.7 12 Br.to-As.pa *Bromus tomentellus-Astragalus parroaianus* 373.11 13 Co.ba-As.go *Cousinia bachtiarica-Astragalus gossipianus* 188.52 14 Co.ba-Sc.or *Cousinia bachtiarica-Scariola orientalis* 499.07 15 Fe.ov-Br.to-As.za *Ferula ovina-Bromus tomentellus-Astragalus zagrosicus* 212.33 16 Ho.vi-Po.bu *Hordeum bulbosum-Poa bulbosa* 36.76 17 Br.to-Sc.or *Bromus tomentellus-Scariola orientalis* 153.58 Total rangeland area 7158.81

**Table 1.** Vegetation communities in Ghara-Aghch rangelands

**Figure 2.** Vegetation type (VT) of Ghara-Aghch rangelands

The livestock grazing model suitability comprises of three measures: the capacity and production of forage, the soil sensitivity to erosion, and physical factors (water resources

**2.3. Factors of livestock model** 

**Figure 1.** Location of study area within the Ghara-Aghch District

management practices in the study area. In this study, 182 plant species in ten major vegetation types were identified in the rangelands in Ghara-Aghch showing negative and poor trends and conditions.

Monitoring Land Suitability for Mixed Livestock Grazing Using Geographic Information System (GIS) 245


**Table 1.** Vegetation communities in Ghara-Aghch rangelands

244 Application of Geographic Information Systems

**Figure 1.** Location of study area within the Ghara-Aghch District

poor trends and conditions.

management practices in the study area. In this study, 182 plant species in ten major vegetation types were identified in the rangelands in Ghara-Aghch showing negative and

**Figure 2.** Vegetation type (VT) of Ghara-Aghch rangelands

## **2.3. Factors of livestock model**

The livestock grazing model suitability comprises of three measures: the capacity and production of forage, the soil sensitivity to erosion, and physical factors (water resources and slope). The components of the suitability model for livestock grazing are illustrated in Figurer 3.

Monitoring Land Suitability for Mixed Livestock Grazing Using Geographic Information System (GIS) 247

Soil depth, type, texture, gravels, structure, rocky outcrops, and groundwater were the characteristics used to categorize each group (Figure 4). Sensitivity to erosion in the submodel for each vegetation type was created and classified by integrating range condition, land use, slope, erosion potential, soil characteristics, and geology (Table 2). The lower erosion class was placed in suitability category S1, low and medium erosion class in S2 suitability category and high and very high erosion classes were placed in the suitability

categories of S3 and N respectively (Table 2).

**Figure 4.** EPM model for soil erosion

Symbol Range of Z classes Suitability classes

In terms of data relevant to the conditions of livestock breeding, the percentile herd combination in each Samman unit [In Iranian rangelands, the livestock can only use water in Samman unit] was used to determine the livestock grazing capacity (Amiri, 2009b). First the Samman unit plan was adopted with the vegetation types of the region so that the percentile

 < 0.2 Low S1 0.2-0.7 Medium S2 0.7-1 High S3 >1 Very High N

**2.5. Grazing capacity and forage production factors** 

**Table 2.** Classes of sensitivity to erosion (Amiri, 2009a)

**Figure 3.** Components of mixed livestock grazing suitability model

The method introduced by FAO (1991) for range suitability classification used ILWIS version 3.6 as the GIS Software. Land evaluation normally requires a comparison between the inputs required and the outputs obtained when each relevant land utilization type is applied to each land unit.

Two orders of range suitability for livestock grazing were considered: suitable (S) or unsuitable (N). Three classes of suitability were determined: highly suitable (S1), moderately suitable (S2), and marginally suitable (S3) (FAO, 1976; 1983; 1984; 1985; 1991; 2002; 2007).

## **2.4. Soil sensitivity to erosion**

Soil sensitivity to erosion was determined by the Erosion Potential Model (EPM). This model was based on the evaluation of the four factors of land use, slope, erosion potential, soil characteristics, and geology, depending on the strength and weakness of each factor (Ahmadi, 2004; Rafahi, 2004). Figurer 4 illustrates the suggested factors and their relationships in this model (Amiri, 2010). The slope map and EPM model were used to calculate erosion potential and create erosion sensitivity classes.

According to this model:

$$\mathbf{Z} = \mathbf{Y}.\mathbf{\hat{X}a} \text{ (}\Psi\text{+I 0.5)}\tag{1}$$

where, Z is the erosion severity index, Y is the sensitivity of soil and bedrock to erosion, Xa Is the land use index, Ψ is the erosion index of the watershed, and I is the average gradient of the slope (Amiri, 2010).

Soil depth, type, texture, gravels, structure, rocky outcrops, and groundwater were the characteristics used to categorize each group (Figure 4). Sensitivity to erosion in the submodel for each vegetation type was created and classified by integrating range condition, land use, slope, erosion potential, soil characteristics, and geology (Table 2). The lower erosion class was placed in suitability category S1, low and medium erosion class in S2 suitability category and high and very high erosion classes were placed in the suitability categories of S3 and N respectively (Table 2).

**Figure 4.** EPM model for soil erosion

246 Application of Geographic Information Systems

**Figure 3.** Components of mixed livestock grazing suitability model

calculate erosion potential and create erosion sensitivity classes.

applied to each land unit.

According to this model:

of the slope (Amiri, 2010).

**2.4. Soil sensitivity to erosion** 

Figurer 3.

and slope). The components of the suitability model for livestock grazing are illustrated in

The method introduced by FAO (1991) for range suitability classification used ILWIS version 3.6 as the GIS Software. Land evaluation normally requires a comparison between the inputs required and the outputs obtained when each relevant land utilization type is

Two orders of range suitability for livestock grazing were considered: suitable (S) or unsuitable (N). Three classes of suitability were determined: highly suitable (S1), moderately suitable (S2), and marginally suitable (S3) (FAO, 1976; 1983; 1984; 1985; 1991; 2002; 2007).

Soil sensitivity to erosion was determined by the Erosion Potential Model (EPM). This model was based on the evaluation of the four factors of land use, slope, erosion potential, soil characteristics, and geology, depending on the strength and weakness of each factor (Ahmadi, 2004; Rafahi, 2004). Figurer 4 illustrates the suggested factors and their relationships in this model (Amiri, 2010). The slope map and EPM model were used to

where, Z is the erosion severity index, Y is the sensitivity of soil and bedrock to erosion, Xa Is the land use index, Ψ is the erosion index of the watershed, and I is the average gradient

Z = Y.Xa (Ψ+I 0.5) (1)


**Table 2.** Classes of sensitivity to erosion (Amiri, 2009a)

### **2.5. Grazing capacity and forage production factors**

In terms of data relevant to the conditions of livestock breeding, the percentile herd combination in each Samman unit [In Iranian rangelands, the livestock can only use water in Samman unit] was used to determine the livestock grazing capacity (Amiri, 2009b). First the Samman unit plan was adopted with the vegetation types of the region so that the percentile of the herd combination in the vegetation types located in the boundaries of each Samman unit could be determined. The vegetation parameters recorded in April-May and May-June 2009 and April-May and May-June 2010 were used in the study.

Monitoring Land Suitability for Mixed Livestock Grazing Using Geographic Information System (GIS) 249

Proper Use Factor

Figurer 6 illustrates the components of capacity and suitability of forage production for livestock use. The diagram derived from the livestock grazing capacity model will then be

**Table 3.** Palatability coefficients and proper use factor rates used in the calculation of available forage [When the erosion suitability class is S3 and the pasture is in a poor condition and the tendency is negative, the allowed exploitation limit for goats is considered zero and the production suitability class

**Figure 6.** Components of carrying capacity and suitability of forage production in livestock use model

applied in the next stage as input for the water resource model.

is considered N (unsuitable)] (Amiri, 2009a)

(SE)

(PUF) Range condition (RC) Range trend (RT) Soil Erosion sensitivity

Low and Medium (S1 or S2) Good or Excellent Up or Static 50 Low and Medium (S1 or S2) Good or Excellent Down 40 Low (S1) Fair Up or Static 40 Medium (S2) Fair Up or Static 35 Medium (S2) Fair Down 30 High (S3) Fair Up or Static 30 High (S3) Fair Down 25 Medium (S2) Poor Up or Static 30 Medium (S2) Poor Down 25 High (S3) Poor Up or Static 25 High (S3) Poor Down 20

The grazing capacity and the suitability of the forage production in vegetation types was first determined. The existing plant species in the vegetation types were listed and the percentage of canopy cover of each variety was determined separately based on the percentage derived from total plots sampled. The production of entire plant varieties edible to sheep and goats were separately determined by cutting and weighing of samples in each plot at the end of the active growth period (Milner, Hughes, Gimingham, Miller, Slatyer, 1968). Samples were taken at random in the 10 vegetation types (determined via floristicphysiognomic method) within one-square-meter plots with three 200-meter transects. Based on field visits and interviews with experts from the Natural Resources Institute (NRI) the palatability classes of the species separately for sheep and goats were classified into one of the three palatability classes (I, II, and III) and the proper use factors (PUF) in vegetation types were determined based on the soil sensitivity to erosion suitability class adapted from the EPM model with respect to the range conditions and range trends in vegetation types (Table 3).

**Figure 5.** Utilization units in Ghara-Aghch rangeland

Then the available forage of the existing varieties in the vegetation types for sheep and goats in livestock use was calculated from the product of palatability or Proper Use Factor (PUF) (each one, which is lesser) of each variety and herd combination percentage (sheep and goats) and by adding up the available forage products of all varieties of a type (Smith, 1965). Figurer 6 illustrates the components of capacity and suitability of forage production for livestock use. The diagram derived from the livestock grazing capacity model will then be applied in the next stage as input for the water resource model.

248 Application of Geographic Information Systems

(Table 3).

of the herd combination in the vegetation types located in the boundaries of each Samman unit could be determined. The vegetation parameters recorded in April-May and May-June

The grazing capacity and the suitability of the forage production in vegetation types was first determined. The existing plant species in the vegetation types were listed and the percentage of canopy cover of each variety was determined separately based on the percentage derived from total plots sampled. The production of entire plant varieties edible to sheep and goats were separately determined by cutting and weighing of samples in each plot at the end of the active growth period (Milner, Hughes, Gimingham, Miller, Slatyer, 1968). Samples were taken at random in the 10 vegetation types (determined via floristicphysiognomic method) within one-square-meter plots with three 200-meter transects. Based on field visits and interviews with experts from the Natural Resources Institute (NRI) the palatability classes of the species separately for sheep and goats were classified into one of the three palatability classes (I, II, and III) and the proper use factors (PUF) in vegetation types were determined based on the soil sensitivity to erosion suitability class adapted from the EPM model with respect to the range conditions and range trends in vegetation types

Then the available forage of the existing varieties in the vegetation types for sheep and goats in livestock use was calculated from the product of palatability or Proper Use Factor (PUF) (each one, which is lesser) of each variety and herd combination percentage (sheep and goats) and by adding up the available forage products of all varieties of a type (Smith, 1965).

2009 and April-May and May-June 2010 were used in the study.

**Figure 5.** Utilization units in Ghara-Aghch rangeland


**Table 3.** Palatability coefficients and proper use factor rates used in the calculation of available forage [When the erosion suitability class is S3 and the pasture is in a poor condition and the tendency is negative, the allowed exploitation limit for goats is considered zero and the production suitability class is considered N (unsuitable)] (Amiri, 2009a)

**Figure 6.** Components of carrying capacity and suitability of forage production in livestock use model

As illustrated in Figurer 6 the components of the livestock grazing capacity model comprises of four sub-models which include the amount of available forage for the sheep and goats, gazing period, forage needed for livestock use, and the area of the vegetation types (ha). In order to create the available forage, the relevant information was integrated for each vegetation type using Equation 2:

$$\text{DLNIN} = \text{GP} + \text{T} + \text{FQ} \tag{2}$$

Monitoring Land Suitability for Mixed Livestock Grazing Using Geographic Information System (GIS) 251

The slope suitability categories in livestock use were determined from the slope suitability

Slope (%) 0-10 10-30 30-60 60< Suitability classes S1 S2 S3 N

The suitability categories of this model were determined via the combination of three submodels of quality, quantity and distance from water sources (Figure 7). The distance from

water sources suitability classes in livestock use are illustrated in Table 6 (Figure 8).

Suitability class 0-10 10-30 30-60 >60 S1 0-3400 0-3000 0-1000 N S2 3400-5000 3000-4800 1000-3600 N S3 5000-6400 4800-6000 3600-4100 N N >6400 >6000 >4100 N

**2.7. Slope** 

classes (Table 5).

**2.8. Water resources**

Slope class (%)

**Table 5.** Slope suitability classes (Neameh, 2003)

**Table 6.** Water resource distance and its suitability classes

**Figure 7.** Model for classification of water resource suitability (Amiri, 2009a; b)

where, DLNN = Daily Livestock Nutrition Need, GP = Grazing Period, T = Topography, and FQ = Forage Quality (Amiri, 2010a).

The average daily requirement of a 50 kg sheep and 37 kg goat consuming quality forage was determined as 1.35 kg dry matter. Available forage (AF, kg/day) for livestock was calculated as:

$$\mathbf{AF} = \Sigma(\mathbf{Y} + \text{(P/PUF)}) \tag{3}$$

where; Y= yield (kg/ha), P = palatability, and PUF = proper use factor (Guo, Liang, Liu, Niu, 2006); while PUF was determined by combining information on trends in range condition and erosion sensitivity (Amiri, Shariff, 2011).

The livestock grazing capacity model as described earlier comprises of four sub-models which include the amount of available forage for the sheep and goats, gazing period, forage needed for the sheep and goats, and the area of the vegetation types. The grazing capacity was calculated using Equation 4 (Guo, Liang, Liu, Niu, 2006).

$$\text{GCC} = \frac{\text{AF}}{\text{DLNN}} \tag{4}$$

where GC id the for grazing capacity, AF is the available forage (Kg/ha) in the area (ha), and DLNN is the Daily Livestock Nutritional Need (Amiri, 2009a). The number of goats was determined using the Animal Unit (A.U) for goats as 0.8. The forage production suitability class, based on the ratio of the available forage production to the total products of that type was determined from Table 4.


**Table 4.** Forage production suitability classes [\* Minimum production lower then 100 (kg/h)]

#### **2.6. Physical factors**

The suitability class of this model was determined via the combination of the two measures of slope and water resources.

## **2.7. Slope**

250 Application of Geographic Information Systems

for each vegetation type using Equation 2:

and erosion sensitivity (Amiri, Shariff, 2011).

was determined from Table 4.

**2.6. Physical factors** 

of slope and water resources.

was calculated using Equation 4 (Guo, Liang, Liu, Niu, 2006).

FQ = Forage Quality (Amiri, 2010a).

calculated as:

As illustrated in Figurer 6 the components of the livestock grazing capacity model comprises of four sub-models which include the amount of available forage for the sheep and goats, gazing period, forage needed for livestock use, and the area of the vegetation types (ha). In order to create the available forage, the relevant information was integrated

where, DLNN = Daily Livestock Nutrition Need, GP = Grazing Period, T = Topography, and

The average daily requirement of a 50 kg sheep and 37 kg goat consuming quality forage was determined as 1.35 kg dry matter. Available forage (AF, kg/day) for livestock was

where; Y= yield (kg/ha), P = palatability, and PUF = proper use factor (Guo, Liang, Liu, Niu, 2006); while PUF was determined by combining information on trends in range condition

The livestock grazing capacity model as described earlier comprises of four sub-models which include the amount of available forage for the sheep and goats, gazing period, forage needed for the sheep and goats, and the area of the vegetation types. The grazing capacity

AF GC

where GC id the for grazing capacity, AF is the available forage (Kg/ha) in the area (ha), and DLNN is the Daily Livestock Nutritional Need (Amiri, 2009a). The number of goats was determined using the Animal Unit (A.U) for goats as 0.8. The forage production suitability class, based on the ratio of the available forage production to the total products of that type

State Available forage production (AF) \* Production classes %40 (of total production) S1 %30-40 (of total production) S2 %20-30 (of total production) S3 < %20 (of total production) N **Table 4.** Forage production suitability classes [\* Minimum production lower then 100 (kg/h)]

The suitability class of this model was determined via the combination of the two measures

DLNN = GP + T + FQ (2)

AF = Σ(Y + (P/PUF)) (3)

DLNN (4)

The slope suitability categories in livestock use were determined from the slope suitability classes (Table 5).


**Table 5.** Slope suitability classes (Neameh, 2003)

### **2.8. Water resources**

The suitability categories of this model were determined via the combination of three submodels of quality, quantity and distance from water sources (Figure 7). The distance from water sources suitability classes in livestock use are illustrated in Table 6 (Figure 8).


**Table 6.** Water resource distance and its suitability classes

**Figure 7.** Model for classification of water resource suitability (Amiri, 2009a; b)

Monitoring Land Suitability for Mixed Livestock Grazing Using Geographic Information System (GIS) 253

37 ml/kg 0.82 (6)

livestock on the kilogram basis. Ferreira et al. (2002) calculated the amount of water needed by Merino breed sheep with an average weight of 50 kilograms via the following formula

Therefore, based on all the factors involved in the calculation of the water needed in each Samman unit and information from local pastoral farmers (Formulas 5 and 6), the water needed for a mature sheep (Ghashghaei Turkish breed) was calculated as five liters per day and for a mature goat (Ghashghaei Turkish breed) it was estimated as four liters per day

The grazing capacity map of each vegetation type was overlaid with the map of the Samman unit and via weight averaging based on the area of each Samman unit, the quantity of the water resources was determined and the number of permitted livestock (sheep and goats) was calculated for each Samman unit. The suitability categories were then determined by comparison of the available water in each Samman unit with the water needed by the

Available water in pasture ration to livestock need (%) >76 51-75 26-50 < 25 Suitability classes S1 S2 S3 N

The erosion sensitivity model on vegetation types showed that about 3.5% of the regions rangeland surface (254.25 hectares) was classified in as erosion Class II (low sedimentation intensity), 64% (4585.98 hectares) as Class III (medium sedimentation intensity), and 32.4% (2318.95 hectares) was classified as erosion Class IV (high sedimentation intensity). Furthermore, the results of suitability categories of soil sensitivity to erosion revealed that 4585.98 hectares (64%) of the rangeland surface was classified in the S2 suitability category and 2572.84 hectares (36%) was placed in the S3 suitability category. The map of suitability

The results of the suitability model on forage production of vegetation types in the study area under investigation are illustrated in Table 9. According to the forage production model, none of the vegetation types fall into the S1 suitability category. About 1352.46 hectares (18.89%) of the rangeland fell into the S2 suitability category, around 4837.74 hectares (67.57%) of the rangeland fell in the S3 suitability category on forage production, and finally 968.61 hectares (10.8%) of the rangeland fell in the N suitability category (Figurer 10). The results on the livestock grazing capacity in the study area are shown in Table 10.

(6):

(Amiri, 2009b).

**3. Results** 

livestock in each Samman unit (Table 8).

**Table 8.** Water resource suitability classes

**3.1. Erosion sensitivity model** 

categories of the EPM model are shown in Figurer 9.

**3.2. Forage production and livestock grazing capacity** 

**Figure 8.** Water resource distance in Ghara-Aghch rangeland

Khan and Ghosh (1982) studied tolerance of goats and sheep to saltiness under difficult environmental conditions in the Rajasthan desert, and observed that the tolerance of the goats was higher than the sheep. The water suitability precincts of the region were classified based on Total Dissolved Salts in the water (TDS) (Table 7).


**Table 7.** Water quality suitability classes for sheep and goats (Bagley et al 1997)

### **2.9. Quantity of water sources**

Many factors affect the amount of water used by livestock which include the kind of livestock, the livestock's age and breed, the regions topography, available forage and quality of the forage, the grazing season, the quantity, quality and distance from water resources. King (1983) developed a formula (5) for the amount of water needed by African goats with an average weight of 37 kilograms:

$$\text{la } \texttt{lkg}^{0.82}/\text{day} \text{ =} \texttt{?} \text{ lit }/\text{day} \tag{5}$$

In this formula 'a' is the coefficient which is to be calculated based on local investigations. The '?' is the amount of water needed by the livestock, and 'kg' is the live weight of the livestock on the kilogram basis. Ferreira et al. (2002) calculated the amount of water needed by Merino breed sheep with an average weight of 50 kilograms via the following formula (6):

$$\text{37 ml/kg}\tag{6}$$

Therefore, based on all the factors involved in the calculation of the water needed in each Samman unit and information from local pastoral farmers (Formulas 5 and 6), the water needed for a mature sheep (Ghashghaei Turkish breed) was calculated as five liters per day and for a mature goat (Ghashghaei Turkish breed) it was estimated as four liters per day (Amiri, 2009b).

The grazing capacity map of each vegetation type was overlaid with the map of the Samman unit and via weight averaging based on the area of each Samman unit, the quantity of the water resources was determined and the number of permitted livestock (sheep and goats) was calculated for each Samman unit. The suitability categories were then determined by comparison of the available water in each Samman unit with the water needed by the livestock in each Samman unit (Table 8).


**Table 8.** Water resource suitability classes

## **3. Results**

252 Application of Geographic Information Systems

**Figure 8.** Water resource distance in Ghara-Aghch rangeland

based on Total Dissolved Salts in the water (TDS) (Table 7).

**2.9. Quantity of water sources** 

an average weight of 37 kilograms:

**Table 7.** Water quality suitability classes for sheep and goats (Bagley et al 1997)

Khan and Ghosh (1982) studied tolerance of goats and sheep to saltiness under difficult environmental conditions in the Rajasthan desert, and observed that the tolerance of the goats was higher than the sheep. The water suitability precincts of the region were classified

Total Dissolved Salts (TDS; ppm) Suitability class S1 S2 S3 N

Sheep <3000 3000-6000 6000-10000 >10000 goats <3000 5000-7000 7000-10000 >10000

Many factors affect the amount of water used by livestock which include the kind of livestock, the livestock's age and breed, the regions topography, available forage and quality of the forage, the grazing season, the quantity, quality and distance from water resources. King (1983) developed a formula (5) for the amount of water needed by African goats with

In this formula 'a' is the coefficient which is to be calculated based on local investigations. The '?' is the amount of water needed by the livestock, and 'kg' is the live weight of the

a l/kg0.82 /day =? lit /day (5)

## **3.1. Erosion sensitivity model**

The erosion sensitivity model on vegetation types showed that about 3.5% of the regions rangeland surface (254.25 hectares) was classified in as erosion Class II (low sedimentation intensity), 64% (4585.98 hectares) as Class III (medium sedimentation intensity), and 32.4% (2318.95 hectares) was classified as erosion Class IV (high sedimentation intensity). Furthermore, the results of suitability categories of soil sensitivity to erosion revealed that 4585.98 hectares (64%) of the rangeland surface was classified in the S2 suitability category and 2572.84 hectares (36%) was placed in the S3 suitability category. The map of suitability categories of the EPM model are shown in Figurer 9.

## **3.2. Forage production and livestock grazing capacity**

The results of the suitability model on forage production of vegetation types in the study area under investigation are illustrated in Table 9. According to the forage production model, none of the vegetation types fall into the S1 suitability category. About 1352.46 hectares (18.89%) of the rangeland fell into the S2 suitability category, around 4837.74 hectares (67.57%) of the rangeland fell in the S3 suitability category on forage production, and finally 968.61 hectares (10.8%) of the rangeland fell in the N suitability category (Figurer 10). The results on the livestock grazing capacity in the study area are shown in Table 10.

Monitoring Land Suitability for Mixed Livestock Grazing Using Geographic Information System (GIS) 255

**Figure 10.** Suitability map of forage production at Ghara-Aghch

forage (kg/h) Area

(h)

Daily forage need (kg) gazing

Da.mu 66.6 23 898.36 1.4 1.19 120 500 356 180

Da.mu 66.7 24.2 385.59 1.41 1.2 120 217 152 81

Da.mu 60 20.8 237.51 1.4 1.194 120 119 85 42

Co.cyl 42.1 16.8 2029.68 1.49 1.272 120 700 477 279

Da.mu 67.8 23.2 116.2 1.42 1.217 120 64 46 23

As.za 81.3 30.2 212.33 1.37 1.168 120 151 105 57


1 Ag.tr 88.9 31.8 122.77 1.36 1.165 120 95 67 35 2 Ag.tr-As.pa 60.7 34.3 305.59 1.38 1.179 120 186 112 93

5 As.pa-Ag.tr 58.2 22.4 162.77 1.44 1.234 120 79 55 30

9 As.go-Co.cyl 35.2 24.2 362.66 1.54 1.315 120 125 69 70

11 As.cy-Fe.ov 56.1 31.2 105.7 1.43 1.222 120 57 34 29 12 Br.to-As.pa 58.5 19.8 373.11 1.55 1.322 120 158 113 56 13 Co.ba-As.go 44.2 23.8 188.52 1.52 1.3 120 75 46 36 14 Co.ba-Sc.or 33.9 19.5 499.07 1.63 1.397 120 145 87 73

16 Ho.vi-Po.bu 152 53.8 36.76 1.52 1.3 120 44 31 16 17 Br.to-Sc.or 53.6 29.8 153.58 1.39 1.19 120 82 50 40 **Table 10.** Livestock grazing capacity of vegetation types [1This type is unsuitable for livestock graze. 2 The weight of the sheep (a livestock unit) was 50 kilograms and the average weight of the goats was 37

kilograms, 50/37 = 0.8, as a result the ratio of each sheep to a goats in the region is 0.8]

period (day)

sheep goats sheep 2goats sheep goats

Livestock grazing capacity (on AUM) Livestock grazing (number of head)

Available

Number Vegetation type

3 Ag.tr-As.ca-

4 As.ad-Ag.tr-

6 As.ly-Ag.tr-

7 As.ca-Br.to-

8 As.br-Br.to-

15 Fe.ov-Br.to-

1As.pa-Co.cyl-Da.mu

10

**Figure 9.** Erosion class properties in Ghara-Aghch


**Table 9.** Suitability classes based on forage production and available forage in Ghareh Aghach [Since this type is classified in the S3 erosion suitability class and is of a poor condition with a downward trend it is unsuitable for livestock grazing]

**Figure 10.** Suitability map of forage production at Ghara-Aghch

**Figure 9.** Erosion class properties in Ghara-Aghch

Available forage based on

herd composition (kg/h) Ratio of available forage to

Da.mu 66.6 23 27.7 S3

Da.mu 66.7 24.2 30.8 S2

Da.mu 60 20.8 28.2 S3

Co.cyl 42.1 16.8 25.1 S3

Da.mu 67.8 23.2 32.3 S2

Da.mu1 - - - N

As.za 81.3 30.2 33.4 S2

1 Ag.tr 88.9 31.8 31.7 S2 2 Ag.tr-As.pa 60.7 34.3 27.6 S3

5 As.pa-Ag.tr 58.2 22.4 25.8 S3

9 As.go-Co.cyl 35.2 24.2 23.1 S3

11 As.cy-Fe.ov 56.1 31.2 30.01 S2 12 Br.to-As.pa 58.5 19.8 30.2 S2 13 Co.ba-As.go 44.2 23.8 27.5 S3 14 Co.ba-Sc.or 33.9 19.5 23.3 S3

16 Ho.vi-Po.bu 152 53.8 31.8 S2 17 Br.to-Sc.or 53.6 29.8 28.4 S3 **Table 9.** Suitability classes based on forage production and available forage in Ghareh Aghach [Since this type is classified in the S3 erosion suitability class and is of a poor condition with a downward

total production

sheep goats classes

Forage suitability

Number Vegetation type

3 Ag.tr-As.ca-

4 As.ad-Ag.tr-

6 As.ly-Ag.tr-

7 As.ca-Br.to-

8 As.br-Br.to-

10 As.pa-Co.cyl-

15 Fe.ov-Br.to-

trend it is unsuitable for livestock grazing]


**Table 10.** Livestock grazing capacity of vegetation types [1This type is unsuitable for livestock graze. 2 The weight of the sheep (a livestock unit) was 50 kilograms and the average weight of the goats was 37 kilograms, 50/37 = 0.8, as a result the ratio of each sheep to a goats in the region is 0.8]

### **3.3. Suitability model of water resource quality**

The water resource quality sub-model was determined by examination of the effective factors on the water quality and by comparison with specific standards. Based on the water resources quality sub-model and considering the water quality, there were no limitation in the region in question, and the whole region fell within the S1 suitability category (Table 11). Monitoring Land Suitability for Mixed Livestock Grazing Using Geographic Information System (GIS) 257

Water need (lit/day)

> **Livestock grazing** Area (ha)

sheep goats sheep goats sheep goats

Suitability classes of water quantity

The results achieved from the sub-model on water resource's quantity are presented in Table 12. The results of the sub-model, revealed that there were no limitations on the amount of water in the Samman units in question and that all fell into the S1 suitability category.

> Carrying capacity in each Samman unit (A head of livestock in 120 day)

Catevar 224640 389 122 1945 488 S1 S1 Chatemohammad 143424 328 166 1640 664 S1 S1 Dalicdash 88992 99 55 495 220 S1 S1 Darehgairan 41472 249 143 1245 572 S1 S1 Ghare-aghach 34560 125 84 625 336 S1 S1 Ghoeenchaman 417312 107 81 535 324 S1 S1 Kargari 44927 27 24 135 96 S1 S1 Marghalighole 196992 326 192 1630 768 S1 S1 Raesmalek 97632 258 152 1290 608 S1 S1 Taktesoltan 517536 91 50 455 200 S1 S1 Tangetir 990144 166 94 830 376 S1 S1 Total 2797632 2165 1163 10825 4652 S1 S1

The results of the sub-modal on the distance from water resources suitability revealed that 6385.17 hectares of the rangeland area (89.2%) fell in the S1 suitability category, 530.04 hectares (7.4%) of the rangeland of the region in question fell into the S2 suitability category, and only 243.6 hectares (3.4%) of the rangeland fell into the unsuitable (N) category; in addition, no rangeland area fell into the S3 suitability category. The final outcome of the model on water resources is illustrated in Table 13. The region in question had no problems regarding the quantity and quality of the water resources; it was only the distance from the resources that mainly determined the suitability of the rangeland with respect to water

S1 6,385.17 (89.2%) S2 530.04 (7.4%) S3 - N 243.6 (3.4%) **Total land area in study** 7,159 ha

**Table 13.** Categorization of land area into suitability classes based on water resources model

**3.4. Suitability model of water resources quantity**

**Table 12.** Quantity suitability of water resource in each Samman unit

**3.5. Distance from water resources suitability** 

content (lit/day)

Samman unit water

resources.

**Suitability classes**


**Table 11.** Ghareh Aghach water resources quality and quantity

## **3.4. Suitability model of water resources quantity**

256 Application of Geographic Information Systems

**3.3. Suitability model of water resource quality** 

**Table 11.** Ghareh Aghach water resources quality and quantity

The water resource quality sub-model was determined by examination of the effective factors on the water quality and by comparison with specific standards. Based on the water resources quality sub-model and considering the water quality, there were no limitation in the region in question, and the whole region fell within the S1 suitability category (Table 11).

The results achieved from the sub-model on water resource's quantity are presented in Table 12. The results of the sub-model, revealed that there were no limitations on the amount of water in the Samman units in question and that all fell into the S1 suitability category.


**Table 12.** Quantity suitability of water resource in each Samman unit

## **3.5. Distance from water resources suitability**

The results of the sub-modal on the distance from water resources suitability revealed that 6385.17 hectares of the rangeland area (89.2%) fell in the S1 suitability category, 530.04 hectares (7.4%) of the rangeland of the region in question fell into the S2 suitability category, and only 243.6 hectares (3.4%) of the rangeland fell into the unsuitable (N) category; in addition, no rangeland area fell into the S3 suitability category. The final outcome of the model on water resources is illustrated in Table 13. The region in question had no problems regarding the quantity and quality of the water resources; it was only the distance from the resources that mainly determined the suitability of the rangeland with respect to water resources.


**Table 13.** Categorization of land area into suitability classes based on water resources model

## **3.6. Final application for livestock grazing**

The final outcome of the suitability model for livestock grazing was derived from the combination of three suitability sub-models involving soil sensitivity to erosion, forage production suitability, and the suitability of the water resources (Table 14).

Monitoring Land Suitability for Mixed Livestock Grazing Using Geographic Information System (GIS) 259

Landsberg, 2004), as well as increase plant diversity and income of the livestock-farmers. Livestock use can also enhance the consumption of poisonous and invasive plants by the livestock which are not sensitive to these species, and thus increase livestock production. For example, the leaves of plants such as Spurge and Larkspur are poisonous to cattle, but safe for sheep. Thus, sheep grazing will indirectly protect the cattle on the rangeland (Taylor, Ralphs, 1992). In the livestock use model adapted in this study no area fell in the S1 suitability category (limitless), while the main part of the rangeland area (75.9%) fell within the S3 suitability category (with high limitation). Among all the factors considered in the lands surveyed, factors related to the vegetation and forage production were the most

In adapting the grazing suitability model for the rangeland due consideration was given to the climatic conditions, vegetation, soil, the status of the current utilization, and topography, and the factors were found to be effective to different degrees. Therefore, recognizing the factors effective in the model and determining the amount of limitations they impose was important for analyzing and assessing the rangeland. Arzani et al. (2006), Amiri (2009a) and Alizadeh et al. (2011) determined rangeland suitability for sheep and goats grazing using a livestock grazing model with the three components of forage production, water resources, and the soil sensitivity to erosion. In the present study via application of the FAO method (1991) the same three measures were employed to determine the final livestock grazing

This research describes the use of a geographical information system (GIS) to construct land suitability models for livestock grazing in the Ghara-Aghch region, Iran. Based on FAO method and the source data, sub models were created focusing on three different themes: sensitivity of the soil to erosion, water resources and available forage. Models recognized the important factors affecting model suitability for livestock use of the rangeland, and also determining the kind and rate of the limitations and factors reducing the suitability with the aim of gaining an adequate plan for grazing. In assessing site considerations these general models identified wider resource management options and solved conflicts of rangeland

The results of the final suitability outcome of the model revealed (a) none at the S1 suitability category (unlimited), (b) 694.36 hectares (9.7%) in the S2 suitability category (with minor limitation), (c) 5439.35 hectares (75.9%) in the S3 suitability category (major limitation), and (d) 1025.81 hectares (14.3%) in the N suitability category (unsuitable). The most important reducing factors in model suitability model were: (a) land use and the vegetation cover (in relation to sensitivity of the soil to erosion), (b) the amount of the available forage in comparison with the total production and (c) the existence of less palatability plants among the pasture plants (forage production suitability). In general, no serious difficulty was observed for the livestock's water source, but in some areas the considerable distance from the water source and the precipitous slope resulted in a decrease or limitation in the graze suitability. Among all parameters studied, the specifications on vegetation and forage production were determined as the most significant factors in

reducing the suitability of the rangeland for livestock grazing of sheep and goats.

significant in decreasing the region's rangeland livestock use suitability.

allocation and livestock grazing between pastoral and rancher.

suitability model for the rangelands.


**Table 14.** Model-based categorization of land area into suitability classes

## **4. Discussion**

Iran is the second largest country in the Middle East, but has limited natural resources such as fertile soil and water, resulting in limited opportunities to expand and/or intensify arable farming. Extensive animal husbandry, on the other hand, including nomadic, transhumant and sedentary forms, is widespread over the rangelands of the country. Rangelands and animal husbandry have been important in Iran for a very long time, as witnessed by the teachings of Zoroaster. More recently, many people have died in the defence of their rangelands after land nationalization, when only the right of use was at stake. The degree of importance attached to a specific rangeland area reflects its productivity, land scarcity and the availability of alternative sources of income. In Iran, as in most parts of the world, animal husbandry is the most productive use of semi-arid zones bordering the desert. However, overgrazing is a major problem in most of these areas. Therefore, the objectives of this paper, was to apply the concept of range inventory in the recognition and evaluation of potential and actual production for optimal utilization of this valuable natural resource for domestic livestock production.

The degree of importance attached to a specific rangeland area reflects its productivity, land scarcity and the availability of alternative sources of income. In Iran, as in other parts of the world, animal husbandry is the most productive use of semi-arid zones bordering deserts (Breman, De Wit, 1983; Reed, Bert, 1995). Farahpour et al. (2004) had estimated that 80 to 90% of the livestock production in Iran, equivalent to 168,000 - 180,000 ton y-1 of meat, was associated with the rangelands. Annual dry matter production of rangelands was estimated at more than ten million tons per hectare. In addition to forage production, mining, fuel wood collection, industrial use of rangeland, e.g. as source of medicinal plants and recreation are other rural enterprises in the rangelands of Iran.

Several researchers have reported that with livestock use and increasing grazing evenness (Forbes, Hodgson, 1985), will in the long term result in increased grazing capacity and livestock production (Abaye, Allen, Fontenot, 1994; Meyer, Harvey, 1985; Pringle, Landsberg, 2004), as well as increase plant diversity and income of the livestock-farmers. Livestock use can also enhance the consumption of poisonous and invasive plants by the livestock which are not sensitive to these species, and thus increase livestock production. For example, the leaves of plants such as Spurge and Larkspur are poisonous to cattle, but safe for sheep. Thus, sheep grazing will indirectly protect the cattle on the rangeland (Taylor, Ralphs, 1992). In the livestock use model adapted in this study no area fell in the S1 suitability category (limitless), while the main part of the rangeland area (75.9%) fell within the S3 suitability category (with high limitation). Among all the factors considered in the lands surveyed, factors related to the vegetation and forage production were the most significant in decreasing the region's rangeland livestock use suitability.

258 Application of Geographic Information Systems

**Total land area in study = 7,159 ha**

domestic livestock production.

**4. Discussion** 

**3.6. Final application for livestock grazing** 

The final outcome of the suitability model for livestock grazing was derived from the combination of three suitability sub-models involving soil sensitivity to erosion, forage

Iran is the second largest country in the Middle East, but has limited natural resources such as fertile soil and water, resulting in limited opportunities to expand and/or intensify arable farming. Extensive animal husbandry, on the other hand, including nomadic, transhumant and sedentary forms, is widespread over the rangelands of the country. Rangelands and animal husbandry have been important in Iran for a very long time, as witnessed by the teachings of Zoroaster. More recently, many people have died in the defence of their rangelands after land nationalization, when only the right of use was at stake. The degree of importance attached to a specific rangeland area reflects its productivity, land scarcity and the availability of alternative sources of income. In Iran, as in most parts of the world, animal husbandry is the most productive use of semi-arid zones bordering the desert. However, overgrazing is a major problem in most of these areas. Therefore, the objectives of this paper, was to apply the concept of range inventory in the recognition and evaluation of potential and actual production for optimal utilization of this valuable natural resource for

The degree of importance attached to a specific rangeland area reflects its productivity, land scarcity and the availability of alternative sources of income. In Iran, as in other parts of the world, animal husbandry is the most productive use of semi-arid zones bordering deserts (Breman, De Wit, 1983; Reed, Bert, 1995). Farahpour et al. (2004) had estimated that 80 to 90% of the livestock production in Iran, equivalent to 168,000 - 180,000 ton y-1 of meat, was associated with the rangelands. Annual dry matter production of rangelands was estimated at more than ten million tons per hectare. In addition to forage production, mining, fuel wood collection, industrial use of rangeland, e.g. as source of medicinal plants and

Several researchers have reported that with livestock use and increasing grazing evenness (Forbes, Hodgson, 1985), will in the long term result in increased grazing capacity and livestock production (Abaye, Allen, Fontenot, 1994; Meyer, Harvey, 1985; Pringle,

production suitability, and the suitability of the water resources (Table 14).

**Table 14.** Model-based categorization of land area into suitability classes

recreation are other rural enterprises in the rangelands of Iran.

**Sub-model S1 S2 S3 N** Erosion 0 4,078 (57.0%) 386 (5.4%) 2,696 (37.6%) Water Resources 0 4,519 (77.1%) 859 (12.0%) 478 (6.7%) Forage production 0 979 (13.7%) 5,211 (72.8%) 969 (13.5%) Integrated model 0 1,126 (15.7%) 4,918 (68.7%) 1,116 (15.6%)

In adapting the grazing suitability model for the rangeland due consideration was given to the climatic conditions, vegetation, soil, the status of the current utilization, and topography, and the factors were found to be effective to different degrees. Therefore, recognizing the factors effective in the model and determining the amount of limitations they impose was important for analyzing and assessing the rangeland. Arzani et al. (2006), Amiri (2009a) and Alizadeh et al. (2011) determined rangeland suitability for sheep and goats grazing using a livestock grazing model with the three components of forage production, water resources, and the soil sensitivity to erosion. In the present study via application of the FAO method (1991) the same three measures were employed to determine the final livestock grazing suitability model for the rangelands.

This research describes the use of a geographical information system (GIS) to construct land suitability models for livestock grazing in the Ghara-Aghch region, Iran. Based on FAO method and the source data, sub models were created focusing on three different themes: sensitivity of the soil to erosion, water resources and available forage. Models recognized the important factors affecting model suitability for livestock use of the rangeland, and also determining the kind and rate of the limitations and factors reducing the suitability with the aim of gaining an adequate plan for grazing. In assessing site considerations these general models identified wider resource management options and solved conflicts of rangeland allocation and livestock grazing between pastoral and rancher.

The results of the final suitability outcome of the model revealed (a) none at the S1 suitability category (unlimited), (b) 694.36 hectares (9.7%) in the S2 suitability category (with minor limitation), (c) 5439.35 hectares (75.9%) in the S3 suitability category (major limitation), and (d) 1025.81 hectares (14.3%) in the N suitability category (unsuitable). The most important reducing factors in model suitability model were: (a) land use and the vegetation cover (in relation to sensitivity of the soil to erosion), (b) the amount of the available forage in comparison with the total production and (c) the existence of less palatability plants among the pasture plants (forage production suitability). In general, no serious difficulty was observed for the livestock's water source, but in some areas the considerable distance from the water source and the precipitous slope resulted in a decrease or limitation in the graze suitability. Among all parameters studied, the specifications on vegetation and forage production were determined as the most significant factors in reducing the suitability of the rangeland for livestock grazing of sheep and goats.

## **4.1. Soil sensitivity of the erosion model**

The most important erosion reducing factors in the study area were determined by land and vegetation use. In the present study the factors affecting erosion were in compliance with reports by many similar studies. Factors of land use, surface cover, run off, and the current erosion in the region are among the most important factors influencing erosion in the Ghara-Aghach region. Amiri (2009a) stated that the important factors in increasing erosion are soil sensitive to the erosion, unsuitable vegetation cover and the lack of proper management in land use. Neameh (2003) had also mentioned unsuitable land use (plowing the rangeland and changing them into farmlands) as the main factor in reducing the suitability of Roozeh Chay rangelands in Uromieh. The negative effects of over grazing and early grazing on the reduction of infiltration and increased run off (and consequently, increased erosion) were clearly specified.

Monitoring Land Suitability for Mixed Livestock Grazing Using Geographic Information System (GIS) 261

The major factors reducing suitability of the rangelands in the study area were improper use or exploitation limit, the existence of Class II and III plants in the forage combination, and the decrease in available forage for livestock. It must be noted that factors which cause reduction of proper use factor exploitation limit in the region, are themselves deemed as the reducing factors of the suitability of the rangeland. The effects of previous usage (changing the rangeland into farmlands and leaving them, or over grazing), the low vegetation cover, and the existence of low palatability class plants among the vegetation (perennial forbs and annual grasses) are among the factors reducing the suitability of forage production in the study area. Plowing rangelands with the aim of developing un-irrigated cultivation in the regions is one of the factors responsible for the destruction of the rangeland, although the annual rainfall allows for rain-watered cultivation. It must be noted that these rangelands with deep and good soils are among the best rangelands in the country. As the climatic conditions in the study area facilitates un-irrigated cultivation the region's rangeland has in the past been plowed and cultivated, wherever the soil depth and the slope were not limiting. During the early years of neglect of the un-irrigated-farms, the invader plants (most of the annual grasses and forbs) had become established in the region. The annual forbs and grasses make up a temporary vegetative ground cover (during the growing season), while for much of the year the ground has no vegetative cover and hence is defense-less against erosion. The present study revealed that changing the rangeland to rain-watered farms and neglecting them, over grazing, early grazing, low vegetation cover, and presence of fewer palatable species as the most important factors reducing suitability of the study area in terms of forage production. Amiri (2009a) had also observed low vegetative cover as among the most important factors in reducing production suitability of a

The results of the final range suitability model revealed that the most important factor in reducing the rangeland suitability of the study area was the low amount of the available forage in comparison to the total herbage production. It must be noted that other factors responsible for reducing the suitability of the region's rangeland include low vegetations cover, lack of proper vegetative ground cover to protect the surface soil, surface run-off, slope, the sensitivity of the soil to erosion, climatic conditions, plant combination, the condition and trend in vegetation types, over grazing, and finally invasion of the rangeland areas determine the suitability of the region's rangeland. Furthermore, an important factor

Farahpour et al. (2004) reported that early and over grazing as the main causes of the reduction of the suitability of the rangelands of Shadegan in Isfahan, but in the Ghara Aghach district, due to the limitations imposed on early grazing by the Institute of the Natural Resources (I.N.R.) of Isfahan Province and Semirom City, early grazing was not the

Guenther et al. (2000) in determining the suitability of a region in Australia noted the two factors of slope and water resources as the suitability limiting factors of rangeland for

in limiting grazing is the steep slope of the region (more than 60 degree).

suitability limiting factor in the region's rangelands.

**4.3. Forage production model** 

region.

#### **4.2. Water resources model**

The results of the study showed that the quantity (number of permanent water resources), quality and the distance from the water resources did not impose much limitations on the rangelands suitability for grazing livestock. However, the steep slopes along the livestock path to the water resources resulted in the formation of an 'unsuitability' category for livestock. Valentine (2001) reported on the importance of the slope factor in reaching the water resources, and declared that by increasing the slope the ability to graze decreases and increases the livestock demand to expend lots of energy. Steep slopes are not recommended for grazing, but instead they can be applied for other purposes (such as wild life and tourism). The quality and quantity of the water resources in the region did not impose any limitations. This study demonstrated that the slope factor in the rangelands of Semirom region was the major factor decreasing and limiting rangeland suitability with respect to the distance from water resources. The outcome of the research indicates the slope as the reducing and sometimes limiting factor in the range suitability. Hence, the slope factor is of considerable importance in determining the suitability of the pasture for grazing. As slope increases the water retention time on the ground decreases, the rate of penetration decreases, and the amount of water run-off increases. The possibility of retaining mature soils on steep slopes is reduced.

Grazing on steep slopes will cause movement of the soil and consequently, will make it difficult for plants to remain stable. Furthermore, the livestock will spend lots of energy in walking on the steep slopes (for grazing and reaching water sources) and as a result their function will decrease. Cook (1954) explained that on slopes of more than 60 degrees little forage is grazed. Amiri (2009b) and Gavili et al. (2011) defined the slopes with more than 60 percents as useless for all kinds of livestock, while Holechek et al. (1995) reported slopes of more than 60 percent, and Arzani et al. (2006) defined slopes of more than 60 percent as useless for livestock grazing. On such steep slopes wild animals would graze better than livestock.

## **4.3. Forage production model**

260 Application of Geographic Information Systems

clearly specified.

**4.2. Water resources model** 

soils on steep slopes is reduced.

livestock.

**4.1. Soil sensitivity of the erosion model** 

The most important erosion reducing factors in the study area were determined by land and vegetation use. In the present study the factors affecting erosion were in compliance with reports by many similar studies. Factors of land use, surface cover, run off, and the current erosion in the region are among the most important factors influencing erosion in the Ghara-Aghach region. Amiri (2009a) stated that the important factors in increasing erosion are soil sensitive to the erosion, unsuitable vegetation cover and the lack of proper management in land use. Neameh (2003) had also mentioned unsuitable land use (plowing the rangeland and changing them into farmlands) as the main factor in reducing the suitability of Roozeh Chay rangelands in Uromieh. The negative effects of over grazing and early grazing on the reduction of infiltration and increased run off (and consequently, increased erosion) were

The results of the study showed that the quantity (number of permanent water resources), quality and the distance from the water resources did not impose much limitations on the rangelands suitability for grazing livestock. However, the steep slopes along the livestock path to the water resources resulted in the formation of an 'unsuitability' category for livestock. Valentine (2001) reported on the importance of the slope factor in reaching the water resources, and declared that by increasing the slope the ability to graze decreases and increases the livestock demand to expend lots of energy. Steep slopes are not recommended for grazing, but instead they can be applied for other purposes (such as wild life and tourism). The quality and quantity of the water resources in the region did not impose any limitations. This study demonstrated that the slope factor in the rangelands of Semirom region was the major factor decreasing and limiting rangeland suitability with respect to the distance from water resources. The outcome of the research indicates the slope as the reducing and sometimes limiting factor in the range suitability. Hence, the slope factor is of considerable importance in determining the suitability of the pasture for grazing. As slope increases the water retention time on the ground decreases, the rate of penetration decreases, and the amount of water run-off increases. The possibility of retaining mature

Grazing on steep slopes will cause movement of the soil and consequently, will make it difficult for plants to remain stable. Furthermore, the livestock will spend lots of energy in walking on the steep slopes (for grazing and reaching water sources) and as a result their function will decrease. Cook (1954) explained that on slopes of more than 60 degrees little forage is grazed. Amiri (2009b) and Gavili et al. (2011) defined the slopes with more than 60 percents as useless for all kinds of livestock, while Holechek et al. (1995) reported slopes of more than 60 percent, and Arzani et al. (2006) defined slopes of more than 60 percent as useless for livestock grazing. On such steep slopes wild animals would graze better than The major factors reducing suitability of the rangelands in the study area were improper use or exploitation limit, the existence of Class II and III plants in the forage combination, and the decrease in available forage for livestock. It must be noted that factors which cause reduction of proper use factor exploitation limit in the region, are themselves deemed as the reducing factors of the suitability of the rangeland. The effects of previous usage (changing the rangeland into farmlands and leaving them, or over grazing), the low vegetation cover, and the existence of low palatability class plants among the vegetation (perennial forbs and annual grasses) are among the factors reducing the suitability of forage production in the study area. Plowing rangelands with the aim of developing un-irrigated cultivation in the regions is one of the factors responsible for the destruction of the rangeland, although the annual rainfall allows for rain-watered cultivation. It must be noted that these rangelands with deep and good soils are among the best rangelands in the country. As the climatic conditions in the study area facilitates un-irrigated cultivation the region's rangeland has in the past been plowed and cultivated, wherever the soil depth and the slope were not limiting. During the early years of neglect of the un-irrigated-farms, the invader plants (most of the annual grasses and forbs) had become established in the region. The annual forbs and grasses make up a temporary vegetative ground cover (during the growing season), while for much of the year the ground has no vegetative cover and hence is defense-less against erosion. The present study revealed that changing the rangeland to rain-watered farms and neglecting them, over grazing, early grazing, low vegetation cover, and presence of fewer palatable species as the most important factors reducing suitability of the study area in terms of forage production. Amiri (2009a) had also observed low vegetative cover as among the most important factors in reducing production suitability of a region.

The results of the final range suitability model revealed that the most important factor in reducing the rangeland suitability of the study area was the low amount of the available forage in comparison to the total herbage production. It must be noted that other factors responsible for reducing the suitability of the region's rangeland include low vegetations cover, lack of proper vegetative ground cover to protect the surface soil, surface run-off, slope, the sensitivity of the soil to erosion, climatic conditions, plant combination, the condition and trend in vegetation types, over grazing, and finally invasion of the rangeland areas determine the suitability of the region's rangeland. Furthermore, an important factor in limiting grazing is the steep slope of the region (more than 60 degree).

Farahpour et al. (2004) reported that early and over grazing as the main causes of the reduction of the suitability of the rangelands of Shadegan in Isfahan, but in the Ghara Aghach district, due to the limitations imposed on early grazing by the Institute of the Natural Resources (I.N.R.) of Isfahan Province and Semirom City, early grazing was not the suitability limiting factor in the region's rangelands.

Guenther et al. (2000) in determining the suitability of a region in Australia noted the two factors of slope and water resources as the suitability limiting factors of rangeland for

grazing cattle. Due to the existence of numerous permanent water resources in the Ghara-Aghach rangelands, the water resources factor does not impose much limitation on the suitability of the rangeland of the region. However, the slope factor in reaching the water resources in limited areas of the region's rangeland was a suitability limiting factor. Fitumukiza (2004) on determining the suitability of the rangeland of the Gaza Province in Mozambique for cattle grazing, considered such parameters as rainy and growing seasons, soil characteristics, vegetative cover, the needed and available forage, reaching the water resources and slope, and expressed the major suitability limiting factors in the region's rangeland as: firstly, the lack of accessibility to the water resources; then, low palatability of the plant species, low production of the forage and the slope. It must be noted that the results reported by Guenther et al. (2000) and Fitumukiza (2004) were similar to that observed in the present study. Arzani et al. (2006) studied sheep grazing in four regions of Siahrood and Lar in the Alborz mountain range, Ardsetan in central area, and Dasht-e Bakan in Zagros region, and observed that in the Siahrood region, the variety of the poisonous plants, the steep slope, temporary water resource, and the components sensitive to erosion were the main factors limiting the suitability of the region. The factors limiting the suitability of the rangeland in Lar region in order of their importance were: the steep slope, the sensitivity of the soil to erosion, and the manner of exploiting the lands. The factors limiting the suitability of rangeland in the Ardedstan region were: low productivity, the existence of invasive plants, greater distance from the water resources, the manner of exploiting the lands, and the current erosion. In the Dasht-e Bakan region, the slope, distribution of the water resources, and lack of permanent water resources were the factors limiting the suitability of the rangeland for grazing sheep.

Monitoring Land Suitability for Mixed Livestock Grazing Using Geographic Information System (GIS) 263

In this chapter, recent developments of using GIS as a smart tool in supporting the ranchers and pasture owners for monitoring land suitability for livestock feeding purposes is challenged. This research aims at developing a module based on GIS for predicting the physical suitability of land for livestock feeding. It can help decision makers to monitoring the level of land suitability for livestock grazing. It gives clear indicator for the suitability of land and limitation factors to be applied to practical land management with greater success. This study was carried out on a regional scale to examine limitations and opportunities for extensive grazing. While we may present a comprehensive attitude towards extensive grazing, one should know that grazing is one of the uses readily available for rangelands. As FAO argues, different land units have different qualities for certain utilizations. As might be understood, rangelands' utilizations comprise certain qualities and criteria that the model must consider in assessing suitability. However, mixed livestock grazing could be substituted with single utilization in order to gain sustainability of these resources and gain

*Spatial and Numerical Modeling Laboratory, Institute of Advance Technology (ITMA),* 

*Environnemental Science, Faculty of Engineering, Islamic Azad University Bushehr Branch, Iran* 

I dedicate this chapter to my mother, and to all people that contributed towards its

Abaye, A., Allen, V., Fontenot, J., (1994). Influence of grazing cattle and sheep together and separately on animal performance and forage quality. Journal of Animal Science 72,

Ahmadi, H., (2004). Applied geomorphology (Vol.1, water erosion). Tehran University

Alizadeh, E., Arzani, H., Azarnivan, H., Mohajeri, A., Kaboli, S., (2011). Range Suitability Classification for Goats using GIS: (Case study: Ghareaghach Watershed- Semirom).

*Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia* 

*Spatial and Numerical Modeling Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering,* 

Iranian Journal of Range and Desert Research 18, 353-371.

ultimate but sustainable benefits.

Abdul Rashid B. Mohamed Shariff

*Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia* 

**Author details** 

*Corresponding Author* 

Taybeh Tabatabaie

**Acknowledgement** 

successful completion.

**6. References** 

1013-1022.

Publication, Tehran, Iran.

Fazel Amiri

The outcome of the present study also showed that due to low productivity of palatable forage as a result of constant utilization of the rangeland, the shortage or lack of palatable plants on one hand and the existence of numerous un-palatable and thorny plants in the vegetation composition on the other, effective grazing of livestock in the rangeland will be limited.

## **5. Conclusion**

Assessment of rangelands is an activity that frequently challenges those involved in the livestock industry, environmental protection, and in land and rangeland management. The main objectives of an integrated land, forage and livestock resources suitability assessment are to quantify the resource endowment, understand interrelationships between resource components, predict environmental impact, estimate livestock support capacity, and evaluate development options.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have experienced rapid growth in recent years. GIS is a technology using a computer programme which aids in managerial, policy and development decisions, primarily by modeling suitability of land and forage resources for planning livestock grazing, taking system complexity into account.

In this chapter, recent developments of using GIS as a smart tool in supporting the ranchers and pasture owners for monitoring land suitability for livestock feeding purposes is challenged. This research aims at developing a module based on GIS for predicting the physical suitability of land for livestock feeding. It can help decision makers to monitoring the level of land suitability for livestock grazing. It gives clear indicator for the suitability of land and limitation factors to be applied to practical land management with greater success. This study was carried out on a regional scale to examine limitations and opportunities for extensive grazing. While we may present a comprehensive attitude towards extensive grazing, one should know that grazing is one of the uses readily available for rangelands. As FAO argues, different land units have different qualities for certain utilizations. As might be understood, rangelands' utilizations comprise certain qualities and criteria that the model must consider in assessing suitability. However, mixed livestock grazing could be substituted with single utilization in order to gain sustainability of these resources and gain ultimate but sustainable benefits.

## **Author details**

262 Application of Geographic Information Systems

limiting the suitability of the rangeland for grazing sheep.

limited.

**5. Conclusion** 

evaluate development options.

grazing cattle. Due to the existence of numerous permanent water resources in the Ghara-Aghach rangelands, the water resources factor does not impose much limitation on the suitability of the rangeland of the region. However, the slope factor in reaching the water resources in limited areas of the region's rangeland was a suitability limiting factor. Fitumukiza (2004) on determining the suitability of the rangeland of the Gaza Province in Mozambique for cattle grazing, considered such parameters as rainy and growing seasons, soil characteristics, vegetative cover, the needed and available forage, reaching the water resources and slope, and expressed the major suitability limiting factors in the region's rangeland as: firstly, the lack of accessibility to the water resources; then, low palatability of the plant species, low production of the forage and the slope. It must be noted that the results reported by Guenther et al. (2000) and Fitumukiza (2004) were similar to that observed in the present study. Arzani et al. (2006) studied sheep grazing in four regions of Siahrood and Lar in the Alborz mountain range, Ardsetan in central area, and Dasht-e Bakan in Zagros region, and observed that in the Siahrood region, the variety of the poisonous plants, the steep slope, temporary water resource, and the components sensitive to erosion were the main factors limiting the suitability of the region. The factors limiting the suitability of the rangeland in Lar region in order of their importance were: the steep slope, the sensitivity of the soil to erosion, and the manner of exploiting the lands. The factors limiting the suitability of rangeland in the Ardedstan region were: low productivity, the existence of invasive plants, greater distance from the water resources, the manner of exploiting the lands, and the current erosion. In the Dasht-e Bakan region, the slope, distribution of the water resources, and lack of permanent water resources were the factors

The outcome of the present study also showed that due to low productivity of palatable forage as a result of constant utilization of the rangeland, the shortage or lack of palatable plants on one hand and the existence of numerous un-palatable and thorny plants in the vegetation composition on the other, effective grazing of livestock in the rangeland will be

Assessment of rangelands is an activity that frequently challenges those involved in the livestock industry, environmental protection, and in land and rangeland management. The main objectives of an integrated land, forage and livestock resources suitability assessment are to quantify the resource endowment, understand interrelationships between resource components, predict environmental impact, estimate livestock support capacity, and

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have experienced rapid growth in recent years. GIS is a technology using a computer programme which aids in managerial, policy and development decisions, primarily by modeling suitability of land and forage resources for

planning livestock grazing, taking system complexity into account.

Fazel Amiri *Corresponding Author Spatial and Numerical Modeling Laboratory, Institute of Advance Technology (ITMA), Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia* 

Abdul Rashid B. Mohamed Shariff *Spatial and Numerical Modeling Laboratory, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia* 

Taybeh Tabatabaie *Environnemental Science, Faculty of Engineering, Islamic Azad University Bushehr Branch, Iran* 

## **Acknowledgement**

I dedicate this chapter to my mother, and to all people that contributed towards its successful completion.

## **6. References**


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**Chapter 14** 

© 2012 Elsayed, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,

distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2012 Elsayed, licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The increased size of urban areas in terms of their population and their land consumption has intensified adverse urban environmental impacts. The increased capacity of the human race provokes adverse environmental change on a truly global scale. In the last two decades all over the globe rapid changes in technology and in the re-location of population from rural to urban areas have altered local natural environments beyond recognition, now the global environment is at risk. Most people would argue that changes in the location and concentration of commercial activities, especially in large cities, have produced the greatest visual impact on the built environment (Tamagno et al., 1990). In many developing countries, towns are expanding and an increasing proportion of the land is being taken up for urban land uses, replacing fields, farms, forests and open spaces. As a result, distinctive and often unpleasant climatic conditions are experienced by the majority of urban inhabitants in the world today (Shaharuddin, 1997). Urban settlements provide one of the best examples of change in human activities and perceptions. Residential areas are constantly undergoing modification and expansion into areas that were formally occupied by agriculture and the natural environment. Residential lands were reclaimed or will be reclaimed from the sea or swampland if the demand for land is sufficiently high. By 1950, approximately 30% of the world's population lived in urban areas. That number is now nearing 50%, with a current urban population estimated at 2.9 billion people. By the year 2030, the global population is predicted to rise by two billion (Streutker, 2003), a growth

**Effects of Population Density and** 

**Intensity of Urban Heat Islands:** 

**Land Management on the** 

**A Case Study on the City of** 

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

**Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia** 

Ilham S. M. Elsayed

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/47943

**1. Introduction** 


**Effects of Population Density and Land Management on the Intensity of Urban Heat Islands: A Case Study on the City of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia** 

Ilham S. M. Elsayed

266 Application of Geographic Information Systems

pp. p. 84-92.

Iran, 671 pp.

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Vallentine, J.F., (2001). Grazing management. Elsevier, 659 pp.

First National Conference on Agro-Informatics, INSAIT.

in rangelands. Austral Ecology 29, 31-39.

sub-Saharan Africa 2, 461-470.

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/47943

## **1. Introduction**

The increased size of urban areas in terms of their population and their land consumption has intensified adverse urban environmental impacts. The increased capacity of the human race provokes adverse environmental change on a truly global scale. In the last two decades all over the globe rapid changes in technology and in the re-location of population from rural to urban areas have altered local natural environments beyond recognition, now the global environment is at risk. Most people would argue that changes in the location and concentration of commercial activities, especially in large cities, have produced the greatest visual impact on the built environment (Tamagno et al., 1990). In many developing countries, towns are expanding and an increasing proportion of the land is being taken up for urban land uses, replacing fields, farms, forests and open spaces. As a result, distinctive and often unpleasant climatic conditions are experienced by the majority of urban inhabitants in the world today (Shaharuddin, 1997). Urban settlements provide one of the best examples of change in human activities and perceptions. Residential areas are constantly undergoing modification and expansion into areas that were formally occupied by agriculture and the natural environment. Residential lands were reclaimed or will be reclaimed from the sea or swampland if the demand for land is sufficiently high. By 1950, approximately 30% of the world's population lived in urban areas. That number is now nearing 50%, with a current urban population estimated at 2.9 billion people. By the year 2030, the global population is predicted to rise by two billion (Streutker, 2003), a growth

© 2012 Elsayed, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. © 2012 Elsayed, licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

expected to occur almost entirely in urban areas. The increased capacity of the human race provokes adverse environmental change on a truly global scale, something to which urban populations make a major contribution. Atmospheric modifications through urbanization have been noted. Climatically (Sham, 1987), one obvious consequence of urbanization is the creation of the heat island. (Streutker, 2003) focused on one of the primary effects of urbanization on weather and climate, the urban heat island; he found that the urban temperature depends on population density.

Effects of Population Density and Land Management on

Kuala Lumpur city City Center of the City

the Intensity of Urban Heat Islands: A Case Study on the City of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 269

The 1970 and 1980 censuses in Malaysia classified urban areas into three categories: "metropolitan," with a population in excess of 75,000; "large town," with a population size of 10,000 and over; and "small town," with a population size of 1,000 to 9,999 persons. "Small towns," however, are excluded from the consideration of urbanization levels. Based on this definition, Malaysia has 14 metropolitan areas and 53 towns with a population of 10,000 to 75,000. Kuala Lumpur city is the capital city of Malaysia with a population of 1504300 persons. It is recognized as the greatest metropolitan area within the country (Elsayed, 2006). Table 1. and Fig. 1. below illustrate the changes in the population densities for Kuala

Year Population Area in sq km Population density

1980 156980 93800 234 18.13 670 5174 2000 1423900 128720 234 18.13 6085 7100 2004 1504300 121655 234 18.13 6429 6710

**Table 1.** Changes in the population densities for KL and City centre in1980, 2000 & 2004

**Figure 1.** Changes in population densities for KL and City centre in 1980, 2000 & 2004

1980 2000 2004 **Years**

There is a tremendous change in the land use of the city of Kuala Lumpur since 1980 to 2004.

Map1. and Map 2 below depict the land use of KL city in 1980 and 2004 respectively.

KL City centre KL City centre KL City centre

Lumpur City and its City Centre in 1980, 2000 and 2004 respectively.

**2.1. Population density** 

**2.2. Land management** 

**person/sq km**

Several factors result in temperature difference between the urban and rural areas, stemming from changes in the thermal properties of surface materials to alterations of the topography and man activities in cities. Large urbanized regions have been shown to physically alter their climates in the form of elevated temperatures relative to rural areas at their periphery (Brain, 2001). The effect of metropolitan regions is not only confined to horizontal temperatures but also to those in the vertical direction with far-reaching consequences, studies have shown that the thermal influence of a large city commonly extends up to 200-300 m and even to 500 m and more (Sham, 1993).

The study aims to study the level of urbanization in terms of population density and land management and its effect on the intensity of the urban heat island of the city of Kuala Lumpur.

The measurements for level of urbanization vary from country to another. Usually, national procedures followed for such measurements based on specific criteria that may include any/ some/ all of the following:


Of these definitions, the last one is the most quantitative. Therefore, for the purposes and limitations of this study, the last definition is used to defining and measuring the level of urbanization. Thus, the level of urbanization depends solely on density of population per acres and land use for the city.

## **2. Methodology**

The data related to the population density and land management of the city of Kuala Lumpur was gathered from Malaysian Governmental sources, specifically, from the City Hall of Kuala Lumpur. On the other hand, two major sources of data are used to study the UHI of the city.

## **2.1. Population density**

268 Application of Geographic Information Systems

temperature depends on population density.

Lumpur.

some/ all of the following:

and facilities.

**2. Methodology** 

UHI of the city.

acres and land use for the city.

a. The concentration or size of populations.

d. The predominant type of economic activity.

extends up to 200-300 m and even to 500 m and more (Sham, 1993).

c. The process in which urban culture spreads to agricultural villages.

expected to occur almost entirely in urban areas. The increased capacity of the human race provokes adverse environmental change on a truly global scale, something to which urban populations make a major contribution. Atmospheric modifications through urbanization have been noted. Climatically (Sham, 1987), one obvious consequence of urbanization is the creation of the heat island. (Streutker, 2003) focused on one of the primary effects of urbanization on weather and climate, the urban heat island; he found that the urban

Several factors result in temperature difference between the urban and rural areas, stemming from changes in the thermal properties of surface materials to alterations of the topography and man activities in cities. Large urbanized regions have been shown to physically alter their climates in the form of elevated temperatures relative to rural areas at their periphery (Brain, 2001). The effect of metropolitan regions is not only confined to horizontal temperatures but also to those in the vertical direction with far-reaching consequences, studies have shown that the thermal influence of a large city commonly

The study aims to study the level of urbanization in terms of population density and land management and its effect on the intensity of the urban heat island of the city of Kuala

The measurements for level of urbanization vary from country to another. Usually, national procedures followed for such measurements based on specific criteria that may include any/

b. The process in which the in-migration of people to cities blends into an urban lifestyle.

e. The development of urban areas and their urban characteristics such as specific services

Of these definitions, the last one is the most quantitative. Therefore, for the purposes and limitations of this study, the last definition is used to defining and measuring the level of urbanization. Thus, the level of urbanization depends solely on density of population per

The data related to the population density and land management of the city of Kuala Lumpur was gathered from Malaysian Governmental sources, specifically, from the City Hall of Kuala Lumpur. On the other hand, two major sources of data are used to study the

f. The process in which the proportion of people living in an urban area increases.

The 1970 and 1980 censuses in Malaysia classified urban areas into three categories: "metropolitan," with a population in excess of 75,000; "large town," with a population size of 10,000 and over; and "small town," with a population size of 1,000 to 9,999 persons. "Small towns," however, are excluded from the consideration of urbanization levels. Based on this definition, Malaysia has 14 metropolitan areas and 53 towns with a population of 10,000 to 75,000. Kuala Lumpur city is the capital city of Malaysia with a population of 1504300 persons. It is recognized as the greatest metropolitan area within the country (Elsayed, 2006). Table 1. and Fig. 1. below illustrate the changes in the population densities for Kuala Lumpur City and its City Centre in 1980, 2000 and 2004 respectively.


**Table 1.** Changes in the population densities for KL and City centre in1980, 2000 & 2004

**Figure 1.** Changes in population densities for KL and City centre in 1980, 2000 & 2004

### **2.2. Land management**

There is a tremendous change in the land use of the city of Kuala Lumpur since 1980 to 2004. Map1. and Map 2 below depict the land use of KL city in 1980 and 2004 respectively.

Effects of Population Density and Land Management on

the Intensity of Urban Heat Islands: A Case Study on the City of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 271

**Map 2.** Land use for the city of Kuala Lumpur 2004

Secondary and Primary sources of data are used to study the UHI of the city. The Secondary data is collected from the relatively longer records of meteorological data provided by specific weather station networks, while the Primary data is collected through an intensive fieldwork done with the collaboration of number of assistants and field observers. These two methods were combined and used to study and measure the

**2.3. Urban heat island** 

urban heat island of the city:

**Map 1.** Land use for the city of Kuala Lumpur 1980

Effects of Population Density and Land Management on the Intensity of Urban Heat Islands: A Case Study on the City of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 271

**Map 2.** Land use for the city of Kuala Lumpur 2004

## **2.3. Urban heat island**

270 Application of Geographic Information Systems

**Map 1.** Land use for the city of Kuala Lumpur 1980

Secondary and Primary sources of data are used to study the UHI of the city. The Secondary data is collected from the relatively longer records of meteorological data provided by specific weather station networks, while the Primary data is collected through an intensive fieldwork done with the collaboration of number of assistants and field observers. These two methods were combined and used to study and measure the urban heat island of the city:

## *2.3.1. Measuring the urban heat island through weather station networks*

Two weather station networks cover the City of Kuala Lumpur and its periphery; Governmental weather station network and private one. According to the case study, a specific number of stations are selected to be involved in the study. Concerning the first weather station network, which is under Malaysian Ministry of Science and Environment and called the Malaysian Meteorological Services (MMS), the stations selected to be used are: Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA), Petaling Jaya, Subang, Sungai Besi, and University Malaya. While for the private weather station network, the stations selected are: Combak, Shah Alam, Cheras, Contry Height, Klang, Nilai, and Petaling Jaya.

Effects of Population Density and Land Management on

the Intensity of Urban Heat Islands: A Case Study on the City of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 273

**Map 3.** Location of the Stations with the City Center of Kuala Lumpur City

use, and the urban heat island are detailed below.

The results and analysis of the level of urbanization in terms of population density and land

The population densities in 2000 for the city centre of Kuala Lumpur city, Kuala Lumpur City (KL) and Kuala Lumpur Metropolitan Region (KLMR) are 6085, 7100 and 1052 (persons/sq km) respectively. While by 2004 these population densities become 6710 for the city center and 6429 for the city of Kuala Lumpur. Furthermore, the expected population densities for 2020 are 1750 for KLMR, 9402 and 13547 for Kuala Lumpur city and the city centre of the city respectively. Thus, the highest population density is located in the city center of the city, then Kuala Lumpur city, while the less population density is in KLMR. The population density of the city of KL has been increasing from 670 in 1980 to 6085 in 2000 to 6429 in 2004 due to the increasing levels of urbanization of the city compare to its periphery. It rose because of the increasing number of migrants searching for better working

Using Charts 1, 2 & 3 below, a tremendous change in the residential, commercial, open space and recreational, road and rail reserves, and undeveloped land of the city from 1980 to

**3. Results and analysis** 

**3.1. Population density** 

opportunities, services, and facilities.

**3.2. Land management** 

## *2.3.2. Measuring the urban heat island through traverses surveys*

This method is used in a specific confined area within the study area for this research. It was used for the city center of Kuala Lumpur city and four major Gardens within Kuala Lumpur and its periphery, and that because of the lake of weather station in those areas. Moreover, within the city center of the city no weather station is located. The area was confined not only because of lack of data in that areas, it is moreover because of equipments and financial constraints that faced the researcher during that period.

Because of the difficulty of making simultaneous measurements, a number of eighteen observers took measurements and readings. They are senior undergraduate students from College of Architecture and Environmental Design and College of Engineering, International Islamic University Malaysia. With the help of these observers, an intensive traverse surveys were carried out for measuring the air temperature, relative humidity and air velocity during one week period in December 2004, starting in 20th of the month and end by 26th for one-hour duration per day from 21:00-22:00 Local Malaysian Time (LMT). The study area is divided into several sectors. Each sector is assigned to one or two observers according to the area and complexity of the sector. The total number of sectors is 12. (Table 2. and Map 3. below).


**Table 2.** Stations used for Traverses Surveys Method

Effects of Population Density and Land Management on the Intensity of Urban Heat Islands: A Case Study on the City of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 273

**Map 3.** Location of the Stations with the City Center of Kuala Lumpur City

## **3. Results and analysis**

272 Application of Geographic Information Systems

*2.3.1. Measuring the urban heat island through weather station networks* 

Combak, Shah Alam, Cheras, Contry Height, Klang, Nilai, and Petaling Jaya.

*2.3.2. Measuring the urban heat island through traverses surveys* 

constraints that faced the researcher during that period.

**Table 2.** Stations used for Traverses Surveys Method

2. and Map 3. below).

Two weather station networks cover the City of Kuala Lumpur and its periphery; Governmental weather station network and private one. According to the case study, a specific number of stations are selected to be involved in the study. Concerning the first weather station network, which is under Malaysian Ministry of Science and Environment and called the Malaysian Meteorological Services (MMS), the stations selected to be used are: Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA), Petaling Jaya, Subang, Sungai Besi, and University Malaya. While for the private weather station network, the stations selected are:

This method is used in a specific confined area within the study area for this research. It was used for the city center of Kuala Lumpur city and four major Gardens within Kuala Lumpur and its periphery, and that because of the lake of weather station in those areas. Moreover, within the city center of the city no weather station is located. The area was confined not only because of lack of data in that areas, it is moreover because of equipments and financial

Because of the difficulty of making simultaneous measurements, a number of eighteen observers took measurements and readings. They are senior undergraduate students from College of Architecture and Environmental Design and College of Engineering, International Islamic University Malaysia. With the help of these observers, an intensive traverse surveys were carried out for measuring the air temperature, relative humidity and air velocity during one week period in December 2004, starting in 20th of the month and end by 26th for one-hour duration per day from 21:00-22:00 Local Malaysian Time (LMT). The study area is divided into several sectors. Each sector is assigned to one or two observers according to the area and complexity of the sector. The total number of sectors is 12. (Table

No. Name of the station No of observers

1- KLCC Two 2- Bukit Bentang One 3- Time Square One 4- Chow kit One 5- Sogo One 6- Central Market One 7- Puduraya One 8- Hang Tuah Two 9- KLCC Park Two 10- Main Lake Garden Two 11- Titiwangsa Lake Garden Two 12- National Zoo Two The results and analysis of the level of urbanization in terms of population density and land use, and the urban heat island are detailed below.

## **3.1. Population density**

The population densities in 2000 for the city centre of Kuala Lumpur city, Kuala Lumpur City (KL) and Kuala Lumpur Metropolitan Region (KLMR) are 6085, 7100 and 1052 (persons/sq km) respectively. While by 2004 these population densities become 6710 for the city center and 6429 for the city of Kuala Lumpur. Furthermore, the expected population densities for 2020 are 1750 for KLMR, 9402 and 13547 for Kuala Lumpur city and the city centre of the city respectively. Thus, the highest population density is located in the city center of the city, then Kuala Lumpur city, while the less population density is in KLMR. The population density of the city of KL has been increasing from 670 in 1980 to 6085 in 2000 to 6429 in 2004 due to the increasing levels of urbanization of the city compare to its periphery. It rose because of the increasing number of migrants searching for better working opportunities, services, and facilities.

## **3.2. Land management**

Using Charts 1, 2 & 3 below, a tremendous change in the residential, commercial, open space and recreational, road and rail reserves, and undeveloped land of the city from 1980 to

2004 is recognized. The residential and undeveloped land use of the whole city both decreased from 25.7% to 22.66% and from 27.7% to 23.7% respectively. Under the undeveloped land use the agricultural/ fishery/ forest land use is categorized. There is a recognized decrease in the agricultural/ fishery/ forest land use. By 2004 it occupied only 0.07% (16.13 acres) of the total area of the city. Conversely, the commercial, open space and recreational, and road and rail reserves land increased from 2.1% to 4.51%, 1.3% to 6.52%, and from 14.0% to 23.42% correspondingly. Almost there is no change in the industrial, institutional, cemetery, and educational land use of the whole city. The industrial and institutional lands decreased from 2.3% to 2.28% and from 7.2% to 6.69% respectively. While the cemetery, and educational lands increased from 3.3% to 3.98% and from 1.1% to 1.13 %respectively.

Effects of Population Density and Land Management on

the Intensity of Urban Heat Islands: A Case Study on the City of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 275

**Chart 2.** Land use in percentage for city of Kuala Lumpur in 2004

Institutional

Cemeteries

Undeveloped land

Agricultural/ fishery/ forest

Terminal

Road & rail reserves

Utility

Squatters

Religions

Public facilities

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Open space & recreational

0

Commercial

Residential

Land use 1984 Land use 2004

Industrial

Educational

5

10

15

20

25

**Chart 3.** Land use in Hectares for the city center of Kuala Lumpur in 1984 & 2004

Others Squatters Undeveloped Community Open Space Institutional Industerial Residential Commercial

The changes in the land use of the city center are almost following the same manner of the city of Kuala Lumpur. The commercial, road and rail reserves land increased from 254.88 to 318.99 hectares and from 498.69 to 566.68 hectares respectively. While the residential, industrial, and institutional land use reduced from 390.58 to 287.6 hectares, from 4.12 to 0.93 hectares, and from 266.04 to 163.06 hectares correspondingly. In converse to the city increase in the open space and recreational land use, the city centre open space and recreational land use decreased from 179.28 to 170.25 hectares. While the undeveloped land use of the city center increased from 0.0 to 137.89 hectares.

**Chart 1.** Land use in percentage for city of Kuala Lumpur in 1980

Effects of Population Density and Land Management on the Intensity of Urban Heat Islands: A Case Study on the City of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 275

**Chart 2.** Land use in percentage for city of Kuala Lumpur in 2004

274 Application of Geographic Information Systems

center increased from 0.0 to 137.89 hectares.

**Chart 1.** Land use in percentage for city of Kuala Lumpur in 1980

Educational

Institutional & Governmental reserves

Cemeteries

Open space

Malay reservation lands

Agricultural & undeveloped

 land Mining

Major road

%respectively.

0

Commercial

Residential

Industrial

5

10

15

20

25

30

2004 is recognized. The residential and undeveloped land use of the whole city both decreased from 25.7% to 22.66% and from 27.7% to 23.7% respectively. Under the undeveloped land use the agricultural/ fishery/ forest land use is categorized. There is a recognized decrease in the agricultural/ fishery/ forest land use. By 2004 it occupied only 0.07% (16.13 acres) of the total area of the city. Conversely, the commercial, open space and recreational, and road and rail reserves land increased from 2.1% to 4.51%, 1.3% to 6.52%, and from 14.0% to 23.42% correspondingly. Almost there is no change in the industrial, institutional, cemetery, and educational land use of the whole city. The industrial and institutional lands decreased from 2.3% to 2.28% and from 7.2% to 6.69% respectively. While the cemetery, and educational lands increased from 3.3% to 3.98% and from 1.1% to 1.13

The changes in the land use of the city center are almost following the same manner of the city of Kuala Lumpur. The commercial, road and rail reserves land increased from 254.88 to 318.99 hectares and from 498.69 to 566.68 hectares respectively. While the residential, industrial, and institutional land use reduced from 390.58 to 287.6 hectares, from 4.12 to 0.93 hectares, and from 266.04 to 163.06 hectares correspondingly. In converse to the city increase in the open space and recreational land use, the city centre open space and recreational land use decreased from 179.28 to 170.25 hectares. While the undeveloped land use of the city

**Chart 3.** Land use in Hectares for the city center of Kuala Lumpur in 1984 & 2004

## **3.3. The urban heat island**

The study shows that, the intensity of the UHI of the city of Kuala Lumpur is 5.5 o C recorded on Sunday 26 December 2004 (Map. 4 & 5 below). On the other hand, from previous studies, the intensity of the urban heat island of city of Kuala Lumpur in 1985 was 4.0 ºC. Comparing the previous values of the intensity of the UHI to this recent valued (Table 3 below), the intensity increased from 4.0 ºC in the latest previous work done in 1985 (Sham, 1986, 1987) to 5.5 ºC in 2004. Thus, the increase is more than one degree Celsius, which is a recognized value whenever the human health and comfort are the issues.

Effects of Population Density and Land Management on

LEGEND: 1 KLCC 2 Bukit Bintang 3 Time square 4 Chow Kit 5 Sogo 6 Central Market 7 Puduraya 8 Hang Tuah 9 KLCC Park 10 Lake Gardens 11 Titiwangsa Lake Gardens 12 National Zoo 13 Gombak 14 Shah Alam 15 Cheras 16 Country Height 17 Klang 18 Nilai 19 Petaling Jaya 20 Subang 21 Petaling Jaya (MMS) 22 KLIA 23 TUDM Sungai Besi 24 University Malaya

*Map is not to scale*

Q

the Intensity of Urban Heat Islands: A Case Study on the City of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 277

LEGEND 28.9 oC

Location of highest temperature

1985 4.0 28.0 City centre 24.0 Outside the city

2004 5.5 29.2 City center 23.7 Outside the city

The study finds that as the intensity of the UHI of the city increased the residential, industrial, institutional, undeveloped and agricultural/ fishery/ forest lands decreased. Conversely the commercial, open space and recreational, road and rail reserves, cemetery, and educational lands increased. In addition to that, as the city centre get warmer and its temperature increased its commercial, undeveloped, road and rail reserves land increased,

There is no contradiction between recent and previous findings of the first published similar work concerning UHI of the city that reported by (Sham, 1973a). The city centre still is the

28.0 oC 28.0 oC 28.0 oC 28.0 oC

> Lowest Temp. (o C)

Location of lowest temperature

centre

centre

**1**

**3**

**2**

**11**

**5 9**

**8**

**Map 5.** The UHI of the sity center of the sity on Sunday 26 December 2004

(o C)

Highest Temp.

**Table 3.** Intensity and location of the UHI of the city of Kuala Lumpur in 1985 & 2004

while its open space and recreational, residential, and institutional land decreased.

**6 7**

**4**

**10**

Year UHI

Intensity (o C)

**Map 4.** The UHI of the sity of Kuala Lumpur on Sunday 26 December 2004

Effects of Population Density and Land Management on the Intensity of Urban Heat Islands: A Case Study on the City of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 277

**Map 5.** The UHI of the sity center of the sity on Sunday 26 December 2004

276 Application of Geographic Information Systems

The study shows that, the intensity of the UHI of the city of Kuala Lumpur is 5.5 o C recorded on Sunday 26 December 2004 (Map. 4 & 5 below). On the other hand, from previous studies, the intensity of the urban heat island of city of Kuala Lumpur in 1985 was 4.0 ºC. Comparing the previous values of the intensity of the UHI to this recent valued (Table 3 below), the intensity increased from 4.0 ºC in the latest previous work done in 1985 (Sham, 1986, 1987) to 5.5 ºC in 2004. Thus, the increase is more than one degree Celsius,

which is a recognized value whenever the human health and comfort are the issues.

Industri

Bolton

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Perwira Tmn

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Melati

Desa

TAR

College

Melawati

Military Taman

Wangsa

Melawati

**12**

Permata

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AU5

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Negara

KgKlang

Gates

Melawati

KLSC

Camp

MAJU

Tmn.

Taman

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Taman Greenw ood

**3.3. The urban heat island** 

Rubber

Research

Institute

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Rubber

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Taman Dataran

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Heights

U TunAbdul kay

Lembah

Taman

Taman

Dagang

AMPANG

Bandar

Rasmi

Jaya

Ampang

Ampang

Kg. Tasik

Tambahan

Melur

Taman

Saga

Taman

Campuran

Taman

Kg. Lembah

Indah

Kg.Ampang

Kg. Tasik

Permai

Jaya

Kg. Lembah

Mulia

Jaya

Taman

JayaSelatan

AmpangWater

Forest

Ampang

Reserve

**LEGEND:** 1 KLCC 2 Bukit Bintang 3 Time square 4 Chow Kit 5 Sogo 6 Central Market 7 Puduraya 8 Hang Tuah 9 KLCC Park 10 Lake Gardens 11 Titiwangsa Lake Gardens 12 National Zoo 13 Gombak 14 Shah Alam 15 Cheras 16 Country Height 17 Klang 18 Nilai 19 Petaling Jaya 20 Subang 21 Petaling Jaya (MMS)

*Map is not to scale*

Q

Forest Reserve

CatchmentArea

(Bukit

Taman

Rimba

Ampang

Belacan)

HuluLangat

Forest

Reserve

Watan

HuluLangat

Forest

Reserve

Reservation

Malay

HuluLangat

HULU LAN

Sri

Kosas

Taman

Ampang

Bukit

Indah Taman

Indah

Baru

Maju

Taman

Mawar

Pandan

Indah

Taman

Taman Tmn

Baru

Kg. Cheras

Cheras

Utama

Rakyat

Taman

Cheras

Cheras

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Taman

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Maju

Jaya

Taman

Kencana

Taman

Dalam

Taman

Hilir

Pandan

Jaya

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Pandan

Perdana

Desa

Pandan

Angsana

Cempaka

Kg.Pandan

Taman

Sulaiman

Nirwana

Taman

Putra

PKNSHousing A(Flats& partments)

Taman

Sri Ukay

AU3

Zooview

Taman

Reserve

Pandang

Malay

Hillview

Taman Hijau

Ampang

Taman

Ukay

Bukit

Wangsa

Antarabangsa

Taman

Lot 18128

Lot 18126

Lot 18125

Lot 452

Kelab

Ukay

Razak

Jaya

Kg. Melayu

Ampang

TOWN

AMPANG

Ampang

CahayaKg.Baru

Taman

MRR 2

Titiwangsa

Tmn.P.

Tmn.

Setapak WANGSA

Sentul

**11**

Hospital

Kg.Baru

Malay Reserve

KL

KUALA

**1 <sup>9</sup> <sup>5</sup>**

> Bukit Aman

Tasik

Perdana LUMPUR

Brickfields

National Palace

Chinese

Cemetery

TUDM

Tunku

Taman Bandaraya

Taman Sa

**10**

TNB Mid

Valley

Seputeh

Taman JKR

Desa

NewPantai Expressway

**23**

Tmn

Kuchai Jaya

Happy

Garden

Malaysia

TechnologyPark

Kuyow

Taman

Indah

Universiti

M.R

**Map 4.** The UHI of the sity of Kuala Lumpur on Sunday 26 December 2004

National Technology

Sri Petaling

Complex

Sports

Malaysia

Sri Kembangan

NewVillage

UNIVERSITI

PUTRA

EPF land

S Bandar alak

**14**

Selatan

TunRazak

Permaisuri

Taman

Tasik

Baru

SG.BESI

Turf

Club

Bandar

Selatan

Sg.Besi Military

Reserve

TrainingCamp

&RifleRange

Tasik

SowLin

Chan

Cemetery

Chinese

Industrial

Emas TamanIkan

Miharja

Taman TownPa

JKR

Hospital UKM

Taman

Midah

DesaTunRazak

Industrial Park

Park

Entrepreneurs

Danau

Desa

Taman

KL-KLIA DedicatedH ighway Salak

Selatan

BandarBaru

SERDANG

TheMines

Resort

City

TamanSri

Serdang

Indah

Tmn TamingJaya

Industri SelesaJaya Desa Baiduri

Kg.Baru

Balakong

Tmn Suria Jaya Tmn Bkt Maktab

Angsana CSri HERAS Tmn Bahagia

Latihan Polis

PDRM

PGA

Markas

Briged Tengah

> Tmn Cheras Mas Sri Cheras Tmn Cheras Mewah Cheras Jaya Tmn Sri Tmn Tun Perak

LOT7642

Wangsa Alam Mudun Tmn Tmn Jaya Tmn Tmn Cheras BATU 9 Cuepacs

Hill

Venice

Jiwa MewahSB

Taman

Teratai

Bukit

Taman

Putra

Mewah Pandan

Taman

Taman

Muda

Permai

Bukit

Taman

Seraya

Taman

Mega

Jaya

Phoenix

Taman

Connaught

C

Tmn SgBesi Tmn Harmoni

Jaya

Tmn Juara

SILKHighway

Taman

Cheras

Jaya

Cheras

Perdana

BATU11

LEGEND

Taman Rakan

KAJANG

Kajang

22 KLIA 23 TUDM Sungai Besi 24 University Malaya

SILKHg

Sg. Long

28.9 oC

28.0 oC

28.0 oC

28.0 oC

28.0 oC

Toll Plaza

Jail

KajangBy-Pass

Toll Plaza

Cheras Kajang Highway

CherasPrima

Saujana Impian

Kuchai

Park

City

RTM

Bukit

Angkasa Pantai

Lucky Garden

Bangsar Baru

Equestrian

KL Golf & Country Club Kelab Golf

Perkhidmatan

Sec. 16 Sec. 17

Awam

Bukit

Botanical

Garden

SPRINT

Reserve Sri Hartamas

Kiara

Club

SS3

LDP

SS4

TmnBukit Mayang Emas

SPRINTExtension

ProposedAlignment

SS12

SS13

P PJS9 JS11

BANDAR

SUNWAY

Taman Puchong

Indah

Taman

Puchong

Puchong(S5)

Perindustrian

Taman

(Sg.Penaga)

Subang

Industrial

Puchong

Tmn SriPuc hong

Taman

Puchong Intan

Taman Perindustrian

Perdana

Industrial

LDP

SP Setia

SB

Maju

Park

Industrial

Puchong

Perdana

Jaya

Park

B d

Golf Club

DI

ya

TropicanaGolf&


**Table 3.** Intensity and location of the UHI of the city of Kuala Lumpur in 1985 & 2004

The study finds that as the intensity of the UHI of the city increased the residential, industrial, institutional, undeveloped and agricultural/ fishery/ forest lands decreased. Conversely the commercial, open space and recreational, road and rail reserves, cemetery, and educational lands increased. In addition to that, as the city centre get warmer and its temperature increased its commercial, undeveloped, road and rail reserves land increased, while its open space and recreational, residential, and institutional land decreased.

There is no contradiction between recent and previous findings of the first published similar work concerning UHI of the city that reported by (Sham, 1973a). The city centre still is the

hottest area of the city of Kuala Lumpur. Such finding is due to continuous human activity and development within the city centre of KL. In the last two decades the city centre of KL experienced rapid changes in concentration of commercial activities and in the re-location of population. The results of the study show that, the records of temperature for most of the stations located within the city center are recorded as the highest temperatures, while the records for the stations located within KL but outside the city centre are that of higher temperatures. On the other hand, the less heat and the high temperatures are register only for the stations located outside KL. Therefore, the higher the level of urbanization in terms of population density, the higher the temperature value recorded. The City center has now been occupied by multi stories and tall buildings. These multi-storied buildings found in the city centers dominate the skyline, and have a dramatic effect on the microclimates of the city centre. Man, through his constant constructions, has affected the exchange of energy and moisture within the system by altering the physical qualities and materials of the earth's surface with in the city centre. He has continually replaced vegetation and greenery with buildings. Furthermore, he has become a primary source of heat production from his transportation systems, industrial plants, and HVAC systems. Therefore, the city centre is still the hottest area of the city of Kuala Lumpur. On the other hand, the study shows that, all gardens and parks have relative low temperatures regardless of their locations, in or outside KL. Furthermore, the lowest temperature is recorded for a station located within the city centre of the city, which is the Main Lake Garden station. That is because of the age and area of the garden compared to other gardens included in the study. The Main Lake garden is the largest lake park in the city (Hamidah, 1984). This garden dates back to the 1890s with an area of 73 hectares. While Titiwangsa Lake garden is the second lake park in the city with an area of 44.5 hectares. The garden is even different from other gardens in terms of its type and age of plants.

Effects of Population Density and Land Management on

the Intensity of Urban Heat Islands: A Case Study on the City of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 279

The effects of population density on the intensity of the urban heat island of the city of Kuala Lumpur could be concluded from Table 1, Figure 1 and Table 3 above which illustrate the changes in the population densities for KL and City centre in1980, 2000 & 2004, and the intensity and location of the UHI of the city of Kuala Lumpur in 1985 & 2004 respectively.

The study shows that, the population density of the city is proportional to the records of temperature taken during the survey. The population density of the city of KL has been increasing from 670 in 1980 to 6085 in 2000 to 6429 in 2004. Consequently the intensity of the UHI of the city increased from 4.0oC in 1985 to 5.5oC in 2004. Thus, there is a proportional relationship between the population density and the UHI of the city of KL. Therefore, the study concludes that, the UHI of the city of Kuala Lumpur is proportional to the population density of the city. Accordingly, the study concludes that, the population density affects the urban heat island of the city and contributes to the increase in the intensity of the urban heat

The study shows that, although the overall population density of the city increases, that of the city centre decreases, while the nucleus of this UHI is the city centre. Therefore it is difficult to conclude that the intensity of the UHI is inversely proportional to the population density of the city centre. Nevertheless, it is possible to conclude that, the increase in the intensity of the UHI is not only related to the population density of the city centre, it is actually affected by other different factors and human activities. The study finds that, the commercial, road and rail reserves lands of the city is proportional to the intensity of the UHI, while the open space and recreational, residential, institutional, and agricultural/ fishery/ forest lands is inversely proportional to the intensity of the UHI of the city. Therefore, utilizing these findings and literature reviewed the study concludes that, the intensity of the urban heat island could be reduced if the land of the city of Kuala Lumpur

 Trees should be planted to shade the hot tarmac of city roads or at least low-level bushes and greenery. Within the city of KL, Many open areas are covered with blocks of marble, granite or tiles. Although these are better than black tarmac, these areas still absorb a lot of heat in direct sunlight and release the heat at late afternoons, evenings and early nights. Again, the author recommends that, such open areas should be turned into green areas or even very small parks. Furthermore, trees should be planted to shade the hot tarmac of inner city roads like Jalan Tuanku Abdul Rahman, Chow Kit…etc; or low level bushes planted along the covered drains in such areas. In addition to that, some roads and highways, which take up an increasing proportion of the urban area, should also be creatively designed to include green shade. The large masses of concrete in new flyovers that are continuously being built all over the city, capture and store large quantities of solar heat, should also take into consideration some plant cover, like overhanging creepers which can shield or block absorption of the heat and reduce

 Roads and highways, which take up an ever-increasing proportion of the urban area, should also be creatively designed to include green shade, at the very least along the

**4. Conclusion** 

island of the city of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

managed in such ways that:

the air temperature significantly.

Recent studies (Elsayed, 2006, 2009) show that, although the dependence of the intensity of the urban heat island of the city of KL on population density is significant, the population density at the city centre area is decreasing. It might be of interest to urban planners that, although the temperature is likely to rise with the increase of population density, the situation at the city centre is different. This is due to the intensive human activity and development within the city centre of KL. That indicates that, the management of those lands is highly affecting the intensity of the urban heat island of such land. The city centre experiences rapid changes in concentration of commercial activities and constructions. Man through his constructions has affected the exchange of energy and moisture within the system by altering the physical qualities and materials of the earth's surface with in the city centre. The city centre has been occupied by multi stories and very tall buildings e.g. Petronas Twin Towers. These multi-storied buildings found in the city centers dominate the skyline, and have a dramatic effect on the microclimates of the city centre. Man replaces vegetation and greenery by buildings and becomes a primary source of heat produce. Therefore, the city centre is still the hottest area of the city of Kuala Lumpur regardless of the reduction happened in its population density. This fact should help in convincing urban planner and design makers in placing more emphasis on the strategies that relates the land management to the mitigation of urban heat island.

## **4. Conclusion**

278 Application of Geographic Information Systems

and age of plants.

management to the mitigation of urban heat island.

hottest area of the city of Kuala Lumpur. Such finding is due to continuous human activity and development within the city centre of KL. In the last two decades the city centre of KL experienced rapid changes in concentration of commercial activities and in the re-location of population. The results of the study show that, the records of temperature for most of the stations located within the city center are recorded as the highest temperatures, while the records for the stations located within KL but outside the city centre are that of higher temperatures. On the other hand, the less heat and the high temperatures are register only for the stations located outside KL. Therefore, the higher the level of urbanization in terms of population density, the higher the temperature value recorded. The City center has now been occupied by multi stories and tall buildings. These multi-storied buildings found in the city centers dominate the skyline, and have a dramatic effect on the microclimates of the city centre. Man, through his constant constructions, has affected the exchange of energy and moisture within the system by altering the physical qualities and materials of the earth's surface with in the city centre. He has continually replaced vegetation and greenery with buildings. Furthermore, he has become a primary source of heat production from his transportation systems, industrial plants, and HVAC systems. Therefore, the city centre is still the hottest area of the city of Kuala Lumpur. On the other hand, the study shows that, all gardens and parks have relative low temperatures regardless of their locations, in or outside KL. Furthermore, the lowest temperature is recorded for a station located within the city centre of the city, which is the Main Lake Garden station. That is because of the age and area of the garden compared to other gardens included in the study. The Main Lake garden is the largest lake park in the city (Hamidah, 1984). This garden dates back to the 1890s with an area of 73 hectares. While Titiwangsa Lake garden is the second lake park in the city with an area of 44.5 hectares. The garden is even different from other gardens in terms of its type

Recent studies (Elsayed, 2006, 2009) show that, although the dependence of the intensity of the urban heat island of the city of KL on population density is significant, the population density at the city centre area is decreasing. It might be of interest to urban planners that, although the temperature is likely to rise with the increase of population density, the situation at the city centre is different. This is due to the intensive human activity and development within the city centre of KL. That indicates that, the management of those lands is highly affecting the intensity of the urban heat island of such land. The city centre experiences rapid changes in concentration of commercial activities and constructions. Man through his constructions has affected the exchange of energy and moisture within the system by altering the physical qualities and materials of the earth's surface with in the city centre. The city centre has been occupied by multi stories and very tall buildings e.g. Petronas Twin Towers. These multi-storied buildings found in the city centers dominate the skyline, and have a dramatic effect on the microclimates of the city centre. Man replaces vegetation and greenery by buildings and becomes a primary source of heat produce. Therefore, the city centre is still the hottest area of the city of Kuala Lumpur regardless of the reduction happened in its population density. This fact should help in convincing urban planner and design makers in placing more emphasis on the strategies that relates the land The effects of population density on the intensity of the urban heat island of the city of Kuala Lumpur could be concluded from Table 1, Figure 1 and Table 3 above which illustrate the changes in the population densities for KL and City centre in1980, 2000 & 2004, and the intensity and location of the UHI of the city of Kuala Lumpur in 1985 & 2004 respectively.

The study shows that, the population density of the city is proportional to the records of temperature taken during the survey. The population density of the city of KL has been increasing from 670 in 1980 to 6085 in 2000 to 6429 in 2004. Consequently the intensity of the UHI of the city increased from 4.0oC in 1985 to 5.5oC in 2004. Thus, there is a proportional relationship between the population density and the UHI of the city of KL. Therefore, the study concludes that, the UHI of the city of Kuala Lumpur is proportional to the population density of the city. Accordingly, the study concludes that, the population density affects the urban heat island of the city and contributes to the increase in the intensity of the urban heat island of the city of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

The study shows that, although the overall population density of the city increases, that of the city centre decreases, while the nucleus of this UHI is the city centre. Therefore it is difficult to conclude that the intensity of the UHI is inversely proportional to the population density of the city centre. Nevertheless, it is possible to conclude that, the increase in the intensity of the UHI is not only related to the population density of the city centre, it is actually affected by other different factors and human activities. The study finds that, the commercial, road and rail reserves lands of the city is proportional to the intensity of the UHI, while the open space and recreational, residential, institutional, and agricultural/ fishery/ forest lands is inversely proportional to the intensity of the UHI of the city. Therefore, utilizing these findings and literature reviewed the study concludes that, the intensity of the urban heat island could be reduced if the land of the city of Kuala Lumpur managed in such ways that:


medians. The large masses of concrete in new flyovers continuously being built all over the city, which can capture and store large quantities of solar heat, should also take into consideration plant cover, like overhanging creepers which can shield or block absorption of the heat.

Effects of Population Density and Land Management on

the Intensity of Urban Heat Islands: A Case Study on the City of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 281

Abdul Samad, H. (2000). *Malaysian urbanization and the environment: sustainable urbanization* 

Ahmad, F. E. & Norlinda, B. M. D. (2004). *Urban heat islands in Kuala Lumpur*, Kuala Lumpur,

Brain, S. J. (2001). *Remote Sensing Analysis of Residential Land Use, Forest Canopy Distribution, and Surface Heat Island Formation in Atlanta Metropolitan Region*, *Ph. D. Thesis*, Georgia

Chan, K. E. ; Abdullah, N. & Tan, W. H. *(*1984). *Population and demographic characteristics in Kuala Lumpur*, Proceedings of Seminar on Urbanization and ecodevelopment: with special reference to Kuala Lumpur, University of Malaya, Institute of Advance Studies,

Eliasson, I. K. (1993). *Urban Climate Related to Street Geometry*, Ph. D. Thesis, Goteborgs

Elsayed, I. S. (2006). *The Effects of urbanization on the Intensity of the Urban Heat Island: a Case Study on the City of Kuala Lumpur*, Ph. D. Thesis, International Islamic University

Elsayed, I. S. (2009). *Land Management and its effects on the Intensity of the Urban Heat Island: a Case Study on the City of Kuala Lumpur*, Proceedings of The IASTED International

Hafner, J. (1996). *The Development of Urban Heat Islands in the Southeast Region of the United States in the Winter Season (Global Warming),* Ph. D. Thesis, Huntsville, University of

Hamidah, K. (1984). (ed.). *Kuala Lumpur: the city of our age*, City Hall of Kuala Lumpur,

Hoong, Y. Y & Sim, L. K. (1984). (ed.). *Urbanization and ecodevelopment: with special reference to Kuala Lumpur,* Proceedings of Seminar: PRO, 2, Institute of Advance Studies,

Khoo, S. G. (1996). *Urbanization and urban growth in Malaysia*, Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia Kok, K. L. (1988). *Patterns of Urbanization in Malaysia. National Population & Family Development Board, Kuala Lumpur,* Proceedings of the conference on Urbanization in

Orville, R. E. (2001). Enhancement of cloud-to-ground lightning over Houston, Texas,

Shaharuddin, A. (1997). Urbanization and human comfort in Kuala Lumpur-Petaling Jaya,

Shahruddin, A. & Norazizah, A. (1997). *The essential usage of air conditioning system in Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia*, Proceedings of Symposium on Population, Health and the Environment, International Geographical Union Commission on Population and the

Malaysia: Patterns, Determinants and Consequences, pp. 20-55

Conference on Environmental Management and Engineering, Alberta, Canada Ghani, S. (2000). *Urbanization & regional development in Malaysia*, Utusan Publications &

**5. References** 

Malaysia

Malaysia

Alabama

Malaysia

Universitet, Sweden

Distributors, Malaysia

University of Malaya Press, Kuala Lumpur

*Geographical Research*, 28, pp. 2597-2600,

Malaysia, *Ilmu Alam*, 23, pp. 171-189

Environment, Chiang Mai, Thailand

*in the new millennium*, Akam print, Malaysia

Institute of Technology, Atlanta

Department of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia


## **Author details**

Ilham S. M. Elsayed *University of Dammam, College of Engineering, Saudi Arabia* 

## **Acknowledgement**

The author acknowledges the financial support provided by Sudan University of Science and Technology, Ministry of Higher Education, Sudan, and the Centre for Built Environment, International Islamic University Malaysia, for field works and surveys.

#### **5. References**

280 Application of Geographic Information Systems

absorption of the heat.

subsidies should be part of the long term planning.

previous studies; please check chapter 2 for more details.

in temperature than the non-green areas.

*University of Dammam, College of Engineering, Saudi Arabia* 

lowering air temperatures.

**Author details** 

Ilham S. M. Elsayed

**Acknowledgement** 

medians. The large masses of concrete in new flyovers continuously being built all over the city, which can capture and store large quantities of solar heat, should also take into consideration plant cover, like overhanging creepers which can shield or block

 Urban car parks should comply with a minimum of 50% shade requirement. Previous studies ([Eliasson, 1993; Sham, 1987, 1990/1991; Shashua, 2000) show that shade trees contribute significantly to temperature reduction, hence the reduction on the intensity of the UHI. Therefore, the author suggests that, urban car parks should comply with a minimum of 50% shade requirement by plantation of trees or/and low level bushes. Tree planting programs should be reintroduced for all housing estates. Incentives and

 Many commercial buildings, almost all (Ahmad, 2004) are having flat roofs in Malaysia either to accommodate air-conditioning equipment or water tanks, or for another purposes. Such buildings should green their roofs and planted them with shrubs and low level bushes. This means cultivating greenery on the flat roof surfaces to absorb the heat. This will not only help the city to counter UHI but building owners will also benefit in terms of savings in air-conditioning power consumption. As proven in

 The creation of as many cities parks as possible will improve the situation and help significantly in reducing the intensity of the UHI of the city. Therefore, tree planting programs should be reinforced in the city of KL, and incentives and subsidies should be part of the long term planning for the city. Previous studies (Eliasson, 1993; Sham, 1987, 1990/1991; Shashua, 2000) prove that green areas moderate urban temperatures. The results of this study confirm this theory; it shows that, the green areas are relatively low

 Reduce summer solar radiation by managing the land covered by critical surfaces, for example, pedestrian walks, waiting areas, and busy streets. Reduce the abundance of concrete and asphalt, and increase the amount of vegetation and open water. This will increase higher volumetric heat capacities and greater rates of latent heat influx, thereby

Increase airflow at ground level to flush heated and polluted air away from the city and

The author acknowledges the financial support provided by Sudan University of Science and Technology, Ministry of Higher Education, Sudan, and the Centre for Built

Environment, International Islamic University Malaysia, for field works and surveys.

that could be achieved by managing the land cover and building design.


Sham, S. (1973a). Observations on the city's form and functions on temperature patterns: a case study of Kuala Lumpur, *Tropical Geography*, 36, No. 2, pp. 60-65

**Chapter 15** 

© 2012 Guth and Klingel, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

© 2012 Guth and Klingel, licensee InTech. This is a paper distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Change of material Consumer

n4

l 4

Tank Consumer

Reduction

n5

l 5 l 7 Valve

n6

l 6 n7

**Figure 1.** Illustration of a water distribution system and the corresponding model graph (Klingel, 2010)

l 3

n3

**Demand Allocation in Water Distribution** 

**Using Voronoi Diagrams with Constraints** 

Nicolai Guth and Philipp Klingel

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/50014

**1. Introduction** 

Source

Water distribution system (schematic)

n1

Link Node

Model graph

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

abstraction of a water distribution network.

Pump

<sup>l</sup> n2 <sup>1</sup>

l 2

**Network Modelling – A GIS-Based Approach** 

In water distribution network modelling the topology of the network is commonly mapped as a (directed) graph consisting of nodes and links (Walski et al., 2001). Pipe sections with constant parameters are modelled as links. Intersections, water inlets, points of water withdrawal and locations of pipe parameter changes are modelled as nodes. Coordinates related to the nodes define the spatial location. To calculate the hydraulic system state (pressures and flows) the water demand of the consumers is assigned to the relevant nodes as the driving parameter (demand driven simulation). Figure 1 schematically shows the

