**4. Veterinary education**

6 A Bird's-Eye View of Veterinary Medicine

practice and fifty-seven percent of those were women. Indeed, in 2011, women outnumber men as working veterinarians in the UK; moreover, eighty percent of veterinary undergraduates are female (RCVS, 2010). This significant shift in the gender make-up of both the student and practicing professional veterinary populations raises a number of important issues relating to educational strategies, career orientation, pay, working practices, and the general future direction of the profession. All of these, as will be discussed in section five of this chapter, will have a direct impact on the future veterinary business

Not surprisingly, perhaps, the trend toward a predominantly female profession is not restricted to the UK. According to statistics from the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA), the number of female veterinarians in the US more than doubled between 1991 and 2002 (Zhao, 2002). Whereas only 5% of applications to US vet schools were from females in the late 1960s, by the end of the 1990s, over seventy percent of

The increasing numbers and dominance of women within the veterinary profession have also been discussed in several other countries (see, for example, Heath (2007) in relation to Australia; Lofstedt (2003) in relation to Canada, and Basagac Gul et al. (2008) with regard to Turkey). Collectively, such data suggest that the 'feminization' of the veterinary profession

With regard to the 'cause' of this phenomenon, several explanations have been offered, including improvement in chemical restraints available for large animals, the elimination of gender-based admission discrimination and the generally caring portrayal of veterinarians in both the literature and on television (Lofstedt, 2003:534). Controversially, perhaps, the marked increase in women entering the veterinary profession and, in parallel, the decline in men's participation, may also be attributed to the relatively lower salary levels of veterinary professionals (Lofstedt, 2003). This hypothesis builds on Tuchman's (1989) argument that professions deemed to be lacking in appropriate economic incentives and, by association, cultural legitimacy, may quickly lose their attraction for men. It must be noted, however, that despite the increasing number of women entering veterinary medicine and the fact that women now make up more than half the veterinary workforce, most veterinary businesses, whether based on traditional practice or the commercialisation of scientific research, are still led by men. Thus, to date, women have not featured prominently as business leaders within the veterinary profession, nor have they been perceived as potential entrepreneurs or innovators. This point is particularly important, because based on what we know about women and business ownership/entrepreneurship generally (see, for example, Brush, 1997; Brush, Carter, Gatewood, Green & Hart, 2001; Henry & Treanor, 2010), it is unlikely that current levels of veterinary entrepreneurship will be maintained or, indeed, increased in a

As with the majority of professional disciplines, veterinary colleges are the 'gatekeepers to the profession' (Andrews, 2009). However, the merit-based admission system now in place, whilst undoubtedly facilitating women's entry into the profession, means that it is veterinary 'applicants', rather than veterinary 'students' who should be profiled to gauge the attractiveness of (or barriers to) veterinary medicine (Andrews 2009; Lincoln, 2004). For example, in the US, Zhao (2002) reports that both vet students and veterinarians consider

is not only a global phenomenon but also looks set to continue for some time.

landscape.

applications were from young women.

female dominated veterinary sector.

Admission to veterinary programmes around the globe is a highly competitive process, with candidates typically required to attain top grades in science-based subjects to qualify for entry. Owing to the large number of applicants to veterinary schools, interviews often form part of the selection process. Although curricula will vary from provider to provider, veterinary programmes are extremely intensive courses of study and typically include preclinical, para-clinical and clinical components. In addition, as part of their extramural study (EMS), veterinary students are required to spend a considerable amount of time over the course of their degree in a range of veterinary practices and hospitals to gain practical clinical experience. In the UK, course duration is typically five years, although it can be longer elsewhere.

In addition to an in-depth knowledge and understanding of the scientific and clinical aspects, veterinary students also need to have a grasp of the legal, ethical and social elements of veterinary practice. Thus, communication and interpersonal skills; responsible and professional behaviour, and an understanding of the business context of veterinary practice are now recognized as important areas that should be incorporated into veterinary curricula. With particular regard to the latter, it was a group of women veterinary surgeons in the UK who, in 1941, first called for business training to be included within veterinary programmes (Aitken, 1994). While such calls are gaining momentum, the Lowe Report (2009) highlights that UK veterinary graduates remain insufficiently prepared for effective business management or leadership, this despite the fact that most will probably work within or lead a small veterinary business at some stage in their careers. More specifically, Lowe (2009) called for the inclusion of business planning, marketing, human resource management and an awareness of the veterinary business environment to be provided to veterinary students as part of their undergraduate training so that, upon entering the workplace, they would be equipped to offer clients treatments and prevention strategies

The Veterinary Business Landscape: Contemporary Issues and Emerging Trends 9

The changes discussed above under the three headings of the agricultural sector, the gender shift and veterinary education have significant implications for the veterinary business landscape across the broader veterinary sector, impacting beyond the practice wing of the profession. As mentioned at the outset of this chapter, to date, robust academic attention has not been paid to the implications of changes in these areas. Such implications will now be

A review of the literature highlights a number of changes within the agricultural sector, all of which have a direct impact on the provision of farm animal veterinary services. In the first instance, and at the fundamental level, reduction in livestock numbers, farm holdings and farm sizes mean that there are going to be significantly fewer farm 'patients' requiring veterinary services. Although it is now recognised that farm animal veterinary practice is in decline (Lowe, 2009), there is still a substantial farming community around the globe, and thus this valuable specialist service still needs to be provided to those who require it. As a result, farm animal veterinary practices are coming under increasing pressure to review their operational business model to ensure their practice is both viable and sustainable.

In parallel, with reduced government support, a decline in income from traditional farming activities, and forced to diversify to sustain their own businesses, farmers now have less disposable income to spend on veterinary services. As a result, with regard to veterinary work, there is a growing trend toward farmers doing more for themselves rather than immediately referring work to the vet. Therefore, the average spend on veterinary services per farm holding is going to reduce. The business implications of this for rural farm animal veterinary practice are quite serious: turnover and profit margins will be affected. As a result, farm animal veterinary practices will need to revisit their operational costs to ensure the service they are offering is both viable and aligned with their clients' needs. In this regard, future veterinary graduates interested in farm animal work will need to have a thorough understanding of their clients' needs; appreciate the changes taking place within the farming sector and be able to advise farmers on the more strategic issues related to farm

It would appear too that marketing will be crucial to the survival of farm animal veterinary practice. With reduced demand for services but increased competition from existing providers, farm animal vets will need to engage more closely with their client base to determine farmers' needs, adapt their service and market it appropriately. It seems inevitable that, in the future, farmers will look for a more holistic veterinary service offering. It would appear, therefore, that in parallel with farming enterprises themselves, farm animal veterinary practices will need to explore diversification strategies if they are to remain

Interestingly, the global trend towards a predominately female veterinary profession, as discussed above, has raised a number of serious concerns that will directly impact on the

**5. Discussion and implications** 

animal health and welfare.

viable from a business perspective.

**5.2 Implications of the gender shift** 

discussed under the relevant headings below.

**5.1 Implications of changes within the agricultural sector** 

that are both cost-effective and aligned with the needs of the individual veterinary business within which they work (Lowe, 2009: 55). Similar calls have been made for the inclusion of such business and management training in North America (Ilgen, 2002; Kogen et al., 2005).

Currently, where business and management topics are included in the veterinary curriculum, they tend to be incorporated under the banner of 'Professional Studies', a strand of education running though most veterinary degrees, which, as its label suggests, covers the professional behaviour aspects of veterinary medicine. This strand typically includes the non-clinical skills and abilities associated with working as a veterinary professional, thus, communications, legal and ethical considerations, insurance, veterinary certification and compliance issues, all form part of this element of the programme. With particular regard to business and management, a range of topics are taught, including enterprising skills and abilities (i.e. creativity and idea generation), practice management (i.e. marketing, finance and human resource management for existing veterinary practices) and entrepreneurship (i.e. new venture creation or the development of a new service/clinic within the veterinary practice sector). Indeed, there appears to be growing recognition that any type of entrepreneurship education can be extremely beneficial for students regardless of their discipline area. Such education not only prepares individuals for starting new businesses but, in increasingly competitive environments, equips students with the knowledge, skills and competences to engage in a more enterprising, innovative and flexible manner (Hynes & Richardson, 2007: 733), preparing them for a world where they will increasingly need to manage their own careers in an entrepreneurial way (Hytti & O'Gorman, 2004: 11-12) and add value to their employers' businesses (Henry & Treanor, 2010).

Notwithstanding the above, the incorporation of business education, including entrepreneurship education, within veterinary curricula is still relatively new, despite the long-standing recognition that the provision of business skills will benefit both veterinary graduates and employers. However, the typical positioning of business topics within the professional studies strand of the veterinary curriculum has been somewhat problematic, with anecdotal evidence suggesting that such non-clinical topics tend to be viewed by students as peripheral rather than core. While this is, to some degree, understandable, given the already overcrowded veterinary curriculum, it does pose a number of problems for veterinary business educators tasked with preparing students for the competitive business environments in which they will eventually work.

While pedagogical approaches to veterinary education will vary from provider to provider, most veterinary schools tend to employ a combination of formal lectures, directed learning sessions, tutorials, practicals and case-based learning (QAA, 2002), with assessment methodologies ranging from multiple-choice questions (MCQs) through to portfolios and objective structured clinical examinations (OSCEs) (Baillie and Rhind, 2008). Veterinary business topics also tend to be examined in the traditional MCQ or EMQ (extended matching questions) format, however, the more practical and reflective assessment methods normally associated with mainstream business education are beginning to be introduced. While the current trend within veterinary curricula is clearly toward the inclusion rather than the exclusion of business education, it is widely acknowledged that the business curriculum is still evolving and is undergoing continuous refinement as a result of student feedback and industry consultation.
