**6. Prevalence of O fever infection in Poland**

388 A Bird's-Eye View of Veterinary Medicine

Fig. 3a. The results of immunofluorescence assay (Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Jena)

Fig. 3b. The results of immunofluorescence assay (Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Jena)

Human infection with *Coxiella burnetii* have been reported from many countries on all continents, including Poland (Lutyński, 1956). The first outbreak of Q fever was diagnosed in Poland in 1956. Since then, few outbreaks of the disease both in humans and animals were recorded in the country. Several cases of human Q fever occurred in Poland, however it is really not known whether this relatively low number of cases of illness is caused by the facts of its occurrence, whether or not all cases are detected and diagnosed. Data on these cases in human are presented in Table 1. Moreover, in recent times at the turn of 2008-2009, seven outbreaks of the disease were detected in cattle. These cases have occurred in the region of south-eastern Poland. In total, the disease was confirmed in more than 340 heads of cattle, the disease has been confirmed in humans handling these animals and in their family members. The other studies carried out in eastern Poland present that cattle may play an important role in epidemiology of Q fever, in addition to sheep and goats which are considered the main reservoirs of *Coxiella burnetii* (Cisak, 2003).


Table 1. The longest observed duration of *Coxiella burnetii* excretion in ruminant vaginal mucus, milk and feces during the follow-up of naturally or experimentally infected herds (Arricau-Bouvery & Rodolakis, 2005).

The European Community system for the monitoring and collecting information on zoonoses is established by Directive 2003/99/EC on the monitoring of zoonoses and zoonotic agents. According to this directive, reporting information on Q fever takes place on the basis of the epidemiological situation in the country, what means that the Member States should report the information whether those zoonotic agents are considered to be of importance in their country. For the reporting year 2006, 10 Member States reported information on Q fever in animals. Based on the Regulation of the Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development of 24 June 2010, monitoring tests in the direction of Q fever are conducted in Poland. In order to control Q fever, the blood samples from cattle or sheep and goats located in the different area of country, are tested annually. Studies conducted in the framework of this monitoring in 2010 showed the presence of seropositive units. The first study of blood serum is performed by the field laboratory. If the test result for antibodies to *Coxiella burnetii* is a positive sample, it is sent to the National Reference Laboratory (NRL) for re-implementation of the study. In 2010, the research review in the NRL of Q fever tested a total of 99 samples. The presence of antibodies was confirmed in 81 samples tested. Tests were conducted using the method of CFT. The samples which are confirmed as positive are also tested using real-time PCR. The positive results in this study allows the unambiguous confirmation of a case of Q fever.

Epidemiology, Zoonotic Aspect and Current Epidemiological Situation of Q Fever in Poland 391

Directive 2003/99/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 November 2003

Doller, G.; Doller, P.C. & Gerth H. J. (1984) Early diagnosis of Q fever: detection of

Dyer, D. E.; Gibbson, V. L.; Brady, L. M. & Cunningham, A. L. (1988). Serological reaction to

EFSA Panel on Animal Health and Welfare (AHAW), 2010. Scientific Option on Q fever.

Finidori, J. P.; Raoult, D., Bornstein, N.W & Fleurette, J. (1992). Study of cross reactions

immunofluorescence assay and immunoblotting. *Acta Virol* , 36, pp. 459-465 Fishbein, D.B. & Raoult D. (1992) A cluster of *Coxiella burnetii* infections associated with

Fournier, P. E. & Raoult D. (2003). Comparison of PCR and serology assays for early

Furnier, P.E.; Casalta, J.P.; Piquet P.; Tournigand, P.; Branchereau, A. & Raoult D. (1998).

Gilsdorf, A.; Kroh, C.; Grimm, S.; Jensen, E.; Wagner-Wening, C. & Alpers, K. (2008) Large Q

Hendrix, L. R; Samuel J.E. & Mallavia L. P. (1991). Differentiation of *Coxiella burnetii* isolates

Hotta, A.; Kawamura, M.; To, H.; Andoh, M.; Yamaguchi, T. Fukushi; H. & Hirai; K. (2002).

Jóźwik, A.; Jakubowski, T.; Kaba, J.; Jurkowski, W.; Witkowski, L., Nowicki, M. & Frymus,

Klee, S.R.; Tyczka, J.; Ellerbrok, H.; Franz, T.; Linke, S.; Baljer, G. & Appel, B. (2006). Highly

Kosatsky, T. (1984). Household outbreak of Q fever pneumonia related to a parturient cat.

Krumbiegel, E.R. & Wiśniewski, H.J. (1970). Q fever in Milwaukee II consumption of infected raw milk by human volunteers. *Arch Environ Health,* 21, pp. 63-65

Gimenez, D. F. (1964). Staining rickettsiae in yolk sac cultures. *Stain Technol*, 30, 135-137. Hatchette, T.F.; Hudson, R.C.; Schlech, W.F.; Campbell, N.A.; Hatchette, J.E.; Ratnam, S.;

diagnosis of acute Q fever. *J Clin Microbiol*, 41, pp. 5094-5098

disease in newfound-lan*d*. *Emerg Infect Dis*, 7, pp. 413-419

use of monoclonal antibodies. *Infect Immun*, pp. 4747- 4749

diagnostics of Q fever in cattle. *Medycyna Wet*, 63, pp. 655-657

and revive. *Clin Infect Dis,* 26, pp. 116-121

*Epidemiol Infect*, 136, pp. 1084-1087

*Gen Microbiol*, 137, pp. 269-276

*BMC,* pp*.* 6:2

*Lancet*, pp. 1447-1449

human monocytes. *Immun,* 68, pp. 5673-5678

*Microbiol Infect Dis*, 3, pp. 550-553

pp. 31)

EFSA J., 114

*Med Hyg*, 47, pp. 35-40

involved in *Coxiella burnetii*-stimulated production in tumor necrosis factor by

on the monitoring of zoonoses and zoonotic agents, amending Council Decision 90/424/EEC and repealing Council Directive 92/117/EEC (OJ L 325, 12.12.2003,

immunoglobulin M by radiommunoassay and enzyme immunoassay. *Eur J Clin* 

*Legionella pneumophila* group 4 in a patient with Q fever. *J Infect Dis,* 158, pp. 499-500

between *Coxiella burnetii* and *Legionella pneumophila* using indirect

exposure to vaccinated goats and their unpasteurized dairy products. *Am J Trop* 

*Coxiella burnetii* infections of aneurysms or vascular grafts: report of seven cases

fever outbreak due to sheep farming near residential areas, Germany 2005.

Raoult, D.; Donovan, C. & Marrie, T.J. (2001). Goat associated Q fever: a new

by analysis of restriction-endonuclease-digested DNA separated by SDS-PAGE. *J.* 

Phase variation analysis of *Coxiella burnetii* turning serial passage in cell culture by

T. (2007). Evaluation of agreement of ELISA and complement fixation test in the

sensitive real-time PCR for specific detection and quantification of *Coxiella burnetii*.


Table 2. The infection of Q fever in human in Poland

#### **7. References**


**1956** sheep imported from Romania 63 **1956** sheep wool 20

**1957-1958** guinea pigs – laboratory infection 17

**1963** basils imported from America 20

**1983** cattle 1000 **1985** bisons, cattle 35 **1985 - 1986** cattle and small ruminants 12 **1985 -1986** basils 5

**2005 – 2006** cattle 70

**2008** cattle 21 **2009-2010** cattle 20

Alsaleh, A.A; Pellerin J.L; Rodolakis, A.; Larrat ,M.; Cochonneau, D.; Bruyas J.F. & Fieni, F. (2011). Comparitive Immunology, *Microbiol & Infectious diseases*, 34, pp. 355-360 Arricau-Bouvery, N. & Rodolakis, A. *(*2005). Is Q fever an emerging or re-emerging

Benson, W.W.; Brock, D.W. & Mather, J. (1963): Serological analysis of a penitentiary group using raw milk from a Q fever infected herd. *Public Health Rep*. 78, pp. 707-710 Blondeau, J. M; Williams, J. C. & Marrie T. J. (1990). The immune response to phase I and II

Capo, Ch.; Lindberg, F.P.; Meconi, S.; Zaffran, Y.; Tardei, G.; Brown, E. J.; Raoult, D. &

Cisak, E.; Chmielewska–Badora, J.; Mackiewicz, B. & Dudkiewicz, J. (2003) Prevalence of

Cowley, R.; Fernandez F., Freemantle W. & Rutter, D. (1992). Enzyme immunoassay for Q

Dellacasagrande, J.; Ghigo E.; Machergui-El, S.; Hammami, T. R.; Raoult, D.; Capo C. &

*Coxiella burnetii* antigensas measured by western immunobloting. *Ann N Y Acad* 

Mege, J. L. (1999): Subversion of monocyte functions by *Coxiella burnetii*: Impairment of the cross-talk between αvβ3 integrin and CR3. *J Immunol*, 163, pp.

antibodies to *Coxiella burnetii* among farming population in eastern Poland. *Ann* 

fever: comparison with complement fixation and immunofluorescence tests and

Mege, J. L. (2000) alpha(v) beta(3) integrin and bacterial lipolysaccharide are

**1963 – 1983 no data** 

Table 2. The infection of Q fever in human in Poland

zoonozis? *Vet Res* 36, pp. 327-349

*Agric Environ Med*, 10, pp. 265-267

dot immunobloting. *J Clin Microbiol*, 30, pp. 2451-2455

*Sci*, 590, pp. 187-202

6078-6085

**7. References** 

**Years The source of infection Cases of infection in human** 

involved in *Coxiella burnetii*-stimulated production in tumor necrosis factor by human monocytes. *Immun,* 68, pp. 5673-5678


**21** 

**Risk (Predisposing) Factors for Non-Infectious** 

Lameness in cattle is one of the major causes of economic losses in dairy production systems (Hernandez et al., 2005; Kossaibati & Esslemont, 1997). These losses occur through various negative impact directly on cattle and indirectly on the dairy production system. These include reduced milk yield (Hernandez et al., 2005), discarding of milk due to withdrawal period of drugs used to treat some of the lameness conditions, cost of veterinary drugs and professional services in managing the conditions (Enting et al., 1997), lowered conception rate and increased calving interval (Melendez et al., 2003; Sogstad et al.,2006), reduced ovarian activity during early postpartum period (Garbarino et al., 2004), as well as premature culling and occasional mortalities (Enting et al., 1997). Lameness has also been identified as a major welfare determinant in cattle because of discomfort and pain that it

Claw lesions account for between 60% and 90% of all lameness incidences in cattle in various countries of the world (Bergsten et al., 1994; Manske et al., 2002; Weaver, 2000). More than 60% of lameness in cattle is caused by lesions and disorders affecting the horn of the claw such as sole ulcers, heel erosion, sole bruising, white line separation and underrun (double) soles. All these claw disorders and lesions have a direct or indirect effect on the dermis (corium) of the claw and are associated with laminitis ( Belge & Bakir, 2005; Manske et al., 2002; Nocek, 1997). They are common in cattle raised under intense systems and feedlots (Smilie et al., 1991). Claw horn disorders in cattle are discernible at clinical level by lameness symptoms or at subclinical level by hoof trimming to reveal non-painful lesions

However, adoption of confined housing in dairy cattle husbandry as is the practice in smallholder dairy production systems particularly in developing countries has led to higher incidences of claw disorders. This is mainly due to cattle spending long hours standing on confined hard floors that exposes claws to higher pressures which predispose them to

within or under the horn (Clarkson et al., 1996; Nocek, 1997).

**1. Introduction** 

causes (Offer et al., 2000).

**Claw Disorders in Dairy Cows Under** 

**Varying Zero-Grazing Systems** 

 J. Nguhiu-Mwangi, P.M.F. Mbithi, J.K. Wabacha and P.G Mbuthia *Department of Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,* 

 *University of Nairobi,* 

*Kenya* 

