*7. tlim* **that swimmers are able to keep at vVO2max (tlim-vVO2max)**

For several years, many studies have remained focusing on measuring vVO2max during swimming. However, few investigations in order to determine the tlim-vVO2max were carried out. This training tool which requires the swimmer to keep the exercise intensity corresponding to its vVO2max has been studied mainly by the Billat et al research group. Based on the pioneering work of Hill and Lupton (1923), Billat & Koralsztein (1996) defined this parameter as the maximum time that the vVO2max is maintained until exhaustion (tlimvVO2max).

The difficulties of measuring VO2 in the aquatic environment hindered the swimming research and related modalities. The first studies were conducted in "swimming flume" (Faina et al. 1997; Demarie et al. 2001). To our knowledge, the first study in the pool, i.e., under normal swimming conditions, was performed by Renoux (2001). However, Renoux (2001) did not present results for cardio respiratory parameters such as VO2 and ventilation. The main results obtained in studies with "swimming flume" suggested that: a) the tlimvVO2max has low inter-individual variability in swimming, unlike other sports such as running (Billat et al. 1994b), and the values are between 4 min 45 s and 6 min 15 s; b) There is an inverse relationship between tlim-vVO2max and vVO2max, similar to running (Billat et al. 1994c); c) There was an inverse relationship between tlim-vVO2max and anaerobic threshold.

Bioenergetics Applied to Swimming: An Ecological Method to Monitor and Prescribe Training 173

f. Depends on the biomechanical parameters, correlating inversely with the strokes frequency and directly with the distance traveled per stroke cycle and the swimming index (product of the average SS and average distance traveled per stroke cycle)

g. During the protocol to obtaining tlim-vVO2max there is a significant increase in stroke frequency and a great decline in the distance per stroke cycle (Marinho et al. 2004,

Studies in runners and cyclists (Billat & Koralsztein 1996) found that the tlim-vVO2max is less

**(s)** 

**325±76.5**  (4min8s to 6min41s)

**260.2±60.73**  (3min19s to 5min21s)

**243.17±30.49**  (3min33s to 4min34s)

234.49±57.19 (4min17s to 4min51s)

231.90±52.37 (3min to 4min44s)

**233.37± 53.92 (3min to 4min47s)** 

217.67±20.84 (3min17s to 3min58)

258.46 ± 25.10 (3min53s to 4min44s)

**243.20 ± 30.50**  (3min32s to 4min34s)

Despite these results, is not only the complexity of measuring vVO2max that affect the application of this concept by coaches. Because it is an abstract goal, the use of vVO2max and tlim-vVO2max in swimming training would be more attractive if a *"dlim"* was associated with tlim-vVO2max. The studies presented in Table 3 suggest that efforts related to aerobic power (vVO2max) have very similar *dlim* of 400 m front crawl, ranging from 4min01s (3min17s to 5min21s, elite swimmers) and 5min25s (4min8s to 6min41s, recreational swimmers). Fastest

**vVO2max (m· s-1)** 

1.45±0.04

1.35±0.03

**1.40±0.06** 

1.55±0.02

1.39±0.02

**1.45±0.08** 

**dlim (m)** 

257.08 to 422.93

242.36 to 383.76

**240.44 to 419.42** 

301.15 to 374.47

319.70 to 399.82

**291.54 to 418.76** 

**1.19±0.08 295.7 to 477.79** 

**1.46±0.06 279.26 to 487.8** 

**1.45±0.08 308.38 to 396.80** 

(Fernandes et al. 2006b);

than 12 minutes, and the average is about 6 minutes.

**Study n tlim** 

10 Males (students)

15 Males (athletes)

8 (athletes)

10 Females

**Total = 23** (athletes)

5 Females

**Total = 8**  (athletes)

Table 3. Studies that measured tlim-vVO2max in swimmers.

swimmers endure less time vVO2max likely for two reasons:

2006).

FERNANDES et al. (2003a)

FERNANDES et al. (2003b)

FERNANDES et al. (2006a)

FERNANDES et al.

FERNANDES et al.

(2006b) 13 Males

(2008) 3 Males

Studies carried out in swimming pool with both genders and different levels of performance shoed some results that agreed with "swimming flume" studies. Fernandes et al. (2003a, 2003b) suggest little variability in tlim-vVO2max between subjects at the same level of performance (Fernandes et al. 2006c), genders (Fernandes et al. 2005), or swimming techniques (Fernandes et al. 2006a). Still, there was an inverse relationship between tlimvVO2max and vVO2max (Fernandes et al. 2003b, 2005, 2006a), and between tlim-vVO2max and anaerobic threshold corresponding blood concentrations of 3,5 mmol·l-1 (Fernandes et al. 2003b).

The method for obtaining vVO2max of swimmers in swimming pool proved to be valid by Fernandes et al. (2003a). First, each subject performed an intermittent and individualized protocol, with increments of 0.05 m.s-1 at each stage of 200 m and with 30 s intervals between each stage, until exhaustion. The VO2 was measured directly with a ergospirometer (K4b2, Cosmed, Rome, Italy) connected to the swimmer through a snorkel and a valve system (Keskinen et al. 2003). The concentrations of expired gases were measured *breath-bybreath*. A speed controller (*visual pacer*, TAR. 1.1, GBK-electronics, Aveiro, Portugal) with lights in the pool, was used to help the swimmers to keep their pre-determined SS. VO2max was considered to be reached according to primary and secondary physiological criteria: (HOWLEY et al. 1995):


Thus, vVO2max is equal to the SS corresponding to the first stage at which VO2max is reached. If a plateau lower than 2.1ml·min-1·kg-1 could not be observed, the vVO2max was then calculated by the equation proposed by Kuipers et al. (1985):

$$
\sigma \dot{V} O\_{2\,\mathrm{max}} = SS + \Delta S \cdot \left( n \cdot N^{-1} \right) \tag{5}
$$

where *SS* is the speed corresponding to the last completed stage, *∆S* is the increment of speed, *n* indicates the number of seconds that the subjects were able to swim during the last stage, and *N* is the preset time (in seconds) to that stage. After determining the vVO2max of each swimmer, followed by an adequate recovery period, applies the test of tlim-vVO2max when each swimmer trying to stay in your swimming vVO2max (speed control) to exhaustion.

The main studies in swimming suggest that tlim-vVO2max:


Studies carried out in swimming pool with both genders and different levels of performance shoed some results that agreed with "swimming flume" studies. Fernandes et al. (2003a, 2003b) suggest little variability in tlim-vVO2max between subjects at the same level of performance (Fernandes et al. 2006c), genders (Fernandes et al. 2005), or swimming techniques (Fernandes et al. 2006a). Still, there was an inverse relationship between tlimvVO2max and vVO2max (Fernandes et al. 2003b, 2005, 2006a), and between tlim-vVO2max and anaerobic threshold corresponding blood concentrations of 3,5 mmol·l-1 (Fernandes et al.

The method for obtaining vVO2max of swimmers in swimming pool proved to be valid by Fernandes et al. (2003a). First, each subject performed an intermittent and individualized protocol, with increments of 0.05 m.s-1 at each stage of 200 m and with 30 s intervals between each stage, until exhaustion. The VO2 was measured directly with a ergospirometer (K4b2, Cosmed, Rome, Italy) connected to the swimmer through a snorkel and a valve system (Keskinen et al. 2003). The concentrations of expired gases were measured *breath-bybreath*. A speed controller (*visual pacer*, TAR. 1.1, GBK-electronics, Aveiro, Portugal) with lights in the pool, was used to help the swimmers to keep their pre-determined SS. VO2max was considered to be reached according to primary and secondary physiological criteria:

Thus, vVO2max is equal to the SS corresponding to the first stage at which VO2max is reached. If a plateau lower than 2.1ml·min-1·kg-1 could not be observed, the vVO2max was then

where *SS* is the speed corresponding to the last completed stage, *∆S* is the increment of speed, *n* indicates the number of seconds that the subjects were able to swim during the last stage, and *N* is the preset time (in seconds) to that stage. After determining the vVO2max of each swimmer, followed by an adequate recovery period, applies the test of tlim-vVO2max when each swimmer trying to stay in your swimming vVO2max (speed control) to

a. Correlates inversely with the energy cost, ie, it has a direct relationship with swimming

b. Correlates inversely with the speed of the individual anaerobic threshold (Fernandes et

c. Presents negative correlation values with the delta lactate (Δ[La]), ie, the difference found between [La] at the end and [La] at the beginning of exercise (Δ[La]) (Fernandes

d. Presents negative correlation with maximum values of [La]. (Fernandes et al. 2008); e. Shows no significant correlation with VO2max (Fernandes et al. 2003a; 2003b; 2005; 2006a;

1 2 max *vVO SS S n N* ( ) (5)

a. Occurrence of a VO2 plateau independent of the increase in SS;

calculated by the equation proposed by Kuipers et al. (1985):

The main studies in swimming suggest that tlim-vVO2max:

economy (Fernandes et al. 2005);

2003b).

(HOWLEY et al. 1995):

exhaustion.

al. 2006a);

et al. 2008);

2006b; 2006c);

b. [La] level ( ≥ 8mmol·l-1);

d. High HR (≥90% of [220-age];

c. High respiratory exchange ratio (r ≥1,0);

e. High value of PE (visually controlled).


Studies in runners and cyclists (Billat & Koralsztein 1996) found that the tlim-vVO2max is less than 12 minutes, and the average is about 6 minutes.


Table 3. Studies that measured tlim-vVO2max in swimmers.

Despite these results, is not only the complexity of measuring vVO2max that affect the application of this concept by coaches. Because it is an abstract goal, the use of vVO2max and tlim-vVO2max in swimming training would be more attractive if a *"dlim"* was associated with tlim-vVO2max. The studies presented in Table 3 suggest that efforts related to aerobic power (vVO2max) have very similar *dlim* of 400 m front crawl, ranging from 4min01s (3min17s to 5min21s, elite swimmers) and 5min25s (4min8s to 6min41s, recreational swimmers). Fastest swimmers endure less time vVO2max likely for two reasons:

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