**Digital Filtering Techniques to Reduce Image Noise and Improve Dose Resolution in X-Ray CT Based Normoxic Gel Dosimetry**

N. Gopishankar1, S. Vivekanandhan1, A. Jirasek2, S. S. Kale1, G. K. Rath1 Sanjay Thulkar1, V. Subramani1, S. Senthil Kumaran1 and R. K. Bisht1 *1All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, 2Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Victoria, B.C. 1India 2Canada* 

#### **1. Introduction**

326 Modern Practices in Radiation Therapy

Mather M L and Baldock C 2003c Ultrasound tomography imaging of radiation dose

McJury M, Oldham M, Leach MO, Webb S. Dynamics of polymerization in Polyacrylamide gel (PAG) dosimeters: (i) aging and long-term stability. Phys Med Biol 1999; 44:1863-73. McJury M, Tapper PD, Cosgrove VP, Murphy PS, Griffin S, Leach M, et al. Experimental 3D

McJury M, Oldham M, Cosgrove V P, Murphy P S, Doran S, Leach M O and Webb S 2000

Oldham M, Baustert I, Lord C, Smith TAD, McJury M, Leach MO, et al. An investigation

Oldham M, McJury M, Baustert I, Webb S, Leach MO. Improving calibration accuracy in

Oldham M, Siewerdsen J H, Shetty A and Jaffray D A 2001 High resolution gel-dosimetry by

Oldham M, Siewerdsen J H, Kumar S,Wong J and Jaffray D A 2003 Optical-CT gel dosimetry

Oldham M and Kim L 2004 Optical-CT-gel dosimetry: II. Optical artifacts and geometric

Ramm U, Weber U, Bock M, Kramer M., Bankamp A, Damrau M, Thilmann C, BottcherH D,

Rintoul L, Lepage M and Baldock C 2003 Radiation dose distribution in polymer gels by

Senden R J, De Jean P, McAuley K B and Schreiner L J 2006 Polymer gel dosimeters with

Sittig M. Handbook of toxic and hazardous chemicals and carcinogens (2nd edn). New

Schreiner LJ, Henri C, Evans MDC, Podgorsak EB. 3-D MRI radiation dosimetry using the magnetization to dose (M&D) calibration technique. Med Phys 1995; 22:951. Schreiner JL, editor. Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop on Radiation Therapy

Trapp J, Bäck S Å J, Lepage M, Michael G and Baldock C 2001 An experimental study of

Trapp JV, Michael G, De Deene Y and Baldock C 2002 Measurements of density and linear

Vachier MC, Rutledge DN. Influence of temperature, pH, water content, gel strength and

Zebrowska G, Husson F, Lewa CJ, de Certaintes JD. MRI of radiation dose distribution in a

conformal carbon ion radiotherapy, Phys. Med. Biol*.* 45: N95-N102.

response using different monomers Phys. Med. Biol. 51 3301–14

Schad L R and G Kraft 2000 Three-dimensional BANGTM gel dosimetry in

reduced toxicity: a preliminary investigation of the NMR and optical dose–

Gel Dosimetry; 1999 July 21±23; Lexington KY. Edmonton, AB, Canada: Canadian

thedose response of polymer gel dosimeters imaged with x-ray computed

attenuation coefficient changes in polymer gel dosimeters Phys. Med. Biol. 47 4247–58

their interactions on NMR relaxation of gelatins IÐ analysis of the calculated

new tissue equivalent gel dosimeter (PIRA). In: Proc Soc Magn Reson 3rd Scientific Meeting; 1995 August; Nice, France. California, USA: Society for Magnetic

dosimetry around a high dose-rate clinical 192Ir source using a Polyacrylamide gel

Radiation dosimetry using polymer gels: methods and applications Br. J. Radiol. 73

into the dosimetry of a nine-field tomotherapy irradiation using BANG-gel

distributions in polymer gel dosimeters Med. Phys. 30 2140–8

(PAG) dosimeter. Phys Med Biol 1999; 44:2431-44.

dosimetry. Phys Med Biol 1998; 43:1113-2.

geldosimetry. Phy Med Biol 1998; 43:2709-20.

I: basic investigations Med. Phys. 30 623–34

Raman spectroscopy Appl. Spectrosc. 57 51–7

Jersey, USA: Noyes Publications, 1985:41.

Organization of Medical Physicists.

Resonance in Medicine: 1102.

tomography Phys. Med Biol. 46 2939–51

relaxation times. J Magn Reson Analysis 1996;2:311-20.

distortion Med. Phys. 31 1093–104

optical-CT and MR scanning Med. Phys. 28 1436–45

919–29

Gel dosimetry is a promising technique for the implementation of 3D dose verification within the radiation therapy clinic, since it is the only methodology which provides comprehensive 3D dose measurement of conformal treatments such as Intensity Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT), Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) and Stereotactic Radiotherapy (SRT), and volumetric arc therapies (VMAT). In polymer gel dosimetry, monomer molecules polymerize and are fixed in the gel matrix when exposed to radiation. The spatial dose information thus can be obtained by gel imaging. Gel imaging methods which are currently under investigation are MRI, optical computed tomography and x-ray computed tomography. While promising, x-ray CT images of irradiated polymer gel exhibit low contrast due to small change in density that occurs during polymerization. The response of CT contrast to dose is weak and noise reduction is critical in order to achieve adequate dose resolution in gel dosimetry using x-ray computed tomography. Ideally, image noise is minimized using high tube current, long scan times and high number of image averages [Hilts et al 2005]. Digital image filtering is an effective method in reducing image noise while maintaining accurate spatial dose information. Generally it is performed in either frequency domain or spatial domain. In a previous work, several spatial filters were applied to Stereotactic Radiosurgery (SRS) irradiated polymer gel image [Hilts and Duzenli 2004]. In their study it was found that the two highest performing filters were the adaptive mean (Wiener) and smallest univalue segment assimilating nucleus (SUSAN). In another study a new method of signal to noise ratio (SNR) enhancement by 2D two-point maximum entropy regularization method (TPMEM) was investigated [Jirasek 2006]. However, a comprehensive examination of the best performing filters from these two studies has not been undertaken. Here, we test the Weiner and TPMEM digital filters on X-ray CT image of the irradiated PAGAT gel in order to reduce noise and improve dose resolution. This work builds off of previous studies and evaluates and compares the highest-performing filters from past individual works [Hilts and Duzenli 2004, Jirasek et al 2006].

Digital Filtering Techniques to Reduce Image Noise and

**1.2 Filters used for noise reduction in this study** 

built-in function for this adaptive mean filter.

The aim of TPMEM is to minimize the function

smoothness and fidelity is optimized by Lagrange multiplier λ.

**1.2.1 Adaptive filter** 

**1.2.2 TPMEM** 

et al 2006).

**2. Materials and methods** 

**2.1 Gel preparation** 

The filtered value is given by

Improve Dose Resolution in X-Ray CT Based Normoxic Gel Dosimetry 329

Adaptive filters are a class of filters for which filtering power is adapted based on local image statistics. The adaptive mean or Wiener filter is a spatial filter based on moving kernel (similar to a traditional mean filter). The difference lies in that the adaptive filter weights its filtering power based on the ratio of the local variance (σ2L) to the overall image noise (σ<sup>2</sup>

where g(x,y) is the unfiltered value and mL is the local mean value of the image. All image filtering was performed in Matlab (The Mathworks, Natick, MA, USA), which provides a

where S is the entropy function, χ2 is the chi square statistic which characterizes the degree of agreement between the initial (unsmoothed) and recovered (smoothed) full dataset and λ is a Lagrange multiplier that is to be determined. The balance between recovered data

Recently, the traditional TPMEM algorithm has been extended to (i) incorporate an additional parameter (X, see equation 5) to allow for a user defined tuning of the ratio between smoothness and image fidelity, and (ii) allow for the minimization to occur in 2D,

The underlying theory of TPMEM is presented in detail elsewhere (Greek et al 1995, Jirasek

Normoxic gel was prepared under normal atmospheric conditions. The components used for the preparation of the dosimeter were 6% gelatin (300 Bloom from Porcine skin), 3% Acrylamide, 3% N, N' methylene-bis-acrylamide (BIS), 88% distilled water and 10mM tetrakis(hydroxy methyl) phosphonium chloride (THP). (All from Sigma Aldrich, India). For preparation of PAGAT gel, 6% of gelatin by total weight of the dosimeter was mixed with 88% distilled water and allowed to soak for 45 minutes before heating to 50oC in specially designed water bath with temperature control (thermostat), also crossed checked with a thermometer. A waterbath was designed in-house specifically to prepare 10 to 15 Liters of gel. The container with gelatin was heated to 50oC and simultaneously stirred with overhead stirrer. BIS (3%) was added and stirred thoroughly in the gel solution till it

as opposed to 1D spectra, as was originally reported. [Jirasek 2006 and Foist 2010].

f(x,y) = g(x,y) – ((σ2L) /(σ2N) )\*[ g(x,y) – mL ] (3)

T = -S + λ χ2 (4)

T = -S + X λ χ2 (5)

N).

#### **1.1 Concept of dose resolution**

Dose resolution or minimal detectable difference (MDD) in dose is one of the most important features of gel dosimeter [Baldock et.al. PMB 2001]. In general, DP is related to σD which is the standard deviation or dose uncertainty in the measured dose.

$$\mathbf{D}^p \Delta = \mathbf{K}\_{\mathbf{F}} \sqrt{2} \text{ cụ} \tag{1}$$

Where Kp is the coverage factor for coincidence interval p. σD is the standard deviation of the sample. Dose resolution (D95%Δ) is defined as the minimal separation between two absorbed doses such that they may be distinguished with a given level of confidence, p. For a 95% confidence level the dose resolution becomes D95%Δ = 2.77.σD.

In CT gel dosimetry, σD is due to uncertainty in measured NCT (σNCT) and in the dose response curve for a linear dose response, σD is related to σNCT by the slope of the response.

$$\mathbf{q}\_{\rm D} = \left[ \partial \mathbf{D} / \partial \mathbf{N}\_{\rm CT} \right] \mathbf{o} \mathbf{N}\_{\rm CT} \tag{2}$$

Combining Equation (1) an (2), DP is improved by a decrease in the slope of the dose to NCT response and as investigated here a decrease in σNCT.

#### **1.1.1 Theory**

#### **1.1.1.1 CT image noise**

Noise in CT images is primarily due to quantum noise inherent in photon detection and electronic noise. Quantum noise results from counting a finite number of random events (photons hitting the detector) and is, theoretically, Poisson distributed. A characteristic of Poisson distributions is that the variance equals the mean. That is for Poisson distributed noise the variance depends on signal strength (number of photons counted). In theory, noise in CT projection data should display this characteristic. However the noise in a final CT image is Gaussian distributed due to the presence of electronic noise. As a result, the noise characteristics of a CT imaged depend on the scan parameters and reconstruction algorithm used [Hilts 2004].

#### **1.1.1.2 Digital image filtering**

The gel images used to evaluate filters in this project has been preprocessed for artifact removal using image averaging and background subtraction [Hilts and Jirasek 2008] and its image degradation is predominantly caused by noise. Mask-based filters are all based on a similar principle: a mask (m x n pixels) is centered on each pixel of the image, g(s,t), and a function is applied to the image pixels in the region of the mask (Sxy) so that the center pixel is replaced with a new value, f(x,y). The TPMEM filter is not based on a masking approach but, rather, the minimization of an entropy and fidelity function, as described below.

For this study slope of linear region (0 to 12 Gy) from calibration gel was used to calculate σD. The filters are applied to a gel irradiated CT image of a simulated clinical treatment. For all cases, the effects of filter kernel size, number of filter iterations, and TPMEM stopping criterion are investigated.

#### **1.2 Filters used for noise reduction in this study**

#### **1.2.1 Adaptive filter**

328 Modern Practices in Radiation Therapy

Dose resolution or minimal detectable difference (MDD) in dose is one of the most important features of gel dosimeter [Baldock et.al. PMB 2001]. In general, DP is related to

 DPΔ = KP√2 σD (1) Where Kp is the coverage factor for coincidence interval p. σD is the standard deviation of the sample. Dose resolution (D95%Δ) is defined as the minimal separation between two absorbed doses such that they may be distinguished with a given level of confidence, p. For

In CT gel dosimetry, σD is due to uncertainty in measured NCT (σNCT) and in the dose response curve for a linear dose response, σD is related to σNCT by the slope of the response.

Combining Equation (1) an (2), DP is improved by a decrease in the slope of the dose to

Noise in CT images is primarily due to quantum noise inherent in photon detection and electronic noise. Quantum noise results from counting a finite number of random events (photons hitting the detector) and is, theoretically, Poisson distributed. A characteristic of Poisson distributions is that the variance equals the mean. That is for Poisson distributed noise the variance depends on signal strength (number of photons counted). In theory, noise in CT projection data should display this characteristic. However the noise in a final CT image is Gaussian distributed due to the presence of electronic noise. As a result, the noise characteristics of a CT imaged depend on the scan parameters and reconstruction algorithm

The gel images used to evaluate filters in this project has been preprocessed for artifact removal using image averaging and background subtraction [Hilts and Jirasek 2008] and its image degradation is predominantly caused by noise. Mask-based filters are all based on a similar principle: a mask (m x n pixels) is centered on each pixel of the image, g(s,t), and a function is applied to the image pixels in the region of the mask (Sxy) so that the center pixel is replaced with a new value, f(x,y). The TPMEM filter is not based on a masking approach but, rather, the minimization of an entropy and fidelity function, as

For this study slope of linear region (0 to 12 Gy) from calibration gel was used to calculate σD. The filters are applied to a gel irradiated CT image of a simulated clinical treatment. For all cases, the effects of filter kernel size, number of filter iterations, and TPMEM stopping

σD = [∂D/∂NCT] σNCT (2)

σD which is the standard deviation or dose uncertainty in the measured dose.

a 95% confidence level the dose resolution becomes D95%Δ = 2.77.σD.

NCT response and as investigated here a decrease in σNCT.

**1.1 Concept of dose resolution** 

**1.1.1 Theory** 

**1.1.1.1 CT image noise** 

used [Hilts 2004].

described below.

criterion are investigated.

**1.1.1.2 Digital image filtering** 

Adaptive filters are a class of filters for which filtering power is adapted based on local image statistics. The adaptive mean or Wiener filter is a spatial filter based on moving kernel (similar to a traditional mean filter). The difference lies in that the adaptive filter weights its filtering power based on the ratio of the local variance (σ<sup>2</sup> L) to the overall image noise (σ<sup>2</sup> N). The filtered value is given by

$$\mathbf{f}(\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{y}) = \mathbf{g}(\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{y}) - ((\sigma^2 \mathbf{L}) \, / (\sigma^2 \mathbf{N}) \, )^\* [\, \mathbf{g}(\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{y}) - \mathbf{m} \, \mathbf{L}] \tag{3}$$

where g(x,y) is the unfiltered value and mL is the local mean value of the image. All image filtering was performed in Matlab (The Mathworks, Natick, MA, USA), which provides a built-in function for this adaptive mean filter.

#### **1.2.2 TPMEM**

The aim of TPMEM is to minimize the function

$$\mathbf{T} = \mathbf{\cdot} \mathbf{S} + \lambda \,\,\chi^2 \tag{4}$$

where S is the entropy function, χ2 is the chi square statistic which characterizes the degree of agreement between the initial (unsmoothed) and recovered (smoothed) full dataset and λ is a Lagrange multiplier that is to be determined. The balance between recovered data smoothness and fidelity is optimized by Lagrange multiplier λ.

Recently, the traditional TPMEM algorithm has been extended to (i) incorporate an additional parameter (X, see equation 5) to allow for a user defined tuning of the ratio between smoothness and image fidelity, and (ii) allow for the minimization to occur in 2D, as opposed to 1D spectra, as was originally reported. [Jirasek 2006 and Foist 2010].

$$\mathbf{T} = \mathbf{\bar{-S}} + \mathbf{\bar{X}} \,\lambda\,\chi^2\tag{5}$$

The underlying theory of TPMEM is presented in detail elsewhere (Greek et al 1995, Jirasek et al 2006).

#### **2. Materials and methods**

#### **2.1 Gel preparation**

Normoxic gel was prepared under normal atmospheric conditions. The components used for the preparation of the dosimeter were 6% gelatin (300 Bloom from Porcine skin), 3% Acrylamide, 3% N, N' methylene-bis-acrylamide (BIS), 88% distilled water and 10mM tetrakis(hydroxy methyl) phosphonium chloride (THP). (All from Sigma Aldrich, India). For preparation of PAGAT gel, 6% of gelatin by total weight of the dosimeter was mixed with 88% distilled water and allowed to soak for 45 minutes before heating to 50oC in specially designed water bath with temperature control (thermostat), also crossed checked with a thermometer. A waterbath was designed in-house specifically to prepare 10 to 15 Liters of gel. The container with gelatin was heated to 50oC and simultaneously stirred with overhead stirrer. BIS (3%) was added and stirred thoroughly in the gel solution till it

Digital Filtering Techniques to Reduce Image Noise and

Fig. 1. Dose to NCT response curve obtained from the calibration gel.

**3. Results and discussions** 

which showed a D95%Δ of 24.65 cGy.

**3.1 Wiener filter** 

Improve Dose Resolution in X-Ray CT Based Normoxic Gel Dosimetry 331

Figure 2 shows the radiation exposed gel image. The results of filtering the gel image with the filters described in Sec. 1.2.1 are shown in Table 1. In our study excellent dose resolution was obtained by applying adaptive mean filter with 11 x 11 pixel mask at second iteration

Fig. 2. X-ray CT image of gel in PET container irradiated with four intersecting 4 x 4cm2 6MV field doses of 2, 5, 7, and 11Gy at the depth of maximum dose. This image was

Measured σNCT and calculated values of σD and D95%Δ are provided in Table 1 for Wiener filtered image and the unfiltered image. Results show that the improvement increases with

Figure 3a represents the unfiltered gel image. Figure 3b and 3c represent the gel image after

the mask size as expected since a large mask provides a greater smoothing area.

applying an 11 x 11 Wiener filter at first and second iteration respectively.

obtained after background subtraction and image averaging.

dissolved completely for 30 minutes. 3% Acrylamide was added subsequently and the whole content was stirred for an hour. Once a clear solution was obtained 10mM of THPC was added and stirred and the container was removed from water bath. A final volume of 4.5 Litres of gel was prepared. The gel was immediately poured into the three PET containers (each with 1mm thickness and 1500mL capacity) till screw top and tightly sealed with clingfilm and container lid. One container was used for calibration, one for clinical beam exposure and one for background subtraction purpose. The gel containers were immediately covered with black plastic cover to avoid exposure to daylight that might cause photopolymerization and then were refrigerated at 5oC.

#### **2.2 Gel calibration and irradiation**

Irradiations were done approximately 23h post manufacture on a Varian Clinac2300CD linear accelerator (Varian Assoc., Palo Alto, CA). The PET containers (10cm diameter, 19cm height) for exposure were left in the linac room for 1 hr prior to irradiation. The first PET container (1) was irradiated to doses from 0 Gy to 14 Gy at Dmax by large flask geometry method (Taylor et al. 2007). The second PET container (2) was irradiated with four intersecting 4 x 4cm2 6MV field doses of 2, 5, 7, and 11Gy at the depth of maximum dose. The third PET container (3) was used for background subtraction. The background subtraction technique in general is successful in removing beam hardening artifacts and ring artifacts due to miscaliberated detector in the scanner. Reference marks were made on the containers for scanning reproducibility. After irradiation the gel containers were exposed to atmosphere one day after irradiation in order to make gels inactive and thus prevent further polymerization. Acquisition parameters for dose response experiments were as follows: tube voltage 140 kV, tube current 200 mA, scan time 1sec, FOV 130 x 130, image thickness 2.5 mm, Reconstruction algorithm B30 medium.

The relationship of NCT to dose was obtained from the image of the calibration gel as shown in Figure 1. The average NCT was measured for each region of uniform dose using MATLAB and a dose response curve was made. This curve was then used to convert the clinical treatment gel image into a dose map for quantitative image analysis. NCT is shown as the value above background increases with dose. The response is well modeled by a linear function up to a dose of 12Gy, (R2 = 0.996) with a slope of 222 cGy/H. Measured noise σNCT (H) from region of interest in the gel exposed with clinical beams and calculated values of σD and dose resolution (D95%Δ) were analyzed for dose regions in gel irradiated for simulated clinical treatment. The response had dose region of slope 222 cGy/H (R2 = 0.996) and D95%Δ of 512.06 cGy.

#### **2.3 Image filtering**

The processed gel images were filtered using a Wiener filter described in Sec. 1.2.1 for 3x3, 5x5, 7x7, 11x11 pixel mask. All filtering was performed using MATLAB (Mathworks, USA). We further did filtering analysis with the TPMEM filter and compared those results with Wiener filter results. For this study we took several quantitative measures such as (i) profiles through the image (ii) FFT analysis of unfiltered image, Wiener filtered image and TPMEM filtered image (iii) SNR of filtered images (iv) root mean squared error (RMSE) (v) Pearsons correlation coefficient (PEARS). In order to compare RMSE with PEARS all the values quoted in this study are 1 – PEARS and are labeled as PEARSC.

Fig. 1. Dose to NCT response curve obtained from the calibration gel.

#### **3. Results and discussions**

#### **3.1 Wiener filter**

330 Modern Practices in Radiation Therapy

dissolved completely for 30 minutes. 3% Acrylamide was added subsequently and the whole content was stirred for an hour. Once a clear solution was obtained 10mM of THPC was added and stirred and the container was removed from water bath. A final volume of 4.5 Litres of gel was prepared. The gel was immediately poured into the three PET containers (each with 1mm thickness and 1500mL capacity) till screw top and tightly sealed with clingfilm and container lid. One container was used for calibration, one for clinical beam exposure and one for background subtraction purpose. The gel containers were immediately covered with black plastic cover to avoid exposure to daylight that might cause

Irradiations were done approximately 23h post manufacture on a Varian Clinac2300CD linear accelerator (Varian Assoc., Palo Alto, CA). The PET containers (10cm diameter, 19cm height) for exposure were left in the linac room for 1 hr prior to irradiation. The first PET container (1) was irradiated to doses from 0 Gy to 14 Gy at Dmax by large flask geometry method (Taylor et al. 2007). The second PET container (2) was irradiated with four intersecting 4 x 4cm2 6MV field doses of 2, 5, 7, and 11Gy at the depth of maximum dose. The third PET container (3) was used for background subtraction. The background subtraction technique in general is successful in removing beam hardening artifacts and ring artifacts due to miscaliberated detector in the scanner. Reference marks were made on the containers for scanning reproducibility. After irradiation the gel containers were exposed to atmosphere one day after irradiation in order to make gels inactive and thus prevent further polymerization. Acquisition parameters for dose response experiments were as follows: tube voltage 140 kV, tube current 200 mA, scan time 1sec, FOV 130 x 130, image thickness

The relationship of NCT to dose was obtained from the image of the calibration gel as shown in Figure 1. The average NCT was measured for each region of uniform dose using MATLAB and a dose response curve was made. This curve was then used to convert the clinical treatment gel image into a dose map for quantitative image analysis. NCT is shown as the value above background increases with dose. The response is well modeled by a linear function up to a dose of 12Gy, (R2 = 0.996) with a slope of 222 cGy/H. Measured noise σNCT (H) from region of interest in the gel exposed with clinical beams and calculated values of σD and dose resolution (D95%Δ) were analyzed for dose regions in gel irradiated for simulated clinical treatment. The

The processed gel images were filtered using a Wiener filter described in Sec. 1.2.1 for 3x3, 5x5, 7x7, 11x11 pixel mask. All filtering was performed using MATLAB (Mathworks, USA). We further did filtering analysis with the TPMEM filter and compared those results with Wiener filter results. For this study we took several quantitative measures such as (i) profiles through the image (ii) FFT analysis of unfiltered image, Wiener filtered image and TPMEM filtered image (iii) SNR of filtered images (iv) root mean squared error (RMSE) (v) Pearsons correlation coefficient (PEARS). In order to compare RMSE with PEARS all the values

response had dose region of slope 222 cGy/H (R2 = 0.996) and D95%Δ of 512.06 cGy.

quoted in this study are 1 – PEARS and are labeled as PEARSC.

photopolymerization and then were refrigerated at 5oC.

2.5 mm, Reconstruction algorithm B30 medium.

**2.3 Image filtering** 

**2.2 Gel calibration and irradiation** 

Figure 2 shows the radiation exposed gel image. The results of filtering the gel image with the filters described in Sec. 1.2.1 are shown in Table 1. In our study excellent dose resolution was obtained by applying adaptive mean filter with 11 x 11 pixel mask at second iteration which showed a D95%Δ of 24.65 cGy.

Fig. 2. X-ray CT image of gel in PET container irradiated with four intersecting 4 x 4cm2 6MV field doses of 2, 5, 7, and 11Gy at the depth of maximum dose. This image was obtained after background subtraction and image averaging.

Measured σNCT and calculated values of σD and D95%Δ are provided in Table 1 for Wiener filtered image and the unfiltered image. Results show that the improvement increases with the mask size as expected since a large mask provides a greater smoothing area.

Figure 3a represents the unfiltered gel image. Figure 3b and 3c represent the gel image after applying an 11 x 11 Wiener filter at first and second iteration respectively.

Digital Filtering Techniques to Reduce Image Noise and

obtained.

Improve Dose Resolution in X-Ray CT Based Normoxic Gel Dosimetry 333

Figure 4a and 4b are horizontal and vertical profiles of the unfiltered and Wiener filtered images. The unfiltered gel image is characterized by several spikes throughout the profile. By applying Wiener filter the spikes are significantly reduced and smooth profile is

(a)

(b) Fig. 4. (a) Horizontal Dose profiles for unfiltered image and Wiener filtered image 1st and 2nd iteration using 11 x 11 mask. (b) Vertical Dose profiles for unfiltered image and Wiener

In general, a tradeoff exists when increasing mask size. A larger mask generally improves image SNR, and hence dose resolution, but simultaneously degrades spatial dose information. In order to illustrate a typical spatial resolution degradation observed when applying a Wiener filter with 11x11 mask, we measured the width of the profiles in figure 4a (i.e. no iterations, 1, and 2 iterations of the Wiener filter). Table 1 illustrates that spatial degradation increases when applying the Wiener filters. Hence, a balance must be struck

filtered image 1st and 2nd iteration using 11 x 11 mask.

between image filtering and potential spatial degradation.


Table 1. Summary of measured noise (σNCT) and calculated dose uncertainty (σD) and dose resolution with 95% confidence (D95%Δ) for the unfiltered and filtered images.

(c)

Fig. 3. (a) Unfiltered Image, (b) Wiener filtered Image (11 x 11 mask, 1st iteration), (c) Wiener filtered Image (11x11mask, 2nd iteration).

Filter Mask σNCT(H) σD(cGy) D95%Δ (cGy) Profile Width

3 x 3 0.6270 139.19 385.56 34.3367 5 x 5 0.5069 112.53 311.71 34.447 7 x 7 0.3936 87.38 242.04 34.40312

iteration) 0.1457 32.35 89.61 34.7228

iteration) 0.0401 8.90 24.65 33.881

Table 1. Summary of measured noise (σNCT) and calculated dose uncertainty (σD) and dose

(a) (b)

(c) Fig. 3. (a) Unfiltered Image, (b) Wiener filtered Image (11 x 11 mask, 1st iteration), (c) Wiener

resolution with 95% confidence (D95%Δ) for the unfiltered and filtered images.

Unfiltered 0.8327 184.86 512.06 35.6174

Wiener filter

11 x 11(1st

11 x 11(2nd

filtered Image (11x11mask, 2nd iteration).

Figure 4a and 4b are horizontal and vertical profiles of the unfiltered and Wiener filtered images. The unfiltered gel image is characterized by several spikes throughout the profile. By applying Wiener filter the spikes are significantly reduced and smooth profile is obtained.

Fig. 4. (a) Horizontal Dose profiles for unfiltered image and Wiener filtered image 1st and 2nd iteration using 11 x 11 mask. (b) Vertical Dose profiles for unfiltered image and Wiener filtered image 1st and 2nd iteration using 11 x 11 mask.

In general, a tradeoff exists when increasing mask size. A larger mask generally improves image SNR, and hence dose resolution, but simultaneously degrades spatial dose information. In order to illustrate a typical spatial resolution degradation observed when applying a Wiener filter with 11x11 mask, we measured the width of the profiles in figure 4a (i.e. no iterations, 1, and 2 iterations of the Wiener filter). Table 1 illustrates that spatial degradation increases when applying the Wiener filters. Hence, a balance must be struck between image filtering and potential spatial degradation.

Digital Filtering Techniques to Reduce Image Noise and

Improve Dose Resolution in X-Ray CT Based Normoxic Gel Dosimetry 335

truly filtered image will contain high SNR, high PEARS (low PEARSC) and low RMSE [Jirasek et al 2006]. Hence, a tradeoff is again noted between image smoothness and fidelity.

Fig. 5. TPMEM analysis for PAGAT gel image. (a) Unfiltered image. (b) TPMEM filtered image for stopping criterion X = 0.5. (c) TPMEM filtered image for stopping criterion X = 1.4.

Table 3 shows the actual SNR for the unfiltered image was SNR = 1.272 and after filtering with TPMEM with stopping criterion X = 0.5, 1.4, 2.5, SNR was observed to be 1.6685, 2.2200, 3.5329 respectively. However as the stopping criterion is increased further spatial

(d). TPMEM filtered image for stopping criterion X = 2.5.

degradation is observed as shown in figure 6.

In Table 2 Wiener filter applied with different mask is shown. In Table 1 it was shown that as the mask size is increased the dose resolution is improved significantly. However the results of Table 2 showed different results. As the mask size increased the SNR value decreased. The SNR analysis of the unfiltered image showed SNR =1.272, and after Wiener filtering with 11x11 mask, SNR = 39.6049. RMSE and PEARSC values increased as the mask size was increased. By theory higher RMSE and PEARSC indicate poor filtering. The results prove that high filtering technique provides smoothness as shown in figure 3.c but at the same time causes image distortion.


Table 2. RMSE, PEARSC and SNR between unfiltered and Wiener filtering. Initial noisy data at SNR = 1.272.

#### **3.2 TPMEM filter**

In figure 5 TPMEM filter analysis is shown for the image matrix of size 96 x 96 pixels2, i.e. the white-space around the gel container was cropped in order to decrease computation time. The actual matrix size of the unfiltered CT image used for noise reduction study was 512 x 512 pixels2. For the a typical calculation time for a matrix of size 300 x 300 pixels2 is approximately 20 minutes whereas for matrix of size 90 x 90 pixels2 is around 40 seconds, hence we rescaled the CT image to a matrix of size 96 x 96 pixels2. Figure 5 a, b, c and d are the unfiltered and TPMEM filtered CT image of the exposed gel for stopping criterion X = 0.5, 1.4 and 2.5 respectively. Increase in image smoothness can be seen as the stopping criterion is increased.


Table 3. RMSE, PEARSC and SNR between unfiltered and TPMEM filtering. Initial noisy data at SNR =1.272.

Other than SNR values, RMSE and PEARSC values for different stopping criterion were analyzed and the results are shown in Table 2. In the previous study it was shown that a

In Table 2 Wiener filter applied with different mask is shown. In Table 1 it was shown that as the mask size is increased the dose resolution is improved significantly. However the results of Table 2 showed different results. As the mask size increased the SNR value decreased. The SNR analysis of the unfiltered image showed SNR =1.272, and after Wiener filtering with 11x11 mask, SNR = 39.6049. RMSE and PEARSC values increased as the mask size was increased. By theory higher RMSE and PEARSC indicate poor filtering. The results prove that high filtering technique provides smoothness as shown in figure 3.c but at the

> **Wiener Mask RMSE PEARSC SNR**  3 x 3 0.078 0.0019 2.3274 5 x 5 0.0927 0.0039 4.1234 7 x 7 0.1102 0.0057 7.1857 9 x 9 0.1285 0.0067 10.9466 11 x 11 0.1437 0.0088 19.7918 15 x 15 0.1634 0.018 39.6049 Unfiltered 1.272

Table 2. RMSE, PEARSC and SNR between unfiltered and Wiener filtering. Initial noisy data

In figure 5 TPMEM filter analysis is shown for the image matrix of size 96 x 96 pixels2, i.e. the white-space around the gel container was cropped in order to decrease computation time. The actual matrix size of the unfiltered CT image used for noise reduction study was 512 x 512 pixels2. For the a typical calculation time for a matrix of size 300 x 300 pixels2 is approximately 20 minutes whereas for matrix of size 90 x 90 pixels2 is around 40 seconds, hence we rescaled the CT image to a matrix of size 96 x 96 pixels2. Figure 5 a, b, c and d are the unfiltered and TPMEM filtered CT image of the exposed gel for stopping criterion X = 0.5, 1.4 and 2.5 respectively. Increase in image smoothness can be seen as the stopping criterion is increased.

**TPMEM Stopping Criterion RMSE PEARSC SNR** 

Table 3. RMSE, PEARSC and SNR between unfiltered and TPMEM filtering. Initial noisy

Other than SNR values, RMSE and PEARSC values for different stopping criterion were analyzed and the results are shown in Table 2. In the previous study it was shown that a

X = 0.2 0.0371 0.001 1.4357 X = 0.5 0.0588 0.004 1.6685 X = 1.4 0.101 0.0145 2.2200 X = 1.6 0.1066 0.0173 2.3511 X = 1.8 0.1171 0.0217 2.4079 X = 2.0 0.1204 0.0239 2.6034 X = 2.5 0.1314 0.0353 3.5329 X = 4 0.1363 0.0394 4.0898 Unfiltered 1.2720

same time causes image distortion.

at SNR = 1.272.

**3.2 TPMEM filter** 

data at SNR =1.272.

truly filtered image will contain high SNR, high PEARS (low PEARSC) and low RMSE [Jirasek et al 2006]. Hence, a tradeoff is again noted between image smoothness and fidelity.

Fig. 5. TPMEM analysis for PAGAT gel image. (a) Unfiltered image. (b) TPMEM filtered image for stopping criterion X = 0.5. (c) TPMEM filtered image for stopping criterion X = 1.4. (d). TPMEM filtered image for stopping criterion X = 2.5.

Table 3 shows the actual SNR for the unfiltered image was SNR = 1.272 and after filtering with TPMEM with stopping criterion X = 0.5, 1.4, 2.5, SNR was observed to be 1.6685, 2.2200, 3.5329 respectively. However as the stopping criterion is increased further spatial degradation is observed as shown in figure 6.

Digital Filtering Techniques to Reduce Image Noise and

**4. Conclusion** 

importance.

**5. Acknowledgements** 

research project no N-964.

**6. References** 

Improve Dose Resolution in X-Ray CT Based Normoxic Gel Dosimetry 337

In our study we found that dose resolution in CT images can be improved by applying spatial filters for removing noise. Adaptive Mean (Wiener) provided excellent dose resolution. Increasing kernel size and/or the number of filter iterations has a positive effect on noise reduction in filtered images. At the same time increasing kernel size and number of filter iterations become counterproductive, as image distortion (blurring) becomes unacceptably high. A recently developed filtering technique named TPMEM was also tested on the gel image. The TPMEM filter provided good SNR enhancement. Results indicate that CT imaging appears an attractive possibility for polymer gel dosimetry with such techniques available for improving SNR. In general the low filtering technique does not adequately smooth the images. In contrast, the high filtering technique provides smoothness but at the expense of some distortion of the shape. In particular, sharp contour changes are reduced by high filtering. Hence selection of appropriate filter and related parameters which control the fidelity and smoothness of filtered images is required before implementing it for X-ray CT polymer gel dosimetry. At present the TPMEM filters are useful for analysis of images with pixel size less than 300 x 300 pixels whereas the Adaptive mean filter can be applied to images of any size. Both the filters are capable of reducing image noise and improving dose resolution. In future application of filters to 3D image data will be of more

We wish to gratefully acknowledge the support of AERB, India for this work through

Baldock, C., Lepage. M., Back, S A J., Murry, P J., Jayasekara, P M., Porter, D. and Kron, T.

Jirasek, A.,Mathews, Q.,Hilts, M.,Schulze, G., Blades, M. and Turner,R.(2006) Investigation of a

Hilts, M. and Duzenli, C.(2004) Image noise in x-ray CT polymer gel dosimetry. J Phys

Hilts, M., Jirasek, A. and Duzenli, C. (2005) Technical considerations for implementation of

Michelle Hilts., Cheryl Duzenli (2003) Image filtering for improved dose resolution in CT

Jirasek. A., Hilts, M., Shaw, C. and Baxter, P. (2006) Investigation of tetrakis hydroxymethyl

polyacrylamide gel dosimetry. Physics in Medicine Biology, 51, 1891.

phosphonium chloride as an antioxidant for use in x-ray computed tomography

x-ray CT polymer gel dosimetry, Phy Med Biol, 50, 1727 -1745.

polymer gel dosimetry. Med. Phys. 31 (1), January 2004.

spacing MRI pulse sequence. Phys. Med. Biol, 46, 449.

dosimetry. Med. Phys. 35 (1), January 2008.

Conference Series, 3 252-256.

(2001) Dose resolution in radiotherapy polymer gel dosimetry: effect of echo

2D two-point maximum entropy regularization method for signal-to-noise ratio enhancement: application to CT polymer dosimetry. Phys. Med. Biol, 51, 2599-2617. M. Hilts and A.Jirasek. Adaptive mean filtering for noise reduction in CT polymer gel

Fig. 6. Spatial degradation of image after filtering with TPMEM stopping criterion X = 4.

#### **3.3 Filter comparison**

Figure 7 (a) illustrates profiles taken through unfiltered and TPMEM filtered and Wiener filtered image. The profile comparison was done in the gel image which was rescaled to 96 x 96 pixels2. The profiles show that Wiener filtered image profile is over smoothened were as the TPMEM filtered image still follows the peak and valley of the unfiltered image.

Fig. 7. (a) Profiles extracted through unfiltered, TPMEM filtered and Wiener filtered (11x 11 mask) image. (b) FFT data of the unfiltered and TPMEM filtered and Wiener filtered (11x 11 mask) image are shown in figures

In a previous study the TPMEM was applied to a SRS irradiated gel image [Jirasek et al 2006] which contains high dose gradients whereas in this work filtering was performed on four intersecting 4 x 4 cm2 6MV fields with lower dose gradients as compared with the SRS study. Fast Fourier transform (FFT) data of the images are shown in figure 7 (b). TPMEM filtering is efficient in removing high frequency noise (> 0.15 mm-1). It was also observed that TPMEM also retains much of the original signal in lower frequency regions (< 0.1 mm-1). FFT results of Wiener filtered did not show any significant alterations in the FFT spectrum of the gel image.

#### **4. Conclusion**

336 Modern Practices in Radiation Therapy

Fig. 6. Spatial degradation of image after filtering with TPMEM stopping criterion X = 4.

the TPMEM filtered image still follows the peak and valley of the unfiltered image.

Figure 7 (a) illustrates profiles taken through unfiltered and TPMEM filtered and Wiener filtered image. The profile comparison was done in the gel image which was rescaled to 96 x 96 pixels2. The profiles show that Wiener filtered image profile is over smoothened were as

Fig. 7. (a) Profiles extracted through unfiltered, TPMEM filtered and Wiener filtered (11x 11 mask) image. (b) FFT data of the unfiltered and TPMEM filtered and Wiener filtered (11x 11

In a previous study the TPMEM was applied to a SRS irradiated gel image [Jirasek et al 2006] which contains high dose gradients whereas in this work filtering was performed on four intersecting 4 x 4 cm2 6MV fields with lower dose gradients as compared with the SRS study. Fast Fourier transform (FFT) data of the images are shown in figure 7 (b). TPMEM filtering is efficient in removing high frequency noise (> 0.15 mm-1). It was also observed that TPMEM also retains much of the original signal in lower frequency regions (< 0.1 mm-1). FFT results of Wiener filtered did not show any significant alterations in the FFT

**3.3 Filter comparison** 

mask) image are shown in figures

spectrum of the gel image.

In our study we found that dose resolution in CT images can be improved by applying spatial filters for removing noise. Adaptive Mean (Wiener) provided excellent dose resolution. Increasing kernel size and/or the number of filter iterations has a positive effect on noise reduction in filtered images. At the same time increasing kernel size and number of filter iterations become counterproductive, as image distortion (blurring) becomes unacceptably high. A recently developed filtering technique named TPMEM was also tested on the gel image. The TPMEM filter provided good SNR enhancement. Results indicate that CT imaging appears an attractive possibility for polymer gel dosimetry with such techniques available for improving SNR. In general the low filtering technique does not adequately smooth the images. In contrast, the high filtering technique provides smoothness but at the expense of some distortion of the shape. In particular, sharp contour changes are reduced by high filtering. Hence selection of appropriate filter and related parameters which control the fidelity and smoothness of filtered images is required before implementing it for X-ray CT polymer gel dosimetry. At present the TPMEM filters are useful for analysis of images with pixel size less than 300 x 300 pixels whereas the Adaptive mean filter can be applied to images of any size. Both the filters are capable of reducing image noise and improving dose resolution. In future application of filters to 3D image data will be of more importance.

#### **5. Acknowledgements**

We wish to gratefully acknowledge the support of AERB, India for this work through research project no N-964.

#### **6. References**


**Part 7** 

**Enhancing Patient Care in RT** 

