**5. References**


for a promising future in this vaccination strategy is to demonstrate efficacy in humans in a safe context. In this scenario, the pre-clinical protocols are very relevant and should be based on the design of the proposed clinical assessment. General regulatory frames rule the administration of exogenous substances, but given the nature and proposed mechanism of action for DNA vaccines additional specific considerations should be taken into account. Safety evaluation of DNA vaccines against infectious diseases should be carried out considering the particular characteristics of the disease and the causal pathogen, including the expected use, preventive or therapeutic, and target population, in a case by case approach. Fortunately, no major adverse events have been observed so far after DNA immunization in humans on clinical trials. The establishment of strong tests for releasing the product is very relevant in lots consistency and reproducibility of results at both pre-clinical and clinical level. New frontiers are opening and attention should be given to novel preparations including original adjuvants/immunostimulatory molecules or employing modern delivery vehicles for DNA vaccines, as well as the long-term pharmaco-vigilance.

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**1. Introduction** 

resistance to them.

**2. Methods** 

**15** 

*Iran* 

Babak Mostafazadeh

**Aluminium Phosphide Poisoning** 

Acute aluminium phosphide poisoning is an extremely lethal poisoning. Ingestion is usually suicidal in intent, uncommonly accidental and rarely homicidal. Unfortunately the absence of a specific antidote results in very high mortality and the key to treatment lies in rapid decontamination and institution of resuscitative measures.Aluminium phosphide is a solid fumigant which has been in extensive use since the 1940s. It has rapidly become one of the most commonly used grain fumigants because of its properties which are considered to be near ideal; it is toxic to all stages of insects, highly potent, does not affect seed viability, is

They are formulated as compressed discs, tablets or pellets that commonly weigh 3 g and contain variable amounts of a single phosphide in combination with other substances such as ammonium carbonate. Tablets are dark brown or grayish in colour. It is freely available in the markets with the major virtues of being cheap and not leaving toxic residues. The specified fatal dose in human is 0.15-0.5 gm. Phosphides are used widely to protect grain held in stores, the holds of ships and in wagons transporting it by rail and are admixed with the grain at a predetermined rate as it is put into storage. Moisture in the air between the grains mixes with phosphide and release phosphine (hydrogen phosphide, phosphorus trihydride, PH3) which is the active pesticide. After contact with an acid, phosphine is released even more vigorous. Two kinds of acute poisoning with these substances are reported: indirect inhalation of the

Pure phosphine is colorless and odorless up to toxic concentrations (200 ppm), a view accepted by the International Programme on Chemical Safety and others (Pepelko, et al, 2004; Chaudhry, 1997; IPCS, 1988; Dumas & Bond, 1974), it has an odor of garlicky or decaying fish due to the presence of substituted phosphines and diphosphines .If the former view is accepted the smell emanating from phosphide poisoned patients is probably due to contaminants in the pesticide formulations and not phosphine itself. It has been suggested that these volatile contaminants may be alkylphosphines (Fluck, 1976). For "phosphine" liberated from one pesticidal formulation of aluminium phosphide, the odor threshold was 0.01–0.02 ppm, ten times lower than that derived from the technical salt alone (Fluck, 1976).The usefulness of phosphide pesticides is now threatened by the development of

To complete this review, the terms aluminum and aluminum phosphide and phosphine were searched using the TUMS (Tehran University of Medical Science) digital library,

free from toxic residues and leaves little residue on food grains(Hackenberg, 1972).

phosphine generated during their approved use or direct ingestion of the salts.

*Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences,* 

