**6. References**


As noted above, Cd exhibits biochemical and physiological toxicity for crabs and shrimps, affecting on activity of antioxidant enzymes, affecting metabolic enzymes, affecting Na+- K+-ATPase, etc. In some cases, Cd had a stimulating action at low concentration and

Cd showed noticeable effects on the reproduction of crabs and shrimps. 1. Female crabs exposed to 0.50 mg/L Cd showed significantly (*P <* 0.05) lower the gonadal somatic index, oocyte diameter values and the ovary vitellin than controls. These proved certain concentration of Cd inhibited ovary development in *E. sinensis*. 2. Cd stimulated the secretion of GIH, increased progesterone level and decreased estradiol level in haemolymp. 3. The vesicles of the endoplamic reticulum became swelled and dissolved; ribosomes on the endoplamic reticulum gradually fell off by Cd toxicity. 4. Cd restrained the proliferation of isolated spermatogenic cells from *M. nipponense* at dose of 50, 500, 1 000 ng/mL after 24 h

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**4. Conclusion** 

exposure.

**5. Acknowledgment** 

0008-5472

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**11** 

*(CIBERNED),* 

*Spain* 

), which is

*Universidad de Extremadura, Cáceres* 

**Paraquat, Between Apoptosis and Autophagy** 

*Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas* 

*Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Genética, E. Enfermería y TO,* 

Elisa Pizarro-Estrella, Mireia Niso-Santano and José M. Fuentes

Rosa A. González-Polo, José M. Bravo-San Pedro, Rubén Gómez-Sánchez,

Paraquat (PQ, methyl viologen), 1,1'-dimethyl-4,4'-bipyridinium (Figure 1), is a commonly used, potent herbicide. It was first synthesised in 1882 by Weidel and Russo, as recorded by Hadley in his review of 1979 (Haley, 1979), and its redox properties were discovered by Michaelis and Hill in 1933 (Haley, 1979). Initially, PQ was used as an indicator of oxidationreduction because in the absence of molecular oxygen, donating an electron to paraquat (PQ2+) generated a monocationically stable violet or blue form that is commonly known as methyl viologen (Dinis-Oliveira *et al.*, 2008). However, its properties as an herbicide were

The PQ is registered and used in approximately 100 countries worldwide and is the second most commonly used herbicide in the world after gliphosate. Despite this, its use is currently banned in the European Union (EU), but the import of products from outside the

In its recommended rating of "pesticides by risk," WHO (World Health Organization) considers composite PQ to be moderately toxic (Category II) (World Health Organization 2004). The ECB (European Chemicals Bureau) classifies PQ as being very toxic (R26) by

PQ is included in the family of herbicides called bipyridines. It is an herbicide that is nonselective and functions systemically through contact without acting on the leaves of green plants. Among its advantages, it is rapidly absorbed by the leaves of plants that have been

Its action on plants has been shown to occur on chloroplasts and is based on its redox cycle. PQ interferes with photosynthesis at the level of photosystem I. At this point, PQ blocks the flow of electrons from ferredoxin and NADP+ so that electrons from photosystem I would reduce PQ, which transfers divalent cations (normal state) to monovalent cations (reduced

produced by the loss of activity of the chloroplasts and the subsequent cell damage that leads to plant death. There is controversy about the use of PQ in agriculture because herbicides are toxic to humans and the environment, especially when not taking the proper precautions. Specifically, in addition to the adverse effects on humans, one of the greatest

state). The monovalent cation reduces oxygen to the superoxide radical (O2-

not discovered until 1955, and in 1962, it was introduced into global markets.

EU for patients who have been treated with PQ has not.

sprayed, but clay soil causes it to be biologically inactive.

inhalation, toxic (R25) orally and moderately toxic (R24) dermally.

**1. Introduction** 

