**8. References**


For centuries, medicinal plants have been used worldwide for the treatment of several diseases. In South American populations, plant products significantly contribute to primary health care and are sometimes the only therapeutic resources of some communities and

Among the medicinal species used in South America populations, *M. glomerata* and *M. laevigata* are especially important due to their relevant therapeutic properties. In popular medicine, both species have a long history of use, and they are still employed especially for

Pre-clinical trials have been conducted on guaco extract that have revealed scientific evidence for its anti-inflammatory, anti-allergy, and bronchodilation properties. However, there are currently no clinical studies for assessing the efficacy of guaco extracts and

Both guaco species have many bioactive compounds that probably contribute to the pharmacological effects. Thus, the properties of guaco should not be attributed only to coumarin because high contents of kaurene diterpenes and cinnamic acid derivatives were found in the extracts. Studies involving the quality control of different brands of guaco phytomedicines and extracts have been conducted and have shown a wide variation in the content of the main metabolites. A number of studies have reported that this discrepancy is due to the geographic origins, agronomic aspects, extractor solvent and extraction techniques of the guaco. Therefore, depending of the region and period of plant collection,

Regarding the safety of the extracts, phytomedicines and isolated compounds, guaco species did not present significant toxic and genotoxic effects in humans. However, the majority of studies were conducted in rat and mice, which have a unique metabolism, suggesting that new studies must be conducted. Additionally, relevant information on metabolism, bioavailability and toxicity has only been reported for coumarin, without substantial

In general, is possible to conclude that there is a need for clinical studies using standardized phytomedicines or extracts. This may be the most important step to ensure conclusive studies of guaco species. By conducting clinical studies, it will be possible to know the most effective extract for therapeutic purposes and to correlate the metabolite content with its relevance in a pharmacological and toxicological context. Meeting this requirement will

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**7. Conclusion** 

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599-604, ISSN 1516-8913

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*essenciais de guaco (Mikania glomerata Sprengel) e hortelã-comum (Mentha x villosa Huds).* 90 p. Tese (Doutorado em Engenharia Agrícola) - Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia Agrícola, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa,

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Spreng., Asteraceae, Extract in Male Wistar Rats Reproductive System, Sperm Production and Testosterone Level After Chronic Treatment. *Brazilian Journal of Pharmacognosy*, Vol.20, No.5, (November, 2010), pp. 718-723, ISSN 0102-695X Salgado, H. R. N.; Roncari, A. F. F. & Moreira, R. R. D. Antidiarrhoeal Effects of *Mikania* 

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**14** 

*Cuba* 

**Evaluation of Drug Toxicity for DNA** 

Yalena Amador-Cañizares and Santiago Dueñas-Carrera

Dania Bacardí, Karelia Cosme, José Suárez,

*Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology,* 

**Vaccine Candidates Against Infectious** 

**Diseases: Hepatitis C as Experimental Model** 

Progress in the field of biotechnology has accelerated the development of a broad range of novel vaccines, and the composition of vaccine products has evolved from attenuated or inactivated whole-cell organisms, to protein polysaccharide conjugates, peptides, recombinant proteins, DNA vaccines and viral vectors. More recently, there has been a generation of a wide range of complex vaccine products and vaccine technologies (Buckland, 2005) that are often combined with novel adjuvants (Kovarik & Siegrist, 2001; Litvinov, 2009), administered in new delivery systems, and by new routes of inoculation. In this context, DNA immunization has arisen as a promising strategy for the development of successful vaccines against infectious agents. In fact, some DNA vaccines have been already registered for application in animals (horses, fishes and dogs) against infection with West Nile virus, Infectious haematopoietic necrosis virus or treating melanoma (Liu, 2011). Moreover, thousands of people have already received DNA vaccine candidates in clinical

trials without major adverse events (Alvarez-Lajonchere & Dueñas-Carrera, 2009).

DNA vaccination involves the administration of DNA, generally but not always a plasmid, to a host in order to induce a desired immune response. Once into the host, the DNA is taken up by cells, including antigen presenting cells, and the protein(s) expected to be the target of the immune system is/are expressed, processed and presented to specialized cells for induction of immune response. For this purpose, the DNA vaccine must comprise an eukaryotic expression unit, encompassing an enhancer/promoter region, intron, signal sequence, vaccine gene and a transcriptional terminator (poly A), for driving protein synthesis in the host (Glenting & Wessels, 2005). Frequently, DNA vaccines also include immune stimulatory sequences (ISS) for adding adjuvanticity (Glenting & Wessels, 2005). In addition, a unit for the previous propagation of the DNA in the microbial host, in order to obtain the required amounts for vaccination, is normally present, although some compact variants of DNA vaccines are designed for lacking this

DNA immunization has many possible advantages. No dangerous infectious agents are involved, while the expression of the antigen of interest, in its native form, is possible. DNA vaccines can induce innate and adaptive, both humoral and cell mediated, immune

**1. Introduction** 

unit in the final product (Liu, 2011).

induced Rat Carotid Contraction. *Fitoterapia*, Vol.73, No.1, (November, 2001), pp. 56-62, ISSN 0367-326X

