**9. References**


medication or illicit drug then subsequent visit UDT's should include tests for those agents. Because of the potential for morbidity from alcohol-medication interactions, it may be

When monitoring for opioid medication compliance, the testing method should be able to differentiate between codeine, morphine, hydrocodone, norhydrocodone, and hydromorphone. The test should also be able to differentiate between oxycodone, noroxycodone, and oxymorphone. This will allow the physician to determine that the opiate the patient is taking is in fact the one being prescribed and that the patient is metabolizing the medication properly (Pesce et al., 2010a). A similar case can be made for the testing of benzodiazepines. The method should be able to detect at low concentrations and differentiate between alpha-hydroxyalprazolam, 7-aminoclonazepam, lorazepam, nordiazepam, temazepam, and oxazepam. This will allow the doctor to see that the patient is taking the prescribed benzodiazepine and allay any concerns about doctor shopping. Frequency of UDT should be based on the physician's observations of the patient's behavior as well as suggested guidelines. For those patients whose behavior is not of concern, some guidelines suggest UDT between two and four times per year on a random basis (Chou et al., 2009; Trescot et al., 2006). For those patients with non-compliant behavior or a history of addiction, testing should be done as often as every office visit (Chou et al., 2009; Trescot et

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**3** 

*Iran* 

**Experimental and Computational Methods** 

The molecules of a fluid experiences attractive forces exerted on it by all its neighboring molecules. In the bulk of the liquid, molecules are attracted equally in all directions resulting in a net force of zero. Molecules at or near the surface experience attractive force which tends to pull them to the interior. Surface chemistry deals with thermodynamic and kinetic parameters that take place between two different coexisting phases at equilibrium. Surface tension, γ is free energy of the surface at any air/fluid interface defined as force per unit length or energy per unit area. The latter term, also called surface energy, is more useful in thermodynamics and it applies to solids as well as liquid surfaces. The surface free energy of a liquid is measured by its surface tension and the surface free energy of a solid can be revealed by contact angle measurements. The surface tension measurement depends very markedly upon the presence of impurities in the liquid, temperature and pressure changes

Surface tension is a phenomenon that we see in our everyday life. Human biological fluids, e.g. serum, urine, gastric juice, amniotic liquid, cerebrospinal and alveolar lining liquid contain numerous low-and high-molecular weight surfactants, proteins and lipids that adsorb at liquid interface. The physicochemical processes that take place in these interfaces are extremely important for the vital function of body organs and have a great impact on pharmacodynamic parameters of drug molecules (Kazakov et al., 2000; Trukhin et al., 2001). Drug substances are usually administered as part of a formulation in combination with excipients that have varied and specialized pharmaceutical functions. The design of drug formulation is based on the principles of pharmacokinetic, biopharmaceutic and pharmaceutical technology. The pharmaceutical industry has directed its attention mainly to the quality and processability of active pharmaceutical products which is reflected in various physicochemical parameters. The drug and pharmaceutical materials require extensive characterization and testing of their stability, physico-chemical properties, effectiveness, palatability and ease of administration to ensure drug efficacy. Among the important characteristics are the drug dissolution and solubility in gastrointestinal tract, intestinal absorption, drug distribution and drug-

**1. Introduction** 

(Buckton, 1988).

**Pertaining to Surface Tension of** 

*1Drug Applied Research Center and Faculty of Pharmacy,* 

*Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz,* 

Abolghasem Jouyban1 and Anahita Fathi-Azarbayjani2

*2Faculty of Medicine, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia,* 

**Pharmaceuticals** 

