**Lead-Free Wrought Copper Alloys for Bushings and Sliding Elements**

Kai Weber and H.-A. Kuhn *Wieland-Werke AG, Ulm, Germany* 

#### **1. Introduction**

68 Copper Alloys – Early Applications and Current Performance – Enhancing Processes

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Components of copper and copper alloys are used in a wide range of applications in automobile manufacture and in machinery and plant construction. On the one hand, because of their high electrical conductivity, copper-based components are indispensable for the functionality of electrical and electronic units in motor vehicles and machines. On the other hand, they have a wide range of uses in the form of bushings and sliding elements. Bearings, bushings and sliding elements ensure transmission or conversion of the drive energy in machines, plants and in internal combustion engines. The installation situation of piston pin bore bushings in a combustion engine is pictured in Figure 1.

Fig. 1. Installation situation of piston pin bore bushings.

Lead-Free Wrought Copper Alloys for Bushings and Sliding Elements 71

In the case of a plain bearing, this wear mechanism ultimately causes seizing of the shaft and consequently total failure (Bartel et al., 2004). A directionally oriented microstructure of the bearing material can decisively reduce its fretting tendency. Phases with body-centered cubic and hexagonal lattice structures are considered to be structural constituents that offer greater resistance to adhesion. On the other hand, structural elements with a face-centered cubic structure are more susceptible to fretting corrosion. The legally required abandonment of lead as an alloying element, responsible for improving the emergency running properties of the sliding elements, has focused attention on the wearing properties of the individual

Particles caused by dirt or abrasion can damage the running surface of the sliding element in various ways by abrasion (scoring wear or grooving) (Figure 3). To reduce the consequences of wear in the form of microcutting and microploughing, hardness and yield stress Rp0.2 of the bearing material are significant factors. In addition, the occurrence of the mechanisms of microfatigue and microcracking make its toughness properties important (Zum Gahr, 1992). Consequently, a heterogeneous microstructure with hard phases incorporated in a ductile

The frictional stress leads to the formation of particles and layers between the surfaces that come into contact (tribochemical reaction). When they reach a critical thickness, the reaction layers tend to undergo brittle spalling, with the consequent formation of wear particles (Collenberg, 1991). However, such reaction layers are highly important for the operation of sliding elements, since, as so-called tribofilms, they increase the resistance of the bearing

Fig. 2. Main wear mechanisms (Zum Gahr, 1988).

matrix would be advantageous for the bearing material.

material to adhesion (Bartel et al., 2004).

phase constituents.

As a result of the increasing mechanical, tribological and thermal stresses to which the bearings in modern engines and plants are subjected, the materials used until now are increasingly reaching the limits of their stability under load. Wrought special brasses, multiphase tin-bronzes and nickel-tin-bronzes are the preferred metals.

Exactness of bushing dimensions made of wrapped strips or drawn tubes is realized by final machining. Beside the use of suited cutting tools and chose of appropriated machining parameters the productivity of chip removal depends also on the microstructure of the alloy. In customized special brasses lead forms a drop-like metallurgical phase which enables easy and economically machining of sliding elements like bushings in their final production stages. In use lead also improves lubrication behavior of sliding elements. The End-of-Life Vehicle Directive of the European Community intends to banish lead as an alloying element for metals. By minimizing the lead content in industrial products the legislator takes care in health of his residents. Manufacturer and supplier of bushings, bearings and sliding elements feel compelled to develop and offer lead-free materials.

Beside legislative demands on chemical compositions the development of new bushing materials is also driven by continuous improvements of engine performances. Bushings have to resist higher ignition points and cylinder pressures. Preferred copper-based wrought materials are special brasses, multiphase tin-bronzes and nickel-tin-bronzes. In addition lead-free substitutes have to meet requirements on economical machining. Due to a dramatic increase of copper prices the automotive industry asks for bushings made of less expensive metals. One technical solution to overcome materials costs is to replace sliding elements made of bulk materials by plated metal composites with only a thin wear resistant layer of copper alloy.

On the basis of a systematic analysis of the individual types of wear and damage mechanisms, this documentation will concentrate on the development of a new generation of lead-free brasses and tin-bronzes with intermetallics, copper-nickel-tin-alloys and roll clad composites made of spinoidally hardened bronzes. The development of wear resistant and thermally stable microstructures is discussed by assessing the roles of chemical elements forming metallurgical phases. Principles of process routes are explained. The resulting mechanical properties between room and elevated temperature and their thermal stabilities are presented by comparison with some older established brasses and bronzes. Wear resistance is evaluated by tribometer runs. Chip removal rates are compared to lead containing materials.

#### **2. Wear and wear mechanisms**

To allow the material of a wearing part to be adapted to the prevailing operating conditions, it is necessary to survey the elementary processes in the respective tribological system (Burwell, 1957/58). The numerous different types of stress to which the bushings and sliding elements are exposed first require a systematic analysis of the individual types of wear and damage mechanisms. The classification of the main wear mechanisms provided by Zum Gahr in Figure 2 will be used as a basis for this (Zum Gahr, 1988).

The lubricating film between a sliding element and the element on which it slides does not lead to a complete separation of the sliding surfaces in all operating states. The resultant mixed friction causes the bearings to be subjected to stress in the form of adhesion (fretting wear).

As a result of the increasing mechanical, tribological and thermal stresses to which the bearings in modern engines and plants are subjected, the materials used until now are increasingly reaching the limits of their stability under load. Wrought special brasses,

Exactness of bushing dimensions made of wrapped strips or drawn tubes is realized by final machining. Beside the use of suited cutting tools and chose of appropriated machining parameters the productivity of chip removal depends also on the microstructure of the alloy. In customized special brasses lead forms a drop-like metallurgical phase which enables easy and economically machining of sliding elements like bushings in their final production stages. In use lead also improves lubrication behavior of sliding elements. The End-of-Life Vehicle Directive of the European Community intends to banish lead as an alloying element for metals. By minimizing the lead content in industrial products the legislator takes care in health of his residents. Manufacturer and supplier of bushings, bearings and sliding

Beside legislative demands on chemical compositions the development of new bushing materials is also driven by continuous improvements of engine performances. Bushings have to resist higher ignition points and cylinder pressures. Preferred copper-based wrought materials are special brasses, multiphase tin-bronzes and nickel-tin-bronzes. In addition lead-free substitutes have to meet requirements on economical machining. Due to a dramatic increase of copper prices the automotive industry asks for bushings made of less expensive metals. One technical solution to overcome materials costs is to replace sliding elements made of bulk materials by plated metal composites with only a thin wear resistant

On the basis of a systematic analysis of the individual types of wear and damage mechanisms, this documentation will concentrate on the development of a new generation of lead-free brasses and tin-bronzes with intermetallics, copper-nickel-tin-alloys and roll clad composites made of spinoidally hardened bronzes. The development of wear resistant and thermally stable microstructures is discussed by assessing the roles of chemical elements forming metallurgical phases. Principles of process routes are explained. The resulting mechanical properties between room and elevated temperature and their thermal stabilities are presented by comparison with some older established brasses and bronzes. Wear resistance is evaluated by tribometer runs. Chip removal rates are compared to lead

To allow the material of a wearing part to be adapted to the prevailing operating conditions, it is necessary to survey the elementary processes in the respective tribological system (Burwell, 1957/58). The numerous different types of stress to which the bushings and sliding elements are exposed first require a systematic analysis of the individual types of wear and damage mechanisms. The classification of the main wear mechanisms provided

The lubricating film between a sliding element and the element on which it slides does not lead to a complete separation of the sliding surfaces in all operating states. The resultant mixed friction causes the bearings to be subjected to stress in the form of adhesion (fretting wear).

by Zum Gahr in Figure 2 will be used as a basis for this (Zum Gahr, 1988).

multiphase tin-bronzes and nickel-tin-bronzes are the preferred metals.

elements feel compelled to develop and offer lead-free materials.

layer of copper alloy.

containing materials.

**2. Wear and wear mechanisms** 

Fig. 2. Main wear mechanisms (Zum Gahr, 1988).

In the case of a plain bearing, this wear mechanism ultimately causes seizing of the shaft and consequently total failure (Bartel et al., 2004). A directionally oriented microstructure of the bearing material can decisively reduce its fretting tendency. Phases with body-centered cubic and hexagonal lattice structures are considered to be structural constituents that offer greater resistance to adhesion. On the other hand, structural elements with a face-centered cubic structure are more susceptible to fretting corrosion. The legally required abandonment of lead as an alloying element, responsible for improving the emergency running properties of the sliding elements, has focused attention on the wearing properties of the individual phase constituents.

Particles caused by dirt or abrasion can damage the running surface of the sliding element in various ways by abrasion (scoring wear or grooving) (Figure 3). To reduce the consequences of wear in the form of microcutting and microploughing, hardness and yield stress Rp0.2 of the bearing material are significant factors. In addition, the occurrence of the mechanisms of microfatigue and microcracking make its toughness properties important (Zum Gahr, 1992). Consequently, a heterogeneous microstructure with hard phases incorporated in a ductile matrix would be advantageous for the bearing material.

The frictional stress leads to the formation of particles and layers between the surfaces that come into contact (tribochemical reaction). When they reach a critical thickness, the reaction layers tend to undergo brittle spalling, with the consequent formation of wear particles (Collenberg, 1991). However, such reaction layers are highly important for the operation of sliding elements, since, as so-called tribofilms, they increase the resistance of the bearing material to adhesion (Bartel et al., 2004).

Lead-Free Wrought Copper Alloys for Bushings and Sliding Elements 73

properties at elevated temperatures up to 400°C were examined by a Zmart.Pro tension test machine (ZwickRoell company) equipped with an irradiation furnace (Maytec company).

When choosing a test method, the stress conditions actually occurring should be approximated (Römer & Bartz, 1981; Czichos & Habig, 2003; Grün et al., 2007). Therefore, the ring segment/disk modeling method was used for examining the adhesive wear behavior of the bushing materials. These materials were represented by the ring segments. A disk of 100Cr6 was operating as the counterpart of this setup. Implementing this type of method as a fretting test allows the loading limit of the sliding material to be determined by means of increasing the load in intervals. The ring segment/disk arrangement was chosen to initiate conditions in real bearing assemblies as described by Pucher et. al. (Pucher et al.,

Hardnesses at room temperature were measured by Brinell Hardness HB.

2009). The complete test conditions used are listed in Table 1.

Disk material 100Cr6

Starting temperature 120°C

Tribometer Wazau TRM 1000

Ring material Bushing materials

Running-in phase 5 min at 200 N Load increase by 50 N every 2 min

Maximum load Tubes: 1050 N

Maximum surface pressing 16 N/mm2 Sliding velocity 1 m/s

Table 1. Test conditions of the ring segment/disk arrangement.

**4. Alloys for wear-resistant applications** 

development of a new wear-resistant copper alloy.

**4.1 Brass materials** 

CuZn37Mn3Al2PbSi is excellent.

Lubrication Bath lubrication with engine oil

Cutout criteria Torque > 2,5 Nm or maximum load is

Measured variables Friction moment, temperature, wear

The two high-strength brasses CuZn31Si1 (Wieland designation SB8) and CuZn37Mn3Al2PbSi (Wieland designation S40) were taken as the starting point for the

The microstructure of CuZn31Si1 has an adequate stability up to temperatures of about 200- 250°C. On the other hand, the adhesive wear resistance of components made of

Shell Rimula SAE30

Strips: 1200 N

reached

**3.3 Tribological properties** 

Fig. 3. Material damage under abrasive wear (Zum Gahr, 1992).

The varying hydrodynamic lubricating film pressure within the bearing points causes the sliding layer to undergo alternating tensile/compressive stress. Cracking that occurs leads to surface distress of the bearing (fatigue wear). The material should therefore have a heterogeneous microstructure with a ductile matrix in order to have a high resistance to crack initiation and propagation.

In addition to the wear mechanisms, the sliding elements in internal combustion engines and in many machines and plants are exposed to thermal stress. This may lead to undesired changing of the microstructure and to stress relaxation of the component. The accompanying loss of strength and dimensional stability limits the operational reliability of the sliding elements. To increase the thermal stability of the microstructure, the proportion of phases with greater transformation activity should be limited. Furthermore, fine precipitates should reduce the extent of thermally induced stress relaxation of the sliding element.

#### **3. Experimental procedures**

#### **3.1 Characterization of microstructure**

Grains, grain boundaries and metallurgical phases were examined by optical light microscopy. Specimen preparation by immersion etching in a sulphuric acid solution of K2Cl2O7 was first described by Schrader (Schrader, 1941). The complete method was also reported in detail by Kuhn et al. (Kuhn et al., 2004) and Hofmann et al. (Hofmann et al., 2005).

#### **3.2 Mechanical properties**

Yield strength, ultimate tensile strength and ductility A5 were determined at room temperature in accordance with standard EN 10002 by Z100 (Zwick company). Mechanical properties at elevated temperatures up to 400°C were examined by a Zmart.Pro tension test machine (ZwickRoell company) equipped with an irradiation furnace (Maytec company). Hardnesses at room temperature were measured by Brinell Hardness HB.

#### **3.3 Tribological properties**

72 Copper Alloys – Early Applications and Current Performance – Enhancing Processes

The varying hydrodynamic lubricating film pressure within the bearing points causes the sliding layer to undergo alternating tensile/compressive stress. Cracking that occurs leads to surface distress of the bearing (fatigue wear). The material should therefore have a heterogeneous microstructure with a ductile matrix in order to have a high resistance to

In addition to the wear mechanisms, the sliding elements in internal combustion engines and in many machines and plants are exposed to thermal stress. This may lead to undesired changing of the microstructure and to stress relaxation of the component. The accompanying loss of strength and dimensional stability limits the operational reliability of the sliding elements. To increase the thermal stability of the microstructure, the proportion of phases with greater transformation activity should be limited. Furthermore, fine precipitates should reduce

Grains, grain boundaries and metallurgical phases were examined by optical light microscopy. Specimen preparation by immersion etching in a sulphuric acid solution of K2Cl2O7 was first described by Schrader (Schrader, 1941). The complete method was also reported in detail by

Yield strength, ultimate tensile strength and ductility A5 were determined at room temperature in accordance with standard EN 10002 by Z100 (Zwick company). Mechanical

Fig. 3. Material damage under abrasive wear (Zum Gahr, 1992).

the extent of thermally induced stress relaxation of the sliding element.

Kuhn et al. (Kuhn et al., 2004) and Hofmann et al. (Hofmann et al., 2005).

crack initiation and propagation.

**3. Experimental procedures** 

**3.2 Mechanical properties** 

**3.1 Characterization of microstructure** 

When choosing a test method, the stress conditions actually occurring should be approximated (Römer & Bartz, 1981; Czichos & Habig, 2003; Grün et al., 2007). Therefore, the ring segment/disk modeling method was used for examining the adhesive wear behavior of the bushing materials. These materials were represented by the ring segments. A disk of 100Cr6 was operating as the counterpart of this setup. Implementing this type of method as a fretting test allows the loading limit of the sliding material to be determined by means of increasing the load in intervals. The ring segment/disk arrangement was chosen to initiate conditions in real bearing assemblies as described by Pucher et. al. (Pucher et al., 2009). The complete test conditions used are listed in Table 1.


Table 1. Test conditions of the ring segment/disk arrangement.

#### **4. Alloys for wear-resistant applications**

#### **4.1 Brass materials**

The two high-strength brasses CuZn31Si1 (Wieland designation SB8) and CuZn37Mn3Al2PbSi (Wieland designation S40) were taken as the starting point for the development of a new wear-resistant copper alloy.

The microstructure of CuZn31Si1 has an adequate stability up to temperatures of about 200- 250°C. On the other hand, the adhesive wear resistance of components made of CuZn37Mn3Al2PbSi is excellent.

Lead-Free Wrought Copper Alloys for Bushings and Sliding Elements 75

It is clear from the micrograph of Wieland-S40 that, owing to the comparatively low Cu content, the matrix is made up almost exclusively of the phase (Figure 5). This is

The very fine microstructure with the network of phase islands (yellow) incorporated in the matrix and with Mn mixed silicides of various sizes and forms is characteristic of the new bearing material Wieland-SX1 (Figure 6). This microstructure combines the feature of a lower content of the alloy Wieland-SB8 with the content of hard silicides of the Wieland-S40. Greater magnification additionally reveals very fine silicides that are primarily

interspersed with silicides of the modification Mn5Si3, shown in gray.

Fig. 5. Microstructure of Wieland-S40 (magnified 200 times).

Fig. 6. Microstructure of Wieland-SX1 (magnified 200 times).

embedded in the matrix (Figure 7).

For the development of a new brass-based copper alloy for sliding elements, the objective was therefore the combination of the adequate thermal stability properties of Wieland-SB8 and the very good sliding properties of Wieland-S40.

The above analysis of the effective wear mechanisms and the possibilities of using aspects of materials technology to influence the extent of wear damage formed a fundamental basis for the conceptual development of the new bearing alloy CuZn31Mn2Al1Ni1Si1 (Wieland designation SX1 (Weber, 2009).

In the following section a comparison of the alloy composition, microstructure and properties of these three bearing materials (Weber & Pucher, 2009) is presented.

#### **4.1.1 Chemical composition and microstructure**

Table 2 lists approximate values for the chemical composition of the two reference materials Wieland-SB8 and Wieland-S40 as well as the alloy content of the new high-strength brass Wieland-SX1.


Table 2. Composition of the bearing materials (approximate values in % by weight).

On account of the high Cu content and the absence of Mn, Wieland-SB8 is equivalent to an - brass (Figure 4). In the -matrix, the dark-colored phase components in the form of rows can be found.

Fig. 4. Microstructure of Wieland-SB8 (magnified 200 times).

For the development of a new brass-based copper alloy for sliding elements, the objective was therefore the combination of the adequate thermal stability properties of Wieland-SB8

The above analysis of the effective wear mechanisms and the possibilities of using aspects of materials technology to influence the extent of wear damage formed a fundamental basis for the conceptual development of the new bearing alloy CuZn31Mn2Al1Ni1Si1 (Wieland

In the following section a comparison of the alloy composition, microstructure and

Table 2 lists approximate values for the chemical composition of the two reference materials Wieland-SB8 and Wieland-S40 as well as the alloy content of the new high-strength brass

**Alloy Cu Zn Pb Si Mn Ni Fe Al**  Wieland-SB8 68 Remainder < 0.3 1 - - - - Wieland-S40 58 Remainder 0.5 1 2 0.5 0.5 2 Wieland-SX1 64 Remainder - 1 2 1 0.5 1

Table 2. Composition of the bearing materials (approximate values in % by weight).

On account of the high Cu content and the absence of Mn, Wieland-SB8 is equivalent to an - brass (Figure 4). In the -matrix, the dark-colored phase components in the form of

properties of these three bearing materials (Weber & Pucher, 2009) is presented.

and the very good sliding properties of Wieland-S40.

**4.1.1 Chemical composition and microstructure** 

Fig. 4. Microstructure of Wieland-SB8 (magnified 200 times).

designation SX1 (Weber, 2009).

Wieland-SX1.

rows can be found.

It is clear from the micrograph of Wieland-S40 that, owing to the comparatively low Cu content, the matrix is made up almost exclusively of the phase (Figure 5). This is interspersed with silicides of the modification Mn5Si3, shown in gray.

The very fine microstructure with the network of phase islands (yellow) incorporated in the matrix and with Mn mixed silicides of various sizes and forms is characteristic of the new bearing material Wieland-SX1 (Figure 6). This microstructure combines the feature of a lower content of the alloy Wieland-SB8 with the content of hard silicides of the Wieland-S40. Greater magnification additionally reveals very fine silicides that are primarily embedded in the matrix (Figure 7).

Fig. 5. Microstructure of Wieland-S40 (magnified 200 times).

Fig. 6. Microstructure of Wieland-SX1 (magnified 200 times).

Lead-Free Wrought Copper Alloys for Bushings and Sliding Elements 77

For the bearing materials under consideration, Figures 8 and 9 show the change in the tensile strength Rm and the yield strength Rp0.2 in the course of an increase in temperature up

> 0 100 200 300 400 **Temperature [°C]**

0 100 200 300 400 **Temperature [°C]**

SB8 <sup>0</sup> 1 00 2 00 3 00 4 00 S40 SX1

SB8 <sup>0</sup> 1 00 2 00 3 00 4 00 S40 SX1

**4.1.3 High-temperature strength** 

50

Fig. 8. Tensile strength Rm as a function of temperature.

50

Fig. 9. Yield strength Rp0.2 as a function of temperature.

150

250

350

**Yield strength [MPa]**

450

550

650

150

250

350

**Tensile strength [MPa]**

450

550

650

to 400°C.

#### **4.1.2 Mechanical properties**

Among the forms of raw material used for machining the sliding elements are bars or tubes that are produced by means of the casting/hot forming/cold forming + annealing processes. The mean values of the most important mechanical properties of tubes from a variety of batches are represented in Table 3.


Table 3. Mean values of some of the mechanical properties of the bearing materials.

Fig. 7. Microstructure of Wieland-SX1 (magnified 1000 times).

In particular, the value for the hardness HB and the yield point Rp0.2, which are so important for sliding elements, of the Wieland-S40 tubes are at a comparatively low level. With regard to these two properties, Wieland-SX1 ensures a close approximation to the maximum values of the comparative materials. This allows the aim of setting adequate mechanical characteristic values to be regarded as achieved.

The high hardness represents the basic prerequisite for an appropriate resistance to the abrasive damage mechanisms of microploughing and microcutting (Figure 3). Furthermore, the microstructure of Wieland-SX1 is characterized by a ductile matrix with Incorporated silicide phases. This heterogeneous structure guarantees a high resistance to microfatigue and microcracking as well as to surface distress.

#### **4.1.3 High-temperature strength**

76 Copper Alloys – Early Applications and Current Performance – Enhancing Processes

Among the forms of raw material used for machining the sliding elements are bars or tubes that are produced by means of the casting/hot forming/cold forming + annealing processes. The mean values of the most important mechanical properties of tubes from a variety of

**Alloy Wieland-SB8 Wieland-S40 Wieland-SX1**  Raw material Tube 30.1×24.7 mm Tube 60×48 mm Tube 30.1×24.7 mm HB 195 163 207 Rm [MPa] 654 628 648 Rp0.2 [MPa] 593 315 566 A5 [%] 14.4 21.4 13.7

Table 3. Mean values of some of the mechanical properties of the bearing materials.

Fig. 7. Microstructure of Wieland-SX1 (magnified 1000 times).

characteristic values to be regarded as achieved.

and microcracking as well as to surface distress.

In particular, the value for the hardness HB and the yield point Rp0.2, which are so important for sliding elements, of the Wieland-S40 tubes are at a comparatively low level. With regard to these two properties, Wieland-SX1 ensures a close approximation to the maximum values of the comparative materials. This allows the aim of setting adequate mechanical

The high hardness represents the basic prerequisite for an appropriate resistance to the abrasive damage mechanisms of microploughing and microcutting (Figure 3). Furthermore, the microstructure of Wieland-SX1 is characterized by a ductile matrix with Incorporated silicide phases. This heterogeneous structure guarantees a high resistance to microfatigue

**4.1.2 Mechanical properties** 

batches are represented in Table 3.

For the bearing materials under consideration, Figures 8 and 9 show the change in the tensile strength Rm and the yield strength Rp0.2 in the course of an increase in temperature up to 400°C.

Fig. 8. Tensile strength Rm as a function of temperature.

Fig. 9. Yield strength Rp0.2 as a function of temperature.

Lead-Free Wrought Copper Alloys for Bushings and Sliding Elements 79

It is therefore possible to state that, even without Pb, the new Wieland-SX1 bearing alloy has

The conventional plain bearing materials in internal combustion engines are increasingly reaching their performance limits. The tribological and thermal stresses are increasing because the demands for lightweight construction are causing the dimensions of the components to be reduced and at the same time the requirements for lower emissions are causing the ignition pressures to be increased. Furthermore, the use of low-viscosity oils is leading to an increase in states of wear-intensive mixed friction, which in the case of sliding elements in the engine compartment occur especially during starting and stopping

The alloying systems CuZn31Si1 and CuZn37Mn3Al2PbSi have either high-temperature strength or extremely great resistance to fretting corrosion. Furthermore, both bearing materials contain lead as an alloying constituent. According to the EU End-of-Life Vehicle Directive, however, this alloying element, which is considered to be toxic, will be banned in

Therefore, the objective was to develop an alternative, Pb-free brass material which at the

The heterogeneous form of the microstructure with the network of phase islands incorporated in the ductile matrix and with Mn-silicides and mixed silicides of various sizes and forms lends the new bearing alloy Wieland-SX1 a high degree of thermal stability and complex wear resistance. By also conforming to environmental guidelines, this material is especially suitable for being used as a sliding element in future internal combustion

The clean metal and alloy surfaces in contact exhibit high adhesion, and consequently high friction and wear. The coefficient of friction of contacting metallic surfaces cleaned in a high

Most metals and alloys oxidize in air to some extent and form chemical films across the interface. In the tin-bronzes, the alloying element Tin form oxides very rapidly. The tinoxide film acts as a low shear-strength film and in addition because of low ductility leads to low friction. The oxide film may effectively separate the two metallic surfaces. Furthermore,

However, during sliding at higher loads, the thin oxide film may be penetrated, can come off and transition occurs to high values of friction and wear. For this reason, the positive wear resistance of the tin-bronzes can be further improved by alloying the bronzes with other elements. Consequentially new generations of wear resistant tin bronze were

The following sections describe the microstructure, the mechanical and the adhesive wear

same time meets the requirements for thermal and tribological material properties.

the necessary resistance to fretting corrosion.

operations and when the lubricating film breaks down.

engines, transmissions, ancillary units, drive trains and brakes.

the oxides increase the resistance against corrosion.

vacuum can be very high, typically 2 and much higher (Bhushan, 2002).

properties of three classes of Cu-Sn-alloys that are listed in Figure 11.

**4.1.5 Summary** 

the future.

**4.2 Tin-bronzes** 

developed.

As the temperature rises, a clear drop in Rm and Rp0.2 of the -rich alloy Wieland-S40 can be seen. This is caused by the thermally induced transformation of the phase into the phase. As a result of the -poorer microstructure of the bearing materials Wieland-SB8 and Wieland-SX1, the reduction in the strength values in the case of these alloys during a temperature increase up to about 200-250°C is smaller. It is therefore evident that the new alloy Wieland-SX1 meets the requirements for the thermal stability of the microstructure.

#### **4.1.4 Wear properties**

Figure 10 shows the variation in the friction coefficient as a function of the load and running time of the test for the three bearing materials. Owing to the predominant component in the microstructure represented by the phase with a face-centered cubic structure in the Wieland-SB8 alloy, even a small load causes fretting of the parts co-acting in the bearing. On the other hand, the Wieland-S40 matrix comprising the phase (body-centered cubic structure) together with the Mn5Si3 silicides of a hexagonal structure ensures the comparatively highest resistance to adhesive wear.

The lowered content in the microstructure of Wieland-SX1 in comparison with Wieland-S40 leads to a greater running-in phase. However, the high proportion of larger Mn5Si3 silicides and the tribological stabilization of the phase provided by the finer silicides prevent fretting of these specimens even under maximum load. This slight lowering of the friction coefficient from about halfway through the test is an indication of the greater importance of the formation of a tribofilm for the adhesive wear resistance in comparison with Wieland-S40. This separating layer between the metallic contact surfaces together with the advantageous heterogeneous microstructure of the alloy provides the prospect of a stable running behavior of the Wieland-SX1 sliding elements even as the test continues.

Fig. 10. Variation in the friction coefficient as a function of load and running time.

It is therefore possible to state that, even without Pb, the new Wieland-SX1 bearing alloy has the necessary resistance to fretting corrosion.

#### **4.1.5 Summary**

78 Copper Alloys – Early Applications and Current Performance – Enhancing Processes

As the temperature rises, a clear drop in Rm and Rp0.2 of the -rich alloy Wieland-S40 can be seen. This is caused by the thermally induced transformation of the phase into the phase. As a result of the -poorer microstructure of the bearing materials Wieland-SB8 and Wieland-SX1, the reduction in the strength values in the case of these alloys during a temperature increase up to about 200-250°C is smaller. It is therefore evident that the new alloy Wieland-SX1 meets the requirements for the thermal stability of the microstructure.

Figure 10 shows the variation in the friction coefficient as a function of the load and running time of the test for the three bearing materials. Owing to the predominant component in the microstructure represented by the phase with a face-centered cubic structure in the Wieland-SB8 alloy, even a small load causes fretting of the parts co-acting in the bearing. On the other hand, the Wieland-S40 matrix comprising the phase (body-centered cubic structure) together with the Mn5Si3 silicides of a hexagonal structure ensures the

The lowered content in the microstructure of Wieland-SX1 in comparison with Wieland-S40 leads to a greater running-in phase. However, the high proportion of larger Mn5Si3 silicides and the tribological stabilization of the phase provided by the finer silicides prevent fretting of these specimens even under maximum load. This slight lowering of the friction coefficient from about halfway through the test is an indication of the greater importance of the formation of a tribofilm for the adhesive wear resistance in comparison with Wieland-S40. This separating layer between the metallic contact surfaces together with the advantageous heterogeneous microstructure of the alloy provides the prospect of a stable running behavior of the Wieland-SX1 sliding elements even as the test continues.

> 0 10 20 30 40 50 **Time t [min]**

Fig. 10. Variation in the friction coefficient as a function of load and running time.

0

200

400

600

**Load F [N]**

SB8 S40 SX1 Load F

800

1000

1200

**4.1.4 Wear properties** 

0

0,02

0,04

0,06

**Friction coefficient** 

0,08

0,1

0,12

0,14

comparatively highest resistance to adhesive wear.

The conventional plain bearing materials in internal combustion engines are increasingly reaching their performance limits. The tribological and thermal stresses are increasing because the demands for lightweight construction are causing the dimensions of the components to be reduced and at the same time the requirements for lower emissions are causing the ignition pressures to be increased. Furthermore, the use of low-viscosity oils is leading to an increase in states of wear-intensive mixed friction, which in the case of sliding elements in the engine compartment occur especially during starting and stopping operations and when the lubricating film breaks down.

The alloying systems CuZn31Si1 and CuZn37Mn3Al2PbSi have either high-temperature strength or extremely great resistance to fretting corrosion. Furthermore, both bearing materials contain lead as an alloying constituent. According to the EU End-of-Life Vehicle Directive, however, this alloying element, which is considered to be toxic, will be banned in the future.

Therefore, the objective was to develop an alternative, Pb-free brass material which at the same time meets the requirements for thermal and tribological material properties.

The heterogeneous form of the microstructure with the network of phase islands incorporated in the ductile matrix and with Mn-silicides and mixed silicides of various sizes and forms lends the new bearing alloy Wieland-SX1 a high degree of thermal stability and complex wear resistance. By also conforming to environmental guidelines, this material is especially suitable for being used as a sliding element in future internal combustion engines, transmissions, ancillary units, drive trains and brakes.

#### **4.2 Tin-bronzes**

The clean metal and alloy surfaces in contact exhibit high adhesion, and consequently high friction and wear. The coefficient of friction of contacting metallic surfaces cleaned in a high vacuum can be very high, typically 2 and much higher (Bhushan, 2002).

Most metals and alloys oxidize in air to some extent and form chemical films across the interface. In the tin-bronzes, the alloying element Tin form oxides very rapidly. The tinoxide film acts as a low shear-strength film and in addition because of low ductility leads to low friction. The oxide film may effectively separate the two metallic surfaces. Furthermore, the oxides increase the resistance against corrosion.

However, during sliding at higher loads, the thin oxide film may be penetrated, can come off and transition occurs to high values of friction and wear. For this reason, the positive wear resistance of the tin-bronzes can be further improved by alloying the bronzes with other elements. Consequentially new generations of wear resistant tin bronze were developed.

The following sections describe the microstructure, the mechanical and the adhesive wear properties of three classes of Cu-Sn-alloys that are listed in Figure 11.

Lead-Free Wrought Copper Alloys for Bushings and Sliding Elements 81

The silicide phases in the special brass Wieland-SX1 ensures higher strength and wear resistance. For this reason, a new class of tin bronzes with silicides (Wieland temporary designation HSn) has been developed. The composition of a representative of this class is shown in table 4. Figures 14 and 15 illustrate the finest microstructure with mixed silicides

Fig. 13. Microstructure of Wieland-L66® (magnified 200 times).

Fig. 14. Microstructure of HSn (magnified 200 times).

in different sizes and shapes.


Fig. 11. Classes of Cu-Sn-alloys for friction bearing applications.

#### **4.2.1 Chemical composition and microstructure**

The wrought Cu-Sn-P-alloy CuSn8 (Tin-Bronze, Phosphor-Bronze) is characterized by an αsolid solution. The chemical composition is shown in the table 4. Fig. 12 describes the microstructure of this material (Wieland designation B09).

A representative of the Cu-Ni-Sn-alloy series is the bronze CuNi6Sn6 (Wieland designation L66®). Wieland-L66® is a spinoidally hardened bronze with the composition shown in table 4. Figure 13 illustrates the fine-grained microstructure with discontinuous Ni-Snprecipitations, which are located predominantly at the grain boundaries.


Table 4. Composition of the lead-free types of Cu-Sn-alloys (approximate values in % by weight).

Fig. 12. Microstructure of Wieland-B09 (magnified 200 times).

**Cu-Ni-Sn-bronze** 

**CuNi6Sn6** (Wieland-L66®) **Cu-Sn-bronze with silicide phases HSn** 

(temporary name while under development)

The wrought Cu-Sn-P-alloy CuSn8 (Tin-Bronze, Phosphor-Bronze) is characterized by an αsolid solution. The chemical composition is shown in the table 4. Fig. 12 describes the

A representative of the Cu-Ni-Sn-alloy series is the bronze CuNi6Sn6 (Wieland designation L66®). Wieland-L66® is a spinoidally hardened bronze with the composition shown in table 4. Figure 13 illustrates the fine-grained microstructure with discontinuous Ni-Sn-

**Alloy Cu Sn P Mn Ni Fe Si Zn Al**  Wieland-B09 Remainder 8,0 0,2 - - - - - - Wieland-L66® Remainder 5,5 - - 6,0 - - - - HSn Remainder 4,3 - 1,3 - 0,8 0,6 2,5 0,8

Table 4. Composition of the lead-free types of Cu-Sn-alloys (approximate values in % by

**4.2.1 Chemical composition and microstructure** 

**Cu-Sn-bronze** 

**CuSn8** 

(Wieland-B09)

weight).

microstructure of this material (Wieland designation B09).

Fig. 12. Microstructure of Wieland-B09 (magnified 200 times).

precipitations, which are located predominantly at the grain boundaries.

Fig. 11. Classes of Cu-Sn-alloys for friction bearing applications.

Fig. 13. Microstructure of Wieland-L66® (magnified 200 times).

The silicide phases in the special brass Wieland-SX1 ensures higher strength and wear resistance. For this reason, a new class of tin bronzes with silicides (Wieland temporary designation HSn) has been developed. The composition of a representative of this class is shown in table 4. Figures 14 and 15 illustrate the finest microstructure with mixed silicides in different sizes and shapes.

Fig. 14. Microstructure of HSn (magnified 200 times).

Lead-Free Wrought Copper Alloys for Bushings and Sliding Elements 83

Mounted bushings tend to creep due to mechanical stresses and thermally induced stresses. Depending on the piston diameter loads on bushings achieve 100 to 300 kN at temperature up to 200 °C. In terms of creep these load can be defined by a range of 10-3 to 10-4 of shear stress normalized to shear modulus and simultaneously by homologous temperatures of 0,25 to 0,4. Cu-Ni-Sn-alloys with 5 and more wt% of each alloying element Ni and Sn exhibit excellent resistance against stress relaxation. For example, the stress relaxation rate of CuNi6Sn6 at 200 °C is only 0,2 MPa/h compared with 1 MPa/h for the brass CuZn31Si1 (Kuhn et al., 2007).

Figure 18 characterizes stress relaxation of the two finally relief annealed bushing materials CuSn8 and CuNi6Sn6 between 1 and 3000 hours under load at 200 °C. The loss in stress Δ is expressed in percentage of the initially applied stress. For this experiment the initial stresses were chosen in the order of 50% of the yield stresses. The long term relaxation resistance was extrapolated from short term experiments which were performed on strips via the ring method (Bögel, 1994). The extrapolations of losses in initial stresses Δrel were

logΔrel= a P – b (1)

For the precipitation hardened CuNi6Sn6 shows 80% remaining stress after 3000 hours whereas bushings made of solid solution hardened CuSn8 will totally fail after this time.

This superior resistance of CuNi6Sn6 against stress relaxation is caused by spinodal decomposition of solid solution annealed and subsequently cold rolled strips of CuNiSn-

> 0 100 200 300 400 **Temperature [°C]**

B09 <sup>0</sup> 1 00 2 00 3 00 4 00 L66 HSn

P: = (T/°C + 273.16) (20 + log10 (t/h) ) 10-3 (2)

calculated by means of Larson-Miller parameter P (Larson, 1952).

alloys in a temperature range of 200 to 400 °C (Plewes, 1975).

100

Fig. 16. Tensile strength Rm as a function of temperature.

200

300

400

**Tensile strength [MPa]**

500

600

700

800

(a, b : coefficients of the regression curves)

Fig. 15. Microstructure of HSn (magnified 1000 times).

#### **4.2.2 Mechanical properties**

As the solid solution hardening effect of tin in copper is strong, high strength and hardness values of the tin-bronze Wieland-B09 can be achieved without the need for precipitation hardening (table 5). The spinoidally hardened nickel-tin-bronze Wieland-L66® show superior strength and hardness. In the HSn-bronze, the silicide phases in a ductile matrix lead to a combination of higher strength, hardness and best toughness. Useful for comparison, the mechanical properties of the Wieland-SX1 which is combined to form a strip as shown in table 5.


Table 5. Mean values of some of the mechanical properties of the tin-bronzes.

#### **4.2.3 High-temperature properties**

For the tin-bronzes Wieland-B09, Wieland-L66® and HSn, Figures 16 and 17 show the change in the tensile strength Rm and the yield strength Rp0,2 in the course of an increase in temperature up to 400°C.

Precipitation hardened nickel-tin-bronze Wieland-L66® show superior thermal stability in comparison with conventional tin-bronze Wieland-B09 and with silicides-containing bronze HSn.

As the solid solution hardening effect of tin in copper is strong, high strength and hardness values of the tin-bronze Wieland-B09 can be achieved without the need for precipitation hardening (table 5). The spinoidally hardened nickel-tin-bronze Wieland-L66® show superior strength and hardness. In the HSn-bronze, the silicide phases in a ductile matrix lead to a combination of higher strength, hardness and best toughness. Useful for comparison, the mechanical properties of the Wieland-SX1 which is combined to form a

**Alloy Wieland-B09 Wieland-L66® HSn Wieland-SX1**  Raw material rod (hard temper) strip (hard temper) strip (hard temper) strip (hard temper) HB 150 245 210 200 Rm [MPa] 570 780 650 611 Rp0.2 [MPa] 420 700 540 500 A5 [%] 23 12 28 13

For the tin-bronzes Wieland-B09, Wieland-L66® and HSn, Figures 16 and 17 show the change in the tensile strength Rm and the yield strength Rp0,2 in the course of an increase in

Precipitation hardened nickel-tin-bronze Wieland-L66® show superior thermal stability in comparison with conventional tin-bronze Wieland-B09 and with silicides-containing bronze

Table 5. Mean values of some of the mechanical properties of the tin-bronzes.

Fig. 15. Microstructure of HSn (magnified 1000 times).

**4.2.2 Mechanical properties** 

strip as shown in table 5.

**4.2.3 High-temperature properties** 

temperature up to 400°C.

HSn.

Mounted bushings tend to creep due to mechanical stresses and thermally induced stresses. Depending on the piston diameter loads on bushings achieve 100 to 300 kN at temperature up to 200 °C. In terms of creep these load can be defined by a range of 10-3 to 10-4 of shear stress normalized to shear modulus and simultaneously by homologous temperatures of 0,25 to 0,4. Cu-Ni-Sn-alloys with 5 and more wt% of each alloying element Ni and Sn exhibit excellent resistance against stress relaxation. For example, the stress relaxation rate of CuNi6Sn6 at 200 °C is only 0,2 MPa/h compared with 1 MPa/h for the brass CuZn31Si1 (Kuhn et al., 2007).

Figure 18 characterizes stress relaxation of the two finally relief annealed bushing materials CuSn8 and CuNi6Sn6 between 1 and 3000 hours under load at 200 °C. The loss in stress Δ is expressed in percentage of the initially applied stress. For this experiment the initial stresses were chosen in the order of 50% of the yield stresses. The long term relaxation resistance was extrapolated from short term experiments which were performed on strips via the ring method (Bögel, 1994). The extrapolations of losses in initial stresses Δrel were calculated by means of Larson-Miller parameter P (Larson, 1952).

$$
\log \Delta \sigma\_{\text{rel}} = \mathbf{a} \cdot \mathbf{P} - \mathbf{b} \tag{1}
$$

(a, b : coefficients of the regression curves)

$$\mathbf{P} \mathbf{:=} \left( \mathbf{T}/^{\mathbf{o}} \mathbf{C} + 273.16 \right) \left( 20 + \log\_{10} \left( \mathbf{t}/\mathbf{h} \right) \right) 10^{\mathbf{o}} \tag{2}$$

For the precipitation hardened CuNi6Sn6 shows 80% remaining stress after 3000 hours whereas bushings made of solid solution hardened CuSn8 will totally fail after this time.

This superior resistance of CuNi6Sn6 against stress relaxation is caused by spinodal decomposition of solid solution annealed and subsequently cold rolled strips of CuNiSnalloys in a temperature range of 200 to 400 °C (Plewes, 1975).

Fig. 16. Tensile strength Rm as a function of temperature.

Lead-Free Wrought Copper Alloys for Bushings and Sliding Elements 85

Figure 19 shows the variation in the friction coefficient and in the wear rate of two specimens of the bronze CuSn8. Remarkable is a significant increase in the thickness loss of the strip.

**Load F [N]**

**Wear rate w [m]**

Fig. 19. Variation in the friction coefficient and in the wear rate of two strip-specimens of the

The bumpy running behavior of the CuNi6Sn6-specimens can be found in figure 20. During the longer start-up phase, the friction coefficient decreases. However, the wear rate is


B09-2 Load F





**Time t [min]**

0 10 20 30 40

**Time t [min]**

0

0

200

400

600

**Load F [N]**

800

1000

1200

200

400

600

**Load F [N]**

800

1000

1200

0

Cu-Ni-Sn-bronze Wieland-L66® as a function of load and running time.

**Load F [N]**

L66-1 L66-2 Load F Fig. 20. Variation in the friction coefficient and in the wear rate of two strip-specimens of the

In comparison to the CuNi6Sn6, the specimens of the bronze HSn guarantee a smooth running (Figure 21). The wear rate is extremely low. The more ductile matrix of the HSn stands more dirt and abraded particles than CuNi6Sn6. That is why the wear rate can be

**Wear rate w [**

**m]**


0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14 0,16

further increased.

0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14 0,16

positive (see HSn-1).

**Friction coefficient** 

**Friction coefficient** 

0 10 20 30 40 **Time t [min]**

0 10 20 30 40 **Time t [min]**

**ate**

**N]**

**d F** 

**r** 

**o**

**a**

**W**

**e**

**a**

**ate**

B09-1**[N]**

Cu-Sn-bronze Wieland-B09 as a function of load and running time.

**d F**

**r** 

**o**

**a**

**L**

**W**

**e**

**a**

Fig. 17. Yield strength Rp0.2 as a function of temperature.

Fig. 18. CuNi6Sn6 and CuSn8: long term forecast of resistance against stress relaxation at 200°C.

#### **4.2.4 Wear properties**

The wear resistance of strips of the three bronze types Wieland-B09, Wieland-L66® and HSn is evaluated by tribometer runs. The measured variables include the friction coefficient μ and the wear rate w that constitutes the thickness loss of the strips during the measurement time. For mapping the scatter of the measured results, figures 19-22 shows the especially revealing variation in the friction coefficient and in the wear rate of two specimens 1 and 2.

0 100 200 300 400 **Temperature [°C]**

L66 HSn

CuNi6Sn6 Rp0,2 = 803 MPa init. stress: 434 MPa

CuNi6Sn6 Rp0,2 = 625 MPa init. stress: 482 MPa

CuSn8

CuSn8

Rp0,2 = 759 MPa init. stress: 388 MPa

Rp0,2= 510 MPa init. stress: 443 MPa

100

Fig. 17. Yield strength Rp0.2 as a function of temperature.

0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1

**4.2.4 Wear properties** 

**Rem. stress vs. initial stress**

B09 <sup>0</sup> 1 00 2 00 3 00 4 00

1 10 100 1000 10000 **Time t [h]**

Fig. 18. CuNi6Sn6 and CuSn8: long term forecast of resistance against stress relaxation at 200°C.

The wear resistance of strips of the three bronze types Wieland-B09, Wieland-L66® and HSn is evaluated by tribometer runs. The measured variables include the friction coefficient μ and the wear rate w that constitutes the thickness loss of the strips during the measurement time. For mapping the scatter of the measured results, figures 19-22 shows the especially revealing variation in the friction coefficient and in the wear rate of two specimens 1 and 2.

200

300

400

**Yield strength [MPa]**

500

600

700

Figure 19 shows the variation in the friction coefficient and in the wear rate of two specimens of the bronze CuSn8. Remarkable is a significant increase in the thickness loss of the strip.

 Fig. 19. Variation in the friction coefficient and in the wear rate of two strip-specimens of the Cu-Sn-bronze Wieland-B09 as a function of load and running time.

The bumpy running behavior of the CuNi6Sn6-specimens can be found in figure 20. During the longer start-up phase, the friction coefficient decreases. However, the wear rate is further increased.

**W** Fig. 20. Variation in the friction coefficient and in the wear rate of two strip-specimens of the Cu-Ni-Sn-bronze Wieland-L66® as a function of load and running time.

In comparison to the CuNi6Sn6, the specimens of the bronze HSn guarantee a smooth running (Figure 21). The wear rate is extremely low. The more ductile matrix of the HSn stands more dirt and abraded particles than CuNi6Sn6. That is why the wear rate can be positive (see HSn-1).

Lead-Free Wrought Copper Alloys for Bushings and Sliding Elements 87

In addition to brass alloys, tin-bronzes can be used for bushings, bearings and sliding elements. The Cu-Sn-alloys show a large number of positive material properties. These alloys have a high strength and a good resistance against wear and corrosion. However, during sliding at higher loads, the resistance to wear is inadequate for most sliding applications. For this reason, the good wear resistance of the tin-bronzes can be further improved by alloying the bronzes with other elements. The result of this action is the development of new generations of tin-bronzes – the Cu-Ni-Sn-bronzes and the Cu-Sn-

The spinoidally hardened Ni-Sn-bronze Wieland-L66®, which is outstanding for its particularly superior strength at room and at elevated temperatures, is characterized by a low level of friction coefficient for the duration of the wear test. However, the results show that the highest strength values are not decisive alone. The wear rate of the CuNi6Sn6-specimens increases over running time. The reason for that is the too low toughness of this material. The

The HSn, a newly developed tin-bronze with silicides, offers a unique combination of high strength, hardness, toughness and wear resistance. The silicide phases give the material very good sliding properties. Furthermore, the matrix with good hardness and very high ductility means that the silicides cannot be excavated and broke out from the surface. This heterogeneous microstructure ensures an excellent resistance against abrasive and adhesive wear. Also noteworthy is the compatibility for the dirt and abraded particles. The result is

The HSn and Wieland-L66® are particularly suitable for sliding elements in prospective

Wrapped bushings are produced from the following steps: continuous casting of slabs, hot rolling, cold rolling, cutting according to width, punching, stamping, rolling and calibrating (Fig. 23). Machined bushings result from hot extrusion of tubes, drawing, turning and

**6. Production process and properties of friction bearings in steel-composite** 

Since a few years the metal prices of copper, tin and nickel have dramatically increased. Manufacturer of bushings and their customers look for appropriate replacement of monometallic sliding elements. Without renouncing the excellent combination of strength, stress relaxation resistance and wear behavior one accepted technical solution are roll clad metal composites for connecting rods. Via cold rolling (Figure 24) and diffusion annealing a

Adhesion of both materials can be improved by soft interlayer of pure copper. Figure 25 describes a composite of a steel strip, an intermediate Copper layer and a CuN6Sn6 strip.

thin strip of CuNi6Sn6 are plated onto a ferritic steel strip (Ababneh et al., 2006).

For a successful roll cladding a true strain φ of -0.7 of each material is needed.

internal combustion engines, transmissions, ancillary units, drive trains and brakes.

wear mechanisms surface distress and micro cracking cause an increased wear.

that the friction coefficient will not improve during operation.

**5. Production process of monometallic bushings** 

**4.2.5 Summary** 

grinding.

**construction** 

alloys with silicide phases.

**W** Fig. 21. Variation in the friction coefficient and in the wear rate of two strip-specimens of the new bronze HSn as a function of load and running time.

**L**

**L**

**d**

The smooth running behavior, the good friction coefficient and the very low wear rate of the HSn-bronze are taking place as a result of the heterogeneous microstructure with hard silicides in a ductile matrix. The silicide content of the alloy results in good adhesive wear resistance. The matrix with higher strength and excellent toughness means that the silicides cannot be excavated and broke out from the surface.

These interconnections are also evident in the results of the wear test of the Wieland-SX1 specimens. The silicides with different size and shape in the mixed α-β-matrix guarantee a good wear resistance (figure 22).

**W** Fig. 22. Variation in the friction coefficient and in the wear rate of two strip-specimens of the new brass material Wieland-SX1 as a function of load and running time.

#### **4.2.5 Summary**

86 Copper Alloys – Early Applications and Current Performance – Enhancing Processes

0

**Load F [N]**

**Wear rate w [**

Fig. 21. Variation in the friction coefficient and in the wear rate of two strip-specimens of the

The smooth running behavior, the good friction coefficient and the very low wear rate of the HSn-bronze are taking place as a result of the heterogeneous microstructure with hard silicides in a ductile matrix. The silicide content of the alloy results in good adhesive wear resistance. The matrix with higher strength and excellent toughness means that the silicides

These interconnections are also evident in the results of the wear test of the Wieland-SX1 specimens. The silicides with different size and shape in the mixed α-β-matrix guarantee a

0

new brass material Wieland-SX1 as a function of load and running time.

**Load F [N]**

**Wear rate w [**

SX1-1 SX1-2 Load F Fig. 22. Variation in the friction coefficient and in the wear rate of two strip-specimens of the

**m]**


**m]**


HSn-2 Load F

0 10 20 30 40

**Time t [min]**

0 10 20 30 40

**Time t [min]**

0

0

200

400 600

800 1000

**Load F [N]**

1200

200 400

600 800 **Load F [N]**

1000

1200

0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14 0,16

**Friction coefficient** 

0 10 20 30 40 **Time t [min]**

**r** 

**o**

**a**

**L**

**ate**

HSn-1**[N]**

cannot be excavated and broke out from the surface.

0 10 20 30 40 **Time t [min]**

**r** 

**o**

**a**

**L**

**ate**

**[N]**

**F**

**d**

**W**

**e**

**a**

new bronze HSn as a function of load and running time.

**d F**

**W**

good wear resistance (figure 22).

0 0,02 0,04 0,06 0,08 0,1 0,12 0,14 0,16

**Friction coefficient** 

**e**

**a**

In addition to brass alloys, tin-bronzes can be used for bushings, bearings and sliding elements. The Cu-Sn-alloys show a large number of positive material properties. These alloys have a high strength and a good resistance against wear and corrosion. However, during sliding at higher loads, the resistance to wear is inadequate for most sliding applications. For this reason, the good wear resistance of the tin-bronzes can be further improved by alloying the bronzes with other elements. The result of this action is the development of new generations of tin-bronzes – the Cu-Ni-Sn-bronzes and the Cu-Snalloys with silicide phases.

The spinoidally hardened Ni-Sn-bronze Wieland-L66®, which is outstanding for its particularly superior strength at room and at elevated temperatures, is characterized by a low level of friction coefficient for the duration of the wear test. However, the results show that the highest strength values are not decisive alone. The wear rate of the CuNi6Sn6-specimens increases over running time. The reason for that is the too low toughness of this material. The wear mechanisms surface distress and micro cracking cause an increased wear.

The HSn, a newly developed tin-bronze with silicides, offers a unique combination of high strength, hardness, toughness and wear resistance. The silicide phases give the material very good sliding properties. Furthermore, the matrix with good hardness and very high ductility means that the silicides cannot be excavated and broke out from the surface. This heterogeneous microstructure ensures an excellent resistance against abrasive and adhesive wear. Also noteworthy is the compatibility for the dirt and abraded particles. The result is that the friction coefficient will not improve during operation.

The HSn and Wieland-L66® are particularly suitable for sliding elements in prospective internal combustion engines, transmissions, ancillary units, drive trains and brakes.

#### **5. Production process of monometallic bushings**

Wrapped bushings are produced from the following steps: continuous casting of slabs, hot rolling, cold rolling, cutting according to width, punching, stamping, rolling and calibrating (Fig. 23). Machined bushings result from hot extrusion of tubes, drawing, turning and grinding.

#### **6. Production process and properties of friction bearings in steel-composite construction**

Since a few years the metal prices of copper, tin and nickel have dramatically increased. Manufacturer of bushings and their customers look for appropriate replacement of monometallic sliding elements. Without renouncing the excellent combination of strength, stress relaxation resistance and wear behavior one accepted technical solution are roll clad metal composites for connecting rods. Via cold rolling (Figure 24) and diffusion annealing a thin strip of CuNi6Sn6 are plated onto a ferritic steel strip (Ababneh et al., 2006).

Adhesion of both materials can be improved by soft interlayer of pure copper. Figure 25 describes a composite of a steel strip, an intermediate Copper layer and a CuN6Sn6 strip. For a successful roll cladding a true strain φ of -0.7 of each material is needed.

Lead-Free Wrought Copper Alloys for Bushings and Sliding Elements 89

Fig. 25. Micrograph (longitudinal section) of roll clad wrapped bushing for connecting rods:

Figure 26 exhibit the response of a cold rolled clad strip on age hardening between 200°C and 460°C. The time of annealing was 3 hours. One-third of the composite is the nickel tin bronze and two-third is a 0,15 wt% ferritic steel. Annealing has no influence on hardness of the steel whereas the hardness of the age hardened CuNi6Sn6 layer increases in the order of 100% from 135 HBW1/30 to 270 at 380°C. Simultaneously, the strengths of the compound

Fig. 26. Effect of age hardening on mechanical properties of a clad compound (left) and on

**Hardness HBW 1/30**

0 100 200 300 400 500 **Age hardening temperature [°C]**

Steel CuNi6Sn6

ferritic steel (top), copper (middle), CuNi6Sn6 (bottom).

were improved by 30% of the room temperature values.

Rp0,2 Rm

hardness of single layer (right).

0 100 200 300 400 500 **Age hardening temperature [°C]**

400

450

500

550

 **Strength [MPa]**

600

650

Fig. 23. The manufacturing process from casting to the finished machined and wrapped bushing (Scharf, 1999).

Fig. 24. Principle of roll cladding of a three layer metal composite.

The mechanical strength of the clad metal composite is given by the steel layer and the CuNi6Sn6 in the age hardened stage. In addition the CuNi6Sn6 layer is responsible for a good resistance against wear.

Fig. 23. The manufacturing process from casting to the finished machined and wrapped

Fig. 24. Principle of roll cladding of a three layer metal composite.

The mechanical strength of the clad metal composite is given by the steel layer and the CuNi6Sn6 in the age hardened stage. In addition the CuNi6Sn6 layer is responsible for a

bushing (Scharf, 1999).

good resistance against wear.

Fig. 25. Micrograph (longitudinal section) of roll clad wrapped bushing for connecting rods: ferritic steel (top), copper (middle), CuNi6Sn6 (bottom).

Figure 26 exhibit the response of a cold rolled clad strip on age hardening between 200°C and 460°C. The time of annealing was 3 hours. One-third of the composite is the nickel tin bronze and two-third is a 0,15 wt% ferritic steel. Annealing has no influence on hardness of the steel whereas the hardness of the age hardened CuNi6Sn6 layer increases in the order of 100% from 135 HBW1/30 to 270 at 380°C. Simultaneously, the strengths of the compound were improved by 30% of the room temperature values.

Fig. 26. Effect of age hardening on mechanical properties of a clad compound (left) and on hardness of single layer (right).

Lead-Free Wrought Copper Alloys for Bushings and Sliding Elements 91

the thin oxide film may be penetrated, can come off and transition occurs to high values of friction and wear. For this reason, the positive wear resistance of the tin-bronzes can be further improved by alloying the bronzes with other elements. Cu-Ni-Sn-alloys and the

The spinoidally hardened alloy CuNi6Sn6 (Wieland designation L66®) shows superior mechanical properties, a good wear resistance and a superior resistance against stress relaxation. In the silicides-containing bronze (Wieland designation HSn), the silicide phases in a ductile matrix lead to a combination of higher strength, hardness and best toughness. The combination of these properties is the reason for the very good resistance against the

By also conforming to environmental guidelines, the alloys Wieland-SX1, Wieland-L66® and HSn are particularly suitable for being used as a sliding element in future internal

Ababneh, M.; Kuhn, H.-A. & Voggeser, V. (2006). Material Strip Form and it use, composite

Bartel, D.; Bobach, L. & Deters, L. (2004). Fresskriterien für ölgeschmierte Radialgleitlager.

Bögel, A. (1994). Spannungsrelaxation in Kupferlegierungen für Steckverbinderwerkstoffe

Czichos, H. & Habig, K.-H. (2003). *Tribologie-Handbuch*. Vieweg-Verlag, 2nd edition,

Grün, F.; Godor, I. & Eichlseder, W. (2007). Schadensorientierte Prüfmethoden und

Hofmann, U.; Bögel, A.; Hölzl, H. & Kuhn, H.-A. (2005). Beitrag zur Metallographie von Kupfer und Kupferlegierungen. *Praktische Metallographie*, Vol. 42, No. 7 Kuhn, H.-A.; Hölzl, H.; Hofmann, U.; Kudashov, D. & Zauter, R. (2004). Metallographie

Kuhn, H.-A.; Koch, R. & Knab, M. (2007). Thermal stability of lead-free wrought Cu-base

Larson, F.R.; Miller, J. (1952). A time-temperature relationship for rupture and creep

Plewes, J.T. (1975). High strength Cu-Ni-Sn-Alloys by thermo-mechanical processing. *Met.* 

abgeleitete Funktionsmodelle für Gleitwerkstoffe. *Tribologie und Schmierungstechnik*,

heterogener Hochleistungs-Werkstoffe auf Kupferbasis. In: *Fortschritte in der Metallographie (ed. P. Portella), Sonderbände der Praktischen Metallographie*, Vol. 35 (publisher: Petzow, G.), Verlag Werkstoff-Informationsgesellschaft, Oberursel,

alloys for automotive bushings, *World of metallurgy ERZMETALL*, Vol. 60, pp. 199-207

Burwell Jr., U.T. (1957/58). Survey of possible wear mechanism. *Wear*, Vol. 1, pp. 19-141 Collenberg, H.F. (1991). *Untersuchungen zur Fresstragfähigkeit schnelllaufender Stirnradgetriebe*.

Cu-Sn-bronze with silicide phases were the results of these developments.

combustion engines, transmissions, ancillary units, drive trains and brakes.

sliding element. *Patent application DE 102006019826.3* 

und Federwerkstoffe. *Metall*, Vol. 48, pp. 872-875

stresses. *Trans ASME*, Vol. 74, pp. 765-771

*Trans.*, Vol. 6A, pp. 537-544

Wiesbaden, Germany

Vol. 54, No. 5, pp. 26-30

Germany

*Tribologie und Schmierungstechnik*, Vol. 51, No. 5, pp. 29-38 Bhushan, B. (2002). *Introduction to tribology*. John Wiley & Sons, New York

Dissertation, Technische Universität München, Germany

wear mechanisms adhesion, abrasion and surface distress.

**8. References** 

The spring back behavior of wrapped bushing designed by a clad compound is subjected to the Yield strength and the Young´s modulus E. The Young´s modulus of the composite was determined via tension test. In good accordance with a prediction by a rule of mixture (Reuss approach) with 2/3 of 210 GPa (=Esteel) and 1/3 of 125 GPa (=ECuNi6Sn6) an EComposite of 175 MPa was measured. For this estimation of E the contribution of the thin intermediate copper layer was neglected.

Rule of mixture, constant strain approach (Reuss approach):

$$\mathbf{E}\_{\text{Composite}} = \left< \mathbf{3} \, \mathbf{E}\_{\text{steel}} \, \mathbf{E}\_{\text{CuNiSiSn}} \right> / \left< \mathbf{2} \mathbf{E}\_{\text{CuNiSiSn}} + \mathbf{E}\_{\text{steel}} \right> \tag{3}$$

#### **7. Conclusion**

Because of its good mechanical properties, its compatibility for the abrasion particles and its excellent behaviour under mixed friction conditions, copper-based alloys have a wide range of uses in the form of bushings and sliding elements. Preferred copper-based wrought materials are special brasses, tin-bronzes, multiphase tin-bronzes and nickel-tin-bronzes.

As a result of the increasing mechanical, tribological and thermal stresses to which the bearings in modern engines are subjected, the brass materials and the tin-bronzes used until now are increasingly reaching the limits of their stability under load. The tribological and thermal stresses are increasing because the demands for lightweight construction are causing the dimensions of the components to be reduced and at the same time the requirements for lower emissions are causing the ignition pressures to be increased. Furthermore, the use of low-viscosity oils is leading to an increase in states of wear-intensive mixed friction, which in the case of sliding elements in the engine compartment occur especially during starting and stopping operations and when the lubrication film breaks down. In addition, the End-of-Life Vehicle Directive of the European Community intends to banish lead as an alloying element for metals. This necessity has given rise to the development of novel Pb-free bearing alloys with the required combination of properties.

To allow the material of a wearing part to be adapted to the prevailing operating conditions, it is necessary to survey the elementary processes in the respective tribological system. The analysis of the effective wear mechanisms and the possibilities of using aspects of materials technology to influence the extent of wear damage formed a fundamental basis for the conceptual development of the new bearing alloys.

The two brasses CuZn31Si1 (Wieland designation SB8) and CuZn37Mn3Al2PbSi (Wieland designation S40) were taken as the starting point for the development of the new wearresistant brass alloy Wieland-SX1. The heterogeneous form of the microstructure with the network of phase islands incorporated in the ductile matrix and with Mn-silicides and mixed silicides of various sizes and forms lends the new bearing alloy Wieland-SX1 a high degree of thermal stability and complex wear resistance.

In addition to the brass alloys, the tin-bronzes are used as material for bushings and sliding elements. In the tin-bronzes, the alloying element tin form oxides very rapidly. The tin-oxide film acts as a low shear-strength film and in addition because of low ductility leads to low friction. The oxide film may effectively separate the two metallic surfaces. Furthermore, the oxides improve the resistance against corrosion. However, during sliding at higher loads, the thin oxide film may be penetrated, can come off and transition occurs to high values of friction and wear. For this reason, the positive wear resistance of the tin-bronzes can be further improved by alloying the bronzes with other elements. Cu-Ni-Sn-alloys and the Cu-Sn-bronze with silicide phases were the results of these developments.

The spinoidally hardened alloy CuNi6Sn6 (Wieland designation L66®) shows superior mechanical properties, a good wear resistance and a superior resistance against stress relaxation. In the silicides-containing bronze (Wieland designation HSn), the silicide phases in a ductile matrix lead to a combination of higher strength, hardness and best toughness. The combination of these properties is the reason for the very good resistance against the wear mechanisms adhesion, abrasion and surface distress.

By also conforming to environmental guidelines, the alloys Wieland-SX1, Wieland-L66® and HSn are particularly suitable for being used as a sliding element in future internal combustion engines, transmissions, ancillary units, drive trains and brakes.

#### **8. References**

90 Copper Alloys – Early Applications and Current Performance – Enhancing Processes

The spring back behavior of wrapped bushing designed by a clad compound is subjected to the Yield strength and the Young´s modulus E. The Young´s modulus of the composite was determined via tension test. In good accordance with a prediction by a rule of mixture (Reuss approach) with 2/3 of 210 GPa (=Esteel) and 1/3 of 125 GPa (=ECuNi6Sn6) an EComposite of 175 MPa was measured. For this estimation of E the contribution of the thin intermediate

E Composite = (3 Esteel ECuNi6Sn6) / (2ECuNi6Sn6 + Esteel) (3)

Because of its good mechanical properties, its compatibility for the abrasion particles and its excellent behaviour under mixed friction conditions, copper-based alloys have a wide range of uses in the form of bushings and sliding elements. Preferred copper-based wrought materials are special brasses, tin-bronzes, multiphase tin-bronzes and nickel-tin-bronzes.

As a result of the increasing mechanical, tribological and thermal stresses to which the bearings in modern engines are subjected, the brass materials and the tin-bronzes used until now are increasingly reaching the limits of their stability under load. The tribological and thermal stresses are increasing because the demands for lightweight construction are causing the dimensions of the components to be reduced and at the same time the requirements for lower emissions are causing the ignition pressures to be increased. Furthermore, the use of low-viscosity oils is leading to an increase in states of wear-intensive mixed friction, which in the case of sliding elements in the engine compartment occur especially during starting and stopping operations and when the lubrication film breaks down. In addition, the End-of-Life Vehicle Directive of the European Community intends to banish lead as an alloying element for metals. This necessity has given rise to the development of novel Pb-free bearing alloys with the required combination of properties.

To allow the material of a wearing part to be adapted to the prevailing operating conditions, it is necessary to survey the elementary processes in the respective tribological system. The analysis of the effective wear mechanisms and the possibilities of using aspects of materials technology to influence the extent of wear damage formed a fundamental basis for the

The two brasses CuZn31Si1 (Wieland designation SB8) and CuZn37Mn3Al2PbSi (Wieland designation S40) were taken as the starting point for the development of the new wearresistant brass alloy Wieland-SX1. The heterogeneous form of the microstructure with the network of phase islands incorporated in the ductile matrix and with Mn-silicides and mixed silicides of various sizes and forms lends the new bearing alloy Wieland-SX1 a high

In addition to the brass alloys, the tin-bronzes are used as material for bushings and sliding elements. In the tin-bronzes, the alloying element tin form oxides very rapidly. The tin-oxide film acts as a low shear-strength film and in addition because of low ductility leads to low friction. The oxide film may effectively separate the two metallic surfaces. Furthermore, the oxides improve the resistance against corrosion. However, during sliding at higher loads,

copper layer was neglected.

**7. Conclusion** 

Rule of mixture, constant strain approach (Reuss approach):

conceptual development of the new bearing alloys.

degree of thermal stability and complex wear resistance.


**5** 

Ludvík Kunz

*Czech Republic* 

*Institute of Physics of Materials,* 

*Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic* 

**Mechanical Properties of Copper** 

**Processed by Severe Plastic Deformation** 

Copper has been used for thousands of years and its mechanical properties are well known. Its utilisation in many branches of industry is intensive and has been steadily increasing in recent decades. The major applications are in wires, industrial machinery, copper-based solar power collectors, integrated circuits and generally in electronics. Copper can be also

Detailed studies of a relation of mechanical properties and microstructure have been performed in the second half of the last century. The basic data can be found in review papers, (e.g. Murphy, 1981). Cu is a simple f.c.c. material. This is why it has been frequently used as a model material for basic studies of damage mechanisms in metals, particularly fatigue and creep. It belongs from this point of view to the most thoroughly investigated materials. The research was conducted both on polycrystals and single crystals. The great deal of the pool of basic knowledge on fatigue damage mechanisms, changes of dislocation structures, localisation of cyclic plasticity, initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks was

The effort to increase mechanical properties of engineering materials led in the last two decades to application of severe plastic deformation (SPD), resulting in fine-grained structures, exhibiting improved mechanical properties. Naturally, copper was again a suitable material for basic research and, simultaneously, an improvement of its tensile and

This chapter briefly summarises basic fatigue properties of conventionally grained (CG) copper. However, the main concern is to present and discuss the mechanical behaviour of ultrafine-grained (UFG) Cu prepared by one of the SPD methods, namely by equal channel angular pressing (ECAP). This method enables the production of the UFG material in bulk. The emphasis is put on the fatigue properties and their relation to the UFG microstructure. Discussion of recent, - and, in some cases inconsistent - results on UFG Cu published in literature, is accentuated. This is an issue of the relation of the cyclic softening/hardening to the stability of UFG structure, the influence of mode of fatigue loading on the dynamic grain coarsening, related fatigue life, the mechanism of the cyclic slip localization and initiation of

**1. Introduction** 

fatigue cracks.

recycled very effectively.

acquired just on this model material.

fatigue strength is a permanent research challenge.

