**4. Conclusions**

Several technologies have been tested to reduce mycotoxin risk. Field management practices that increase yields may also prevent aflatoxin. They include use of resistant varieties, timely planting, fertilizer application, weed control, insect control and avoiding drought and nutritional stress. Other options to control the toxin causing fungi *Aspergillus flavus*  contamination in the field are use of non-toxigenic fungi to competitively displace toxigenic fungi, and timely harvest. Post-harvest interventions that reduce mycotoxins are rapid and proper drying, sorting, cleaning, drying, smoking, post harvest insect control, and the use of botanicals or synthetic pesticides as storage protectant. Another approach is to reduce the frequent consumption of 'high risk' foods (especially maize and groundnut) by consuming a more varied diet, and diversifying into less risky staples like sorghum and millet. Chemopreventive measures that can reduce mycotoxin effect include daily consumption of chlorophyllin or oltipraz and by incorporating hydrated sodium calcium alumino-silicates into the diet. Detoxification of aflatoxins is often achieved physically, chemically and microbiologically by incorporating pro-biotics or lactic acid bacteria into the diet. There is need for efficient monitoring and surveillance with cost-effective sampling and analytical methods. Sustaining public education and awareness can help to reduce aflatoxin contamination. Phytochemicals may successfully replace physical and chemical agents and provide an alternative method to protect agricultural commodities of nutritional significance from toxigenic fungi such as *Aspergillus flavus* and aflatoxin production.

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Several technologies have been tested to reduce mycotoxin risk. Field management practices that increase yields may also prevent aflatoxin. They include use of resistant varieties, timely planting, fertilizer application, weed control, insect control and avoiding drought and nutritional stress. Other options to control the toxin causing fungi *Aspergillus flavus*  contamination in the field are use of non-toxigenic fungi to competitively displace toxigenic fungi, and timely harvest. Post-harvest interventions that reduce mycotoxins are rapid and proper drying, sorting, cleaning, drying, smoking, post harvest insect control, and the use of botanicals or synthetic pesticides as storage protectant. Another approach is to reduce the frequent consumption of 'high risk' foods (especially maize and groundnut) by consuming a more varied diet, and diversifying into less risky staples like sorghum and millet. Chemopreventive measures that can reduce mycotoxin effect include daily consumption of chlorophyllin or oltipraz and by incorporating hydrated sodium calcium alumino-silicates into the diet. Detoxification of aflatoxins is often achieved physically, chemically and microbiologically by incorporating pro-biotics or lactic acid bacteria into the diet. There is need for efficient monitoring and surveillance with cost-effective sampling and analytical methods. Sustaining public education and awareness can help to reduce aflatoxin contamination. Phytochemicals may successfully replace physical and chemical agents and provide an alternative method to protect agricultural commodities of nutritional

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**16** 

 *México* 

**Aflatoxins Biochemistry and** 

*Facultad de Ingeniería, CA Ingeniería de Biosistemas,* 

Laura Mejía-Teniente,

*Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro,* 

**Molecular Biology - Biotechnological** 

Angel María Chapa-Oliver, Moises Alejandro Vazquez-Cruz, Irineo Torres-Pacheco and Ramón Gerardo Guevara-González

Fungi play a very important, but yet mostly unexplored role. Their widespread occurrence on land and in marine life makes them a challenge and a risk for humans (Bräse *et al.,* 2009). Fungi are ingenious producers of complex natural products which show a broad range of biological activities (Bohnert *et al.,* 2010). However, a specific characteristic is the production of toxins. Mycotoxins (from "*myco*" fungus and toxin), are nonvolatile, relatively low-molecular weight, fungal secondary metabolic products (Bräse *et al.,* 2009). The most agriculturally important micotoxins are aflatoxins (AF) which are a group of highly toxic metabolites, studied primarly because of their negative effects on human health. Aflatoxins belong to a group of difuranocumarinic derivatives structurally related, and are produced meanly by fungi of genus *Aspergillus* spp. Its production depends on many factors such as substrate, temperature, pH, relative humidity and the presence of other fungi. It has been identified 18 types of aflatoxins; the most frequent in foods are B1, B2, G1, G2, M1, and M2 (Bhatnagar *et al.,* 2002). These secondary metabolites contaminate a number of oilseed crops during growth of the fungus and this can result in severe negative economic and health impacts (Cary *et al.,* 2009). The higher levels of aflatoxins have been found in cotton and maize seeds, peanuts, and nuts. In grains like wheat, rice, rye or barley the presence of aflatoxins is less frequent. Mycotoxins may also occur in conjugated form, either soluble (masked mycotoxins) or incorporated into/ associated with/attached to macromolecules (bound mycotoxins). These conjugated mycotoxins can emerge after metabolization by living plants, fungi and mammals or after food processing. Awareness of such altered forms of mycotoxins is increasing, but reliable analytical methods, measurement standards, occurrence, and toxicity data are still lacking (Berthiller *et al.,* 2009). A variety of studies has been conducted in order to understand the process of crop contamination by aflatoxins. Mycotoxins are dangerous metabolites that are often carcinogenic, and they represent a serious threat to both animal and human health (Reverberi *et al.,* 2010). Mycotoxins are considered secondary metabolites because

**1. Introduction** 

*Centro Universitario Cerro de las Campanas s/n, Querétaro, Qro,* 

**Approaches for Control in Crops** 

