**10. Vygotsky theory**

Based on this theory, scaffolding was introduced, which is defined as "social collaboration conducive to cognitive development." According to Vygotsky, four "elementary mental functions" are with us from birth: attention, sensation, perception, and memory. Utilization of these elementary skills enables us to acquire higher mental functions within our social and cultural environment. According to this theory, social conciliation is a process of knowledge construction, and infants are said to learn new interpersonal and cognitive skills through interactions with older people. Therefore, cognitive functions are developed because of the interaction between humans. Through collaborative dialogs with more knowledgeable members of society, children acquire their cultural values, beliefs, and problemsolving strategies.

In terms of child development, Vygotsky's approach is a form of social constructivism. Consequently, this theory has led to the development of more interactive and collaborative instructional and learning organizations. In these organizations, students and teachers are encouraged to interact socially. As Vygotsky believed, higher-order functions of the brain are shaped by parents, caregivers, peers, and the individual's culture. According to Vygotsky, there can be differences in human development between cultures. Vygotsky's theory discusses concepts, such as the zone of proximal development, culture-specific tools, and private speech. In the process of creating meaning, the community plays an essential role.

*Cognitive Learning Theory and Development: Higher Education Case Study DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110629*

According to Vygotsky, social interaction plays a crucial role in cognitive development. Learning is a necessary, universal aspect of culturally organized psychological function. Unlike Piaget's view, social learning generally precedes development, according to Vygotsky [8]. Therefore, according to this theory, constructed cognitive abilities are argued to be socially guided. Learning, memory, attention, and problem-solving abilities are formed through cultural mediation. By means of Vygotsky's theory, teaching and learning have become interactive and collaborative. This type of organization encourages students to learn by interacting with peers and teachers.

## **11. Contemporary theoretical perspective**

The Piaget theory has been criticized for using a small sample with rigid stage limits. Vygotsky's work demonstrates the development of Neo-Piagetian thinking, which integrates context (family, culture, history, language, and play). Piaget's descriptions of accommodation processes are complemented by Vygotsky's emphasis on environmental factors. According to modern theory, children's cognitive development follows specific principles. These principles shift and shift as a child interacts with the environment.

Many cognitive abilities are developed among children at a very early stage. Children have natural information outwardly world, and their learning is fast. Piaget was off-base about knowledge. As far as article lastingness, it was noticed that newborn children look for objects sooner than Piaget proposed. Besides, newborn children younger than one have the mental capacity to comprehend that secret items are not stowed away from sight.

Piaget and strategic issues as far as the standards of formative science, Piaget's hypothesis has a few issues. Right off the bat, with respect to the determination of members, Piaget did not choose an extraordinary assortment of members to give a dependable outcome; for the most part, he just inspected his own youngsters. Moreover, one of the main parts of the exploration strategy is diminishing the impact of testing predisposition by choosing members cautiously. Consequently, summing up his plans for kids from various societies or nations all over the planet is absurd.

Besides, Piaget frequently used the clinical technique to gather information. This technique is more adaptable, so members are probably going to pose various inquiries. Notwithstanding, uniform materials, questions, bearings, and procedures to assess mental factors are the spine of exploratory brain research. Current analysts have been disappointed by Piaget's reports of his investigation. Piaget did not make sense of the social-financial foundation of the kids, the quantity of members, or the member's race or nationality, and he did not give more than adequate insight concerning his testing measures.

It is challenging to tell whether Piaget is depicting kids speculatively or testing them. Besides, as per Piaget, "clinicians over-summed up their techniques and showed up at magnificent details, especially when a multitude of researchers made an interpretation of their outcomes into numerical terms." Besides, "intense perception, especially when made by [a great observer], beats all insights" (1936/1952, p. 72, referred to in Mill operator, 2012, 85-86). This implies that Piaget did not give factual outlines of his revelations, and he gave extensive example conventions deciphered by Piaget, from which peruses regularly do not figure out the topics.

Though Piaget has informed us about the four mental developmental stage but late examination has shown that not all teenagers arrive at the formal functional stage. Since the instructive cycle in certain social orders does not stress decisive reasoning, which is basic for arriving at the formal functional stage. Because of an absence of instructive foundation, concentrates on show that the main portion of people in certain social orders arrives at the formal functional stage. Moreover, people can show formal functional expertise in only one field; for instance, a generally excellent designer can ponder this particular region but is probably going to experience issues contemplating verse.

Modern cognitive development theory evolves as evidence is gathered and suggestions are made. Currently, researchers are studying factors affecting cognitive development. According to Taylor [9], these factors include both internal (such as sexual orientation) and external (such as the community). Kellermann et al. [10] discuss epilepsy's effects on cognitive development.

Dadvand et al. [11] demonstrate that exposure to green and open spaces benefits cognition. A similar study by Barac et al. [12] demonstrated various effects of bilingualism on cognitive development as an internal factor conditioned by the environment. Sun & Esposito [13] indicate the specificity principle plays a role in children's language development. As a result of extensive research, more specific factors are now being examined to provide more details and enhance our understanding of human cognitive development. Future views of this theory may result in a comprehensive understanding of human development due to the diversity of modern views. However, more research and more evidence are required before that can be achieved.

## **12. Cognitive development and educators as pedagogical leaders**

Theories related to early development, sociocultural context, and contemporary context provide educators with theoretical scaffolding. By utilizing contemporary theories, such as Piaget's cognitive theory for observing children's play stages, Vygotsky's concept of cultural tools, and ZPD in early childhood education, educators scaffold children's play and learning. Zones of proximal development (ZPD) are key in scaffolding, allowing children to accomplish as much on their own as possible while tutoring fills in what they are unable to accomplish. Contemporary theorists point out other influences and realities educators need to be aware of. Therefore, they develop a self-understanding of how much they must be open to change and take into account children's perspectives when employing their pedagogical approach to enhance the learning of students in the total scheme of teaching and learning.

Education as a profession requires educators to have a strong reliance on verbal cues, such as providing suggestions and instructions for children to construct their own understandings of the world. A pedagogical leader builds students' social, academic, and intellectual capital, as well as teachers' intellectual and professional capital. The notion of "pedagogical leadership" refers to bringing a pedagogical framework to all aspects of teaching and focusing on dialog with the learners. Children learn more when they are in an environment in which the family is engaged, the organization's curricular philosophy is followed, data are used to measure program effectiveness, and standards are established to maximize learning. An understanding of pedagogy is rooted in a solid theoretical and practical foundation. Therefore, cultural and social values influence learning, teaching, and development.

#### *Cognitive Learning Theory and Development: Higher Education Case Study DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110629*

With the modern educational system's national priorities, teachers must develop students with the skills and knowledge necessary not only for lifelong learning but also for the knowledge economy. In the knowledge-based economy, individuals and institutions actively interact with each other to learn from one another. As a result, teachers play a crucial role in promoting student learning in a pedagogical context. Organizing lessons, facilitating interaction, and solving classroom challenges require a teacher who is capable of handling content and student learning.

To be effective in the context of the modern era, developmental theories work well when combined with contemporary approaches, such as sociocultural theory and post-structural theory. Those theories really help to question universal norms; they help to think about what it is we see in terms of children's holistic development and not just whether they can do this or that by themselves. Sociocultural theories emphasize "the central role that families and cultural groups play in children's learning and the importance of respectful relationships" and "provide insights into the social and cultural contexts of learning and development." It emphasizes that cognitive development is essentially a social process. This is of great importance to educators who have to plan how to teach children with diverse social and cultural backgrounds. Poststructural theory inspires educators to "challenge traditional ways of seeing children, teaching, and learning." It offers insights into issues of power, equity, and social justice in early childhood settings.

To be effective in the context of the modern era, developmental theories work well when combined with contemporary approaches, such as sociocultural theory and post-structural theory. Those theories really help to question universal norms; they help to think about what it is we see in terms of children's holistic development and not just whether they can do this or that by themselves. Sociocultural theories emphasize "the central role that families and cultural groups play in children's learning and the importance of respectful relationships" and "provide insights into the social and cultural contexts of learning and development." It emphasizes that cognitive development is essentially a social process. This is of great importance to educators who have to plan how to teach children with diverse social and cultural backgrounds. Poststructural theory inspires educators to "challenge traditional ways of seeing children, teaching, and learning." It offers insights into issues of power, equity, and social justice in early childhood settings.

Considering theoretical understandings, educators may consider how different theories can assist them in looking holistically at children's capacities to participate at different ages. Because it is impossible to separate children from their interactions with others around them, educators must use more than one theory to observe learning. To establish a framework of what is acceptable and fair for students, educators should consider contemporary theories along with earlier theories of cognitive development. Learning takes place within the context of a learner's cognitive processes. To promote social, emotional, and cognitive development in children, educators should provide them with interesting and stimulating materials to use in their environments. Five types of educational approaches (constructivist, collaborative, integrative, reflective, and inquiry-based) are incorporated into a cognitive development theory. Classroom environmental, mental, and cultural realities are integrated into these pedagogical and cognitive approaches.

Thus, theoretical and pedagogical orientations support the distinction of cognitive strategies from metacognitive strategies (learning organization) and social/affective strategies (interaction base). In language teaching, educators utilize strategies, such as repetition, organizing new language, summarizing meaning, guessing meaning based on context, and using imagery for memorization. The purpose of these strategies is to improve learning by deliberately manipulating language.

## **13. Criticism on cognitive psychology**

Cognitive psychology focuses on interior data cycles, such as discernment, consideration, language, and memory. The psychology profession is concerned with these interior cycles and their impact on our behavior and feelings. As a result of cognitive psychology research, new speculations have been developed, and more insight into how the mind works has been gained. Researchers have found that cognitive development is difficult to identify. According to another interpretation of this methodology, it ignores other factors besides cognitive ones that can influence behavior. The social and cognitive environments are two factors that may influence a person's behavior. There are some limitations to this approach.

Psychology researchers usually carry out their studies in false environments or ignore the current situation. For instance, participants in a memory study could feel pressure to perform well in a study hall setting, resulting in worse memory performance than if they were evaluated at home. Since the focus lacks natural legitimacy, its effects are less applicable to daily life and may even be irrelevant outside the review environment. In many cases, students feel confident and well-prepared before an exam, but when they enter the exam hall, everything vanishes. A lack of cognitive development can be caused by nervousness or hypertension.

In most instances, Piaget's four stages of cognitive development respond to misconceptions or insignificant details that do not contradict the central principles of his theory. Some people have complained that his tests were too difficult for children. A variety of skills can be tested by altering the process so that younger students can pass the tests. In other studies, the ages associated with the stages have been examined, and the diversity of children has been highlighted. Rather than focusing on the age at which a child reaches a particular milestone, Piaget emphasized succession.

When it comes to specific errands, children use various types of reasoning and are conflictual at every stage. In another study, it was found that children use specific types of reasoning when solving specific errands and that they are conflictual throughout the process, indicating that they will use functional reasoning. That is, "level decal age" refers to the fact that a child may not always use concrete functional reasoning on such errands. Although it was acknowledged that this went against Piaget's hypothesis, it does so assuming that children are believed to be in a phase. Piaget predicted this outcome based on a thorough understanding of his hypothesis.

Looking closer at his hypothesis, it appears that children develop different types of reasoning based on their experiences. The degree to which a child is involved with the project materials will determine how well they use concrete and functional reasoning.

Furthermore, Piaget's conception of cognitive progression has been criticized for misinterpreting social factors. In some instances, he departs from Vygotsky's belief that social connections are so important. Anyhow, it surprised Vygotsky when he reviewed Piaget's original work and found it to be too dependent on friendly variables! According to Piaget, social elements are clearly significant and important, but they do not fully explain progress on their own. According to him, equilibrium is also a constant, ever-changing interaction. A key foundation for current research on the formative brain remains Piaget's hypothesis of cognitive development. The primary point of his argument is affirmed rather than challenged by subsequent revelations.

#### *Cognitive Learning Theory and Development: Higher Education Case Study DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110629*

On the other hand, "reductionism" is a term only used to describe theories that alter how people behave. Many brain science research approaches fail to take into account all of the different factors that affect the human psyche and how we behave. Instead, they focus on just one aspect of understanding how the brain works. Individual differences are typically ignored in cognitive psychology, where it is assumed that all inner processing is consistent across individuals. This is reductionist because it ignores the influences of nature, the environment, or genetics on cognitive capacity.

Cognitive psychology studies cognitive cycles with a restricted focus. Because of the PC analogy, data handling specialists tend to focus primarily on the coherent components of information handling. They also tend to focus less on the deeper, innovative, and social facets that can also influence thinking. The field of cognitive psychology has often relied on correlations between the functioning of computers and the functioning of the human mind. Does the cerebrum function in this manner? In comparison to the most advanced computer, the human mind is infinitely more remarkable and adaptable.

Criticizing the cognitive approach, Burruhus Frederic Skinner [14] argues that only external stimulus-response behavior can be measured scientifically. Due to their inability to be observed and measured, mediation processes between stimulus and response cannot be observed. The mediation processes between stimulus and response cannot be observed or measured because they do not exist. He continues to explore problems with cognitive exploration techniques, especially thoughtfulness, due to its abstract and informal nature.

Behaviorists believe that children's brains are like a blank slate (tabula rasa) and are born without cognitive functions, such as schemas, memories, or perceptions. In determining behavior, the cognitive approach often overlooks physical (biological psychology) and environmental (behaviorism) factors. In addition to cognitive psychology, cognitive neuroscience and artificial intelligence (AI) have been influenced by and integrated with cognitive psychology.

## **14. Cognitive development of students in higher education**

In higher education institutions (HEIs), stakeholders perceive cognitive development in relation to intellectual capital (IC) and sustainable development (SD). In HEIs, two constructs (IC and SD) are related, especially through relational capital and structural capital [15]. Therefore, intellectual growth is influenced by the study environment, which is conducive to the development of intellectual ability.

Cognitive development is correlated with student learning approaches, but learners may develop cognitively differently in different environments. According to Zhang & Watkins [16], there was a reported difference in cognitive development among American and Chinese students. The study also demonstrated that extracurricular activities were positively related to cognitive development for both American and Chinese students. A stimulating learning environment and a focus on cognitive abilities result in improved academic performance. Among other factors, academic achievement is influenced by a student's ability to process information quickly, function in a visual-spatial environment, and calculate.

A key goal of education is to engage students with educational plans and encourage them to work intellectually. Engagement in cognitive activities involves working beyond the minimum requirements by putting thoughtful energy into the comprehension of complex ideas. In it, psychological investment is focused on learning, understanding, and mastering knowledge. An engaged student is capable of exceeding expectations and prefers challenges over requirements. Through this, students can expand their knowledge frontiers and develop meaningful and enduring academic commitments. Students' social and cognitive development is enhanced by engagement in the classroom. A student's engagement in higher education requires consideration of their potential to grow and motivation for development as distinctive characteristics. The development process is driven by the potential of an individual as a motivating value. To achieve creativity, a learner must develop, grow continuously, and engage in motivational-creative activities [17]. According to the five-dimensional model [18], five areas must be considered: (1) academic engagement, (2) cognitive engagement, (3) social engagement with peers, (4) social engagement with teachers, and (5) effective engagement. All these dimensions have high consistency. An undergraduate degree in pedagogical education has three components: (1) a value-based motivation component, (2) a cognitive component, and (3) a practical component. Therefore, by working on cognitive development through these engagements, a sufficient level of knowledge and skills can be developed in students of higher education institutions. A bachelor's degree is generally associated with competitiveness. This belief holds that knowledge (cognition) is the only competitive advantage that remains over time. For cognitive learning to take place, students' creativity must be developed. The perception of difficulty increases with the level of subjective memory dysfunction [19]. Further, speed and perceived difficulty correlate when a task is perceived as difficult. An individual's task and metacognition must be considered to examine the integrity of their information processing speed.

Besides other factors, students' cognitive development is also affected by dimensions of teaching effectiveness in higher education institutions [20]. There are two fundamental perceptions of students regarding instructors: clarity and organization. A combination of both aspects of learning is associated with enhanced outcomes. These outcomes include students' critical thinking skills, their propensity for lifelong learning, their academic motivation, their likelihood of completing their bachelor's degree, and their use of deep learning techniques [21]. From a pedagogical perspective, studentdirected learning [22, 23] involves students in the processes of collaboration, testing, creation, and directing their own learning. Students engage in active learning by writing, reading, discussing, evaluating, and creating. Therefore, students develop skills in cooperation and communication with peers in addition to participating in content development and knowledge building. The most efficient way to provide students with opportunities for cognitive development is through a student-directed learning strategy. Student-centered learning refers to the efforts of teachers to facilitate and design the learning process to engage students in their learning. Student-centered education focuses on developing problem-solving skills using complex and open-ended problems. Unlike traditional learning, problem-based learning involves students presenting their knowledge based on their understanding of course content and class participation.
