**4. Acknowledgment**

I thank the group of Professor Markus A Rüegg in the department of Neurobiology/Pharmacology in Basel, Switzerland, for collaboration on the AChR+ and MuSK+ EAMG mouse model, especially professor Rüegg for the scientific discussions, Dr Shuo Lin for the work on the muscle morphology and Filippo Oliveri for production of recombinant rat MuSK. Professor emeritus Erik V Stålberg is acknowledged for guiding and supporting the initial MG studies, for teaching me SFEMG, for the scientific discussions and for the great friendship. I genuinely thank my family for their never-ending love and support.

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**23** 

*Australia* 

**Vasoactive Neuropeptides** 

*1Faculty of Health Science and Medicine, Population* 

Donald R. Staines1,3 and Sonya M. Marshall-Gradisnik1,2

*2Faculty of Health Science and Medicine, Bond University, Robina, Queensland, 3Queensland Health, Gold Coast Population Health Unit, Southport, Queensland,* 

Neuropeptides are a class of regulatory peptides with effects in nearly all physiological systems and processes. They are important in facilitating neuroendocrine immune interatctions. Bi-directional communication between these two systems in both the central nervous system (CNS) and the periphery are arbitrated by the presence of these peptidergic innervations. These innervations interacting through unique ligand receptor binding complexes have immunomodulatory effects that preserve neuroendocrine and neuroimmune health. A vast majority of neuropeptides are contained within the lymphoid organs and these include calcitonin-gene-related peptide, somatostatin, glanin, neurokinin, substance P, neuropeptide Y and vasoactive neuropeptides (VNs) (Felten et al., 1987; Felten et al., 1992; Fink and Weihe, 1988; Nohr and Weihe, 1991; Weihe et al., 1991). The two most important VNs, associated with most neuro-immune disorders, are vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and pituitary adenylate cyclase activating peptide (PACAP). VNs are widespread throughout the mammalian body including areas such as central nervous system (CNS), peripheral nervous system (PNS) and other organs. They therefore perform a wide spectrum of activities in the body which are required for the regulation of physiological processes. A number of autoimmune disorders with compromises to physiological activities involving the neuroendocrine and immune systems have been shown to be associated with VNs, hence, VNs may have a role in the progression of these autoimmune disorders. Importantly, VIP and PACAP have G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) receptors. Binding and ligation of these receptors triggers GPCR reactions resulting in cAMP production. Downstream signalling activities of cAMP can either be advantageous or detrimental to neuroimmune homeostasis especially in diseased states. This chapter therefore examines the vital role of VIP and PACAP in the mechanism and progression of autoimmune disorders including Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA), Multiple Sclerosis (MS),

Alzheimer's Disease (AD), and Parkinson's Disease (PD).

**1. Introduction** 

**in Autoimmune Diseases** 

Ekua W. Brenu1,2, Lotti Tajouri1,2,

*Health and Neuroimmunology Unit, Bond* 

*University, Robina, Queensland,* 

