**4.1 Stakeholder involvement**

250 Biodiversity Loss in a Changing Planet

Table 4 shows the similarities in species composition between the different forest types and fragments. The highest similarity (77 %) was found between the cypress and pine forests in Chawia; the pine and cypress forests in Ngangao also showed a high species similarity (64%), which almost corresponded with the species diversity values found (11 and 13 species respectively). In Mbololo, the highest species similarity was 59% between the exotic forests of pine and cypress. The cypress forests in Mbololo were twice as diverse with 13 species as the eucalyptus forest and yet they shared a similarity of 50% species, the same as for these exotic forests in Chawia. The majority of the forests studied however, shared less than 30% of the species, while the forests which did not share any species were the eucalyptus forests in Mbololo and the native forests in Ngangao, as well as the eucalyptus

**3.4 Similarities of species regenerated at the three sites** 

Ngangao Chawia Mbololo

Table 4. Similarities(%) of species regenerated in four forest types (C=Cypress, E=Eucalyptus, P-Pine and N= Native) from the three forest fragments. Values in bold

Highest species similarities in the undergrowth of pine and cypress forests in Chawia and Ngangao observed were possibly because these forests were located close to each other. Thus, there were either similar seed dispersal mechanisms or the forests could have had similar soil seed banks. The complete absence of similar species in eucalyptus and native forests in Mbololo and Ngangao implies that the eucalyptus plantations cannot support similar regeneration of species as the native forests, especially if the stem density is high as indeed was the case in these eucalyptus forests. In general, the native forests in Mbololo shared a low species similarity with other forests. A possible explanation is the low level of disturbances in this forest which provided few opportunities for seedling recruitment except through dispersal and gap dynamics. *Ocotea usambarensis* which is extinct in some regions in East Africa49 and under threat in Tanzania50, was observed in the native forests of Mbololo with 94 stems, although it is also known to be present in Ngangao. *Coffea fadenii, a*  wild coffee species, was only found in Ngangao, indicating the relatively low levels of disturbances experienced by these two sites. In Mbololo, the pine forest had a higher effective number and Shannon-Weaver's index than the eucalyptus and cypress forests plots possibly because the pine forest was located in the middle of the native forest, while cypress

 C E P N C E P N C E P N Nga C 40 **64** 33 40 32 **52** 18 42 22 24 26 E 22 7 11 11 25 0 35 36 11 6 P 26 29 21 38 24 44 29 **50** 29 N 31 36 43 17 16 0 26 53 Cha C **50 77** 40 30 29 29 29 E **54** 48 37 10 29 29 P 35 32 21 38 35 N 25 11 32 21 Mbo C **50 59** 15 E 19 0 P 39

and native forests in Mbololo.

N

similarities from 50%

and eucalyptus had been planted at the edges.

Since the advent of the biological diversity convention of 1992, many countries have, as part of their global commitment to sustainable development, paid great attention to ecosystem conservation. Moreover, the realization that some vital biological resources are on the brink of extinction and yet they are vital for social and economic development reinforces the urgency for conservation. Similarly, due to the apparent loss of biodiversity and ecological functions in the forests of the Taita Hills and in many other forests in Kenya, a newly promulgated Forest Act51 provides several options for managing the forests, including those under threat such as the Taita Hills forests. These options include opportunities for stakeholders, particularly the local communities residing around these forests to participate in their management. As a result, Community Forest Associations have been formed for the different forest fragments in Taita Hills in preparation for their participatory management. Community involvement in management has already entailed participation in forest reforestation activities such as replanting with seedlings of native tree species in order to enhance the replacement of the exotic species. In areas outside the forests and on farms tree planting is being carried out so as to ease pressure off the forest. Scientific approach has been applied to facilitate the restoration by identifying suitable sites for planting. In particular, a GIS-based, least-cost modelling technique has been used to identify such sites52 and after integrating biological and socioeconomic data within the forest corridors46, a set of exotic plantations with highest priority for restoration activities have been identified by both the government and Non Governmental organizations that are active in the area. The choice of species planted is based on their potential to increase landscape connectivity or on their importance for conservation of critically endangered taxa, although with regard to soil characteristics of the forest fragments, any of the native species is suitable and can be used for restoration exercise53.

#### **Box 2. Community activities for restoration of forest biodiversity between two fragments**

Ngangao and Chawia forest fragments are being linked through a three-step reforestation plan. This includes forest enrichment, agricultural matrix enrichment through on-farm tree planting and conversion of exotic plantations to native forest. As native forest enrichment is being done, it is accompanied by gradual removal of exotic species from the canopy level to increase the light availability for the planted native tree seedlings and to allow faster recruitment of seedlings from the soil seed bank. Local initiatives to enhance these restorations activities include the establishment of tree nurseries to supply seedlings necessary for planting with native tree species (e.g. *Prunus africana*.) and farmer-friendly exotic trees (e.g. *Grevillea robusta*).

#### **4.2 Forest restoration and management for biodiversity enhancement**

Forest restoration can be enhanced by the presence of appropriate conditions, some of which include the following: placement of the plantations, edge effect, presence of gaps, seed dispersal mechanisms with mammals as dispersing agents and an existing soil seed bank. In most cases these factors work in tandem. In the study discussed here, fragments which showed some degree of disturbance (Chawia and Ngangao) had stronger edge effects since they were located in the middle of agricultural lands due to their fragmentation, this

Native Tree Species Regeneration and Diversity in the Mountain Cloud Forests of East Africa 253

The rich biodiversity of the indigenous forests of Taita Hills has been acknowledged by scientists for decades. The least disturbed native forests have a much higher diversity among the regenerating seedlings and saplings than in the most disturbed forest. In contrast the exotic forests in a highly disturbed fragment seemed to have the highest species biodiversity; an indication that in the absence of further disturbance and by avoiding replanting with exotic species, the forests may regain their diverse native status. Rehabilitation activities to restore the biodiversity of these forests have been initiated with the involvement of the local communities in which there are assisted regeneration efforts. The high species diversity and high abundance of native tree seedlings and saplings in the exotic plantations in the Taita Hills is very encouraging in terms of conservation efforts. At the highly disturbed site of Chawia, there was a high species diversity in the exotic forests which, with respect to restoration, requires no special management except for elimination of further disturbance. Regeneration was observed of 58 woody plant species with stem densities varying between 10 and 2000 trees per hectare. Marked differences in species diversity were observed between native and exotics forest types. The native forests showed a higher species diversity. Between the forest fragments however, the most disturbed fragment showed greater diversity than either Ngangao or Mbololo, an indication that more regeneration occurred in Chawia fragament than in the less disturbed forests of Mbololo and Ngangao. The implications from the study are that the native tree species diversity in the mountain cloud forests of East Africa is affected by the level of intensity of the disturbances, and in this area, if forest disturbance is properly regulated with regard to

forest type; there are possibilities for the original forest ecosystems to be restored.

uncollected. Ann. Missouri. Bot. Gardens. 87:67-71

loss and degradation. Unasylva 181, No. 46. pp. 43-49.

Mountain Research and Development: 15(3): 259-266.

living Resources. Chapman and Hall, London.

Forest Ecology and Management 81, 215-226.

International Development Agency. 34 p.

http://sedac.ciesin.org/entri/texts/biodiversity,1992.htm (accessed 22 April 2008)

[2] Prance, G.T., Beentje, H. Dransfield, J., Johns, R. 2000. The tropical flora remains

[3] World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1992. Global Diversity: Status of the Earth's

[4] FAO, 1993. Forest Resources Assessment 1990 - Tropical countries. FAO Forestry Paper

[6] Wilcox, B.A. 1995. Tropical forest resources and biodiversity: assessing the risks of forest

[7] Fimbel, R.A., C.A. Fimbel., 1995. The role of exotic conifer plantations in rehabilitating

[8] Dean P.B. and Trump, E.C. 1983. The Biotic Communities and Natural Regions of Kenya.

[9] Hamilton, L.S. 1995. Mountain Cloud forest conservation and Research: A synopsis.

degraded tropical forest lands: A case study from the Kibale forest in Uganda.

Wildlife Planning Unit, Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife and Canadiaon

[5] FAO. 2010. Global Forest Resource Assessment. FAO Foresrty paper 163. Rome

**5. Conclusions and recommendations** 

**6. References** 

[1] Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992.

No. 112. Rome.

possibly provided opportunities for increased movements of propagules54 by fauna from adjacent forest patches especially because high number of rodents and shrews have been reported particularly for the Chawia site55. Some of the exotic plantations (e.g. Ngangao) were established on denuded land which eliminated the possibility of the presence of soil seed bank and hence the relative differences in biodiversity observed.

The presence of gaps associated with disturbance is also important in forest ecosystem restoration. The differences in gaps observed at the different study sites showed that at the most disturbed fragement of Chawia, there were growths of secondary native species such as *T. stapfiana, M. lanceolat*a, and *P. reclinata*, which seemed to indicate that disturbance favoured their regeneration. Some studies have shown that forest disturbance does stimulate regeneration of species stipulated to be for intermediate succession stages 54,56.

Disturbances as observed in the forests, could have rendered them to be in early or represent a post-extraction and post-abandonment secondary stage45, even though some species associated with low disturbance such as *X. monospora, S. guinees* and *R. melanophloeos*57 were found in the most disturbed site of Chawia. This was possibly an indication of the presence of either seeds in the soil banks or efficient seed dispersals mechanisms. An unexpected observation, however, was the low number of pioneer species which would not be expected with the common presence of gaps in the forest canopy 58 and this was also noted by Rogers et al.59, *for M. conglomerate* in the native forests of the more disturbed Chawia fragment. This shows that the succession stage had been passed in Chawia and that the native forest had matured and therefore, phased out the pioneer species for the more shade tolerant species59.

The importance of the presence of soil seed bank is underscored by the observations made at the most disturbed site where, there was a higher regeneration of endemic species namely *Xymalos monospora Rapanea melanophloeos* and *Syzygium guineense* (Willd.) DC which are associated with lower levels of disturbance. This is an indication that a disturbed forest has an inherent potential to regenerate. Thus, without further disturbance the forest can restore itself. This trend has been observed in Nigeria where, a degraded forest recovered to its original status without further disturbances60. In the broader context, therefore, disturbance can be considered a key element of landscape diversity, and may be viewed as beneficial to properly functioning systems25,61. This would only occur if deliberate efforts are put in place to ensure that no further disturbances occur such as isolating the sites for restoration and eliminating anthropogenic activities which can create the undesired disturbances.

#### **4.3 Species selection**

In the study, there were few native species that regenerated in the exotic forest of the relatively less disturbed fragments of Mbololo and Ngangao. Two possible reasons were the stand densities and the inherent physiological characteristics of some of the exotic species. Stand densities in eucalyptus plantations in Ngangao and Mbololo were 2000 and 1103 stems per hacatare, respectively, while in Chawia it was only 706. The densities for pine at the former fragments were 843 and 485 respectively, compared to 235 for Chawia (Table 1). A possible consequence is not only the lack of light for regeneration in a high density stand but also effects of adaptation to particular geochemical characteristics of a given species have been attributed to the exotic species as well. In other studies elsewhere62 mulches from pine were found to inhibit the germination of seeds. It is thus plausible that the inherent physiological composition of some of these exotic species could not have favoured the regeneration of other species.

### **5. Conclusions and recommendations**

The rich biodiversity of the indigenous forests of Taita Hills has been acknowledged by scientists for decades. The least disturbed native forests have a much higher diversity among the regenerating seedlings and saplings than in the most disturbed forest. In contrast the exotic forests in a highly disturbed fragment seemed to have the highest species biodiversity; an indication that in the absence of further disturbance and by avoiding replanting with exotic species, the forests may regain their diverse native status. Rehabilitation activities to restore the biodiversity of these forests have been initiated with the involvement of the local communities in which there are assisted regeneration efforts. The high species diversity and high abundance of native tree seedlings and saplings in the exotic plantations in the Taita Hills is very encouraging in terms of conservation efforts. At the highly disturbed site of Chawia, there was a high species diversity in the exotic forests which, with respect to restoration, requires no special management except for elimination of further disturbance. Regeneration was observed of 58 woody plant species with stem densities varying between 10 and 2000 trees per hectare. Marked differences in species diversity were observed between native and exotics forest types. The native forests showed a higher species diversity. Between the forest fragments however, the most disturbed

fragment showed greater diversity than either Ngangao or Mbololo, an indication that more regeneration occurred in Chawia fragament than in the less disturbed forests of Mbololo and Ngangao. The implications from the study are that the native tree species diversity in the mountain cloud forests of East Africa is affected by the level of intensity of the disturbances, and in this area, if forest disturbance is properly regulated with regard to forest type; there are possibilities for the original forest ecosystems to be restored.

#### **6. References**

252 Biodiversity Loss in a Changing Planet

possibly provided opportunities for increased movements of propagules54 by fauna from adjacent forest patches especially because high number of rodents and shrews have been reported particularly for the Chawia site55. Some of the exotic plantations (e.g. Ngangao) were established on denuded land which eliminated the possibility of the presence of soil

The presence of gaps associated with disturbance is also important in forest ecosystem restoration. The differences in gaps observed at the different study sites showed that at the most disturbed fragement of Chawia, there were growths of secondary native species such as *T. stapfiana, M. lanceolat*a, and *P. reclinata*, which seemed to indicate that disturbance favoured their regeneration. Some studies have shown that forest disturbance does stimulate regeneration of species stipulated to be for intermediate succession stages 54,56. Disturbances as observed in the forests, could have rendered them to be in early or represent a post-extraction and post-abandonment secondary stage45, even though some species associated with low disturbance such as *X. monospora, S. guinees* and *R. melanophloeos*57 were found in the most disturbed site of Chawia. This was possibly an indication of the presence of either seeds in the soil banks or efficient seed dispersals mechanisms. An unexpected observation, however, was the low number of pioneer species which would not be expected with the common presence of gaps in the forest canopy 58 and this was also noted by Rogers et al.59, *for M. conglomerate* in the native forests of the more disturbed Chawia fragment. This shows that the succession stage had been passed in Chawia and that the native forest had matured and therefore, phased out the pioneer

The importance of the presence of soil seed bank is underscored by the observations made at the most disturbed site where, there was a higher regeneration of endemic species namely *Xymalos monospora Rapanea melanophloeos* and *Syzygium guineense* (Willd.) DC which are associated with lower levels of disturbance. This is an indication that a disturbed forest has an inherent potential to regenerate. Thus, without further disturbance the forest can restore itself. This trend has been observed in Nigeria where, a degraded forest recovered to its original status without further disturbances60. In the broader context, therefore, disturbance can be considered a key element of landscape diversity, and may be viewed as beneficial to properly functioning systems25,61. This would only occur if deliberate efforts are put in place to ensure that no further disturbances occur such as isolating the sites for restoration and

eliminating anthropogenic activities which can create the undesired disturbances.

In the study, there were few native species that regenerated in the exotic forest of the relatively less disturbed fragments of Mbololo and Ngangao. Two possible reasons were the stand densities and the inherent physiological characteristics of some of the exotic species. Stand densities in eucalyptus plantations in Ngangao and Mbololo were 2000 and 1103 stems per hacatare, respectively, while in Chawia it was only 706. The densities for pine at the former fragments were 843 and 485 respectively, compared to 235 for Chawia (Table 1). A possible consequence is not only the lack of light for regeneration in a high density stand but also effects of adaptation to particular geochemical characteristics of a given species have been attributed to the exotic species as well. In other studies elsewhere62 mulches from pine were found to inhibit the germination of seeds. It is thus plausible that the inherent physiological composition of some of these exotic species could not have favoured the

seed bank and hence the relative differences in biodiversity observed.

species for the more shade tolerant species59.

**4.3 Species selection** 

regeneration of other species.

[1] Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992.

http://sedac.ciesin.org/entri/texts/biodiversity,1992.htm (accessed 22 April 2008)


Native Tree Species Regeneration and Diversity in the Mountain Cloud Forests of East Africa 255

[29] Laurance, W.F., Nascimento, H.E.M., Laurance, S.G., Andrade, A., Ribeiro, J., Giraldo, J.P.,

[31] Scott, D.F., Lesch, W., 1997. Streamflow responses to afforestation with *Eucalyptus* 

[32] Senbeta, F., Teketay, D., Näslund, B-A., 2002. Native woody species regeneration in

[33] Loice M.A. Omoro, Petri Pellikka, Paul C. Rogers.2010. Tree species diversity, richness

Eastern Arc Mountains, Taita Hills, Kenya. *Journ. of For. Res 21(3):255-264.* [34] Githiru, M., Lens, L., Creswell, W., 2005. Nest predation in a fragmented Afrotropical

[35] USDA Forest Service, 2007. Field methods instructions for Phase 2 (Forest Inventory)

[36] Madoffe, S., Hertel, G.D., Rogers, P., O'Connell, B., & Killenga, R., 2006. Monitoring the

[37] Magurran, A.E., 1988. Ecological Diversity and Measurement. Princeton University

[38] Rogers, P.C., O´Connell, B., Mwangombe, J., Madoffe, S., Hertel, G., 2008. Forest health

[39] Magurran A.E., 1988. Ecological Diversity and its measurment. Princeton: Princeton

[40] Lou, J. 2006. Entropy and Diversity. Oikos 113(2), 363-375. Nordic Ecological Society;

[41] Liu and Nordheim.2006. Effects of Sampling andSpecies Abundance on the Bias and t

 http://cbe.wisc.edu/assets/docs/pdf/srp-bio/LiuLrevisedforweb.pdf accessed [42] Gaines, W.L., Harrod, R.J., Lehmkuhl, J.F., 1999. Monitoring Biodiversity:

Quantification and interpretation. USDA Forest Service. Pacific North-west

Surveys and suitability assessment of exotic plantations for restoration. A report

Ecology and Systems 13:201-228

Forests 24, 131-145.

2008].

171–177.

Press, Princeton.

April 2008).

Univeristy Press 192pp.

Blackwell Publishing.

South Africa. Journal of Hydrology 199:360-377.

change. Journal of East African Natural History.

test of theShannon-Weaver Diversity Index

Research Station. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-443.

[43] Krebs, C.J., 1989. Ecological methodology. New York, Harper and Row publishers. [44]Wandago, B., 2002. Realities and perspectives, Kenya country paper. In FAO/EC LNV/GTZ workshop proceedings on Tropical Secondary forest management in Africa. [45] Mwangombe, J., 2005. Restoration and increase of forest connectivity in Taita Hills:

Le Maitre, D.C., van Wilgen, B.W., Gelderblom, C.M., Bailey, C., Chapman, R.A., Nel, J.A., 2002. Invasive alien trees and water resources in South Africa: case studies of the costs and benefits of management. Forest Ecology and Management 160, 143–159. [30] Howe, H.F. and Smallwood J. 1982, Ecology of seed dispersal. Annual Review of

*grandis* and *Pinus patula* and to felling in the Mokobulaan experimental catchments,

exotic tree plantations at Munessa-Shashemene forest, Southern Ethiopia. New

and similarity between exotic and indgenous forest in the cloud mountains of

forest: evidence from natural and artificial nests. Biological Conservation 123, 189-196.

and Phase 3 (Forest Health) of the national Forest Inventory and Analysis program. Available at: *http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/fia/publications/fieldmanuals.shtml.* [Cited 8 Dec

health of selected Eastern Arc forests in Tanzania. African Journal of Ecology 44,

monitoring in the Ngangao forest, Taita Hills, Kenya: A five year assessment of

Danoff-burg, J., Xu, C., 2008. Measuring Biological Diversity. http://ww.columbia.edu/itc/cerc/dunoffburg/MBD/LINK.html (accessed 15


http://www.easterarc.org/org/html/bio.html (accessed 8 February 2008).


[10] Jaetzold, R., Schmidt, H., 1983. Farm Management Handbook of Kenya, Vol. II. East

[11] Lovett, J.C., 1993. Eastern Arc moist forest flora, In. J.C. Lovette and S.K.Wasser (eds.),

http://www.easterarc.org/org/html/bio.html (accessed 8 February 2008). [13] GEF, 2002. Project brief: conservation and management of the Eastern Arc mountain

[14] Myers, N. Mitterrmeir, R.A., Mittermeir, C.G., Da Fonseca, G.A.B. and Kent, J. 2000. Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403: 853-858.

[16] Lekasi JK, IV Sijali, P Gicheru, L Gachimbi & MK Nyagw´ara (2005). Agricultural

[17] Nina Himberg, Omoro, Loice, Pellikka Petri and Luukkanen Olavi. (2009) The benefits

[18] Beentje, H.J., 1988. An ecological and floristical study of the forests of the Taita Hills,

[22] Rogo, L., Oguge, N., 2000. The Taita Hills Forest Remnants: a disappearing world

[24] FA0.2009. Forest Resource Assessment. Case Studies on measuring and assessing forest

[25] Rogers, P.C. 1996. Distrubance ecology and forest management: a review of the

[26] Krishnaswamy, A., Hanson, A., 1999. Summary Report of the World Commission on

[27] Foley, J.A., Asner, G.P., Costa, M.H., Coe, M.T., DeFries, R., Gibbs, H.K., Howard, E.A.,

[28] Kremen, C., Williams, N.E., Aizen, M.A., Gemmill-Herren, B., LeBuhn, G., Minckley, R.,

literature. Ogden, UT: US.Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain

Olson, S., Patz, J., Ramankutty. N., Snyder, P. 2007. Amazonia revealed: forest degradation and loss of ecosystem goods and services in the Amazon Basin.

Packer, L., Potts, S.G., Roulston, T., Steffan-Dewenter, I., Vázquez, D.P., Winfree, R., Adams, L., Crone, E.E., Greenleaf, S.S., Keitt, T.H., Klein, A.-M, Regetz, J., Ricketts, T.H., 2007. Pollination and other ecosystem services produced by mobile organisms: a conceptual framework for the effects of land-use change. Ecology Letters 10, 299-314.

[19] Collins, M., Clifton M., 1984. Threatened wildlife in the Taita Hills. Swara 7, 10-14. [20] IUCN. 2002. The 2002 Red list of threatened species . IUCN, Cambridge and Gland. [21] Pellikka, P.,Lötjönen,M Siljander, M & Lens, L. 2009. Airborne remote sensing of

Geoinformation 11(4):221-232. DOI: 10.1016/j.jag.2009.02.002

[23] Hardin, G. 1968. Tragedy of the Commons. Science, 162:1243-1248.

Ecological Society of America, ESA online Journal 5, 25-32.

degradation. Working paper No. 16. Rome

Research Station; INT-GTR-336. 16

Forest and Sustainable Development.

Report No. 10. Kenya Agricultural Research Institute. Nairobi.

Biogeography and Ecology of Eastern African. Cambridge University Press, pp 33-35.

http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/Pages/default.aspx (accessed 23 November

productivity and sustainable land management project report on participatory rapid appraisal for Wusi Sub-location in the Taita Hills catchment. SLM Technical

and constraints of participation in forest conservation. The case of Taita Hills,

spatiotemporal change (1955-2004) in native and exotic forest cover in the Taita Hills, Kenya. International Journal of Applied Earth Observations and

Kenya. Ministry of Agriculture, Kenya.

[12] EAWLS, 2001. The Taita Biodiversity Conservation Project.

forests, Tanzania, GEF Arusha, Tanzania.

[15] Conservation International, 2005. Biodiversity hotspots.

Kenya. *Fennia* 187:1, pp 61-76.

heritage. Ambio 29, 522-523.

Kenya. Utafiti 1, 23-66.

2008)

	- http://ww.columbia.edu/itc/cerc/dunoffburg/MBD/LINK.html (accessed 15 April 2008).

http://cbe.wisc.edu/assets/docs/pdf/srp-bio/LiuLrevisedforweb.pdf accessed


**12** 

Monika Kopecka

*Slovakia* 

**Destruction of the Forest Habitat in** 

The dynamically changing land cover configuration and its impact on biodiversity have aroused interest in the study of deforestation and its consequences. Deforestation is generally considered to be one of the most serious threats to biological diversity. Awareness of how different deforestation patterns influence habitat quality of forest patches is essential

The overall effect of deforestation on the forest patch depends on its size, shape and

External deforestation that starts outside and cuts into the forest patch, including

Forest fragmentation is one of the most frequently cited causes of species extinction making it a crucial contemporary conservation issue. The classic view of a habitat fragmentation is the breaking up a large intact area of a single vegetation type into smaller landscape units or simply the disruption of continuity (Fahrig, 2003; Lord & Norton, 1990). This process represents a transition from being whole to being broken into two or more distant pieces. The outcome is landscape composed of fragments (e. g. forest) with something else (the nonforest matrix) between the fragments. Fragmentation of biotopes affects several ecological functions of landscape, first of all the spatial distribution of selected plant and animal species and associations (Bruna & Kress; 2002, Kurosawa & Askins, 2003; Parker et al., 2005). Fragments of original biotopes with reduced area and increased isolation are not capable of securing suitable conditions for life and reproduction of some organisms. Consequences of fragmentation include the species biodiversity decline, functional changes in ecological processes, for instance disruption of trophic chains (Valladares et al., 2006), and genetic

The history of research focused on the fragmentation consequences reaches to the 1960s when the theory of insular biogeography was published (MacArthur & Wilson, 1963, as cited in Faaborg et al., 1993). The basis of this theory is the recognition that the smaller and more dispersed islands, the lower number of species is capable to find suitable conditions for their permanent existence. However, the phenomenon is not limited only to islands in the geographic sense. As Madera and Zimová (2004) report similar problems were also

location. Zipperer (1993) identified the following types of the deforestation pattern: Internal deforestation that starts in the forest patch and progresses outwardly;

**1. Introduction** 

for efficient landscape–ecological management.

indentation, cropping and removal;

Fragmentation when the patch is split into smaller parcels.

changes in organisms (Cunningham & Moritz 1998; Gibbs, 2001).

**the Tatra National Park, Slovakia** 

*Institute of Geography, Slovak Academy of Sciences* 

www.cepf.net/xp/static/pdfs/Final\_EAWLS\_TaitaHills.pdf (Accessed 15th April, 2008).

