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152 Biodiversity Loss in a Changing Planet

One of the key aspects that have limited the effectiveness of FPAs against ecosystem degradation, especially in rivers and streams, is that many of the stressors affecting these systems come from diverse, non-point sources upstream from critical habitat and threatened populations. The success of localized protected areas or catchment management strategies can be limited due to the large scale connection of aquatic ecosystems with terrestrial activities, especially where streams with their longitudinal connectivity are concerned (Saunders et al., 2000). Therefore, many researchers have pointed out the need for catchment-scale protection for threatened freshwater ecosystems that truly limit the impacts to sensitive areas (Abell et al., 2007; Dudgeon et al., 2006; Heino et al., 2009). Although there has been little published data on freshwater mussels and protected areas, some researchers have noted the possibility of refuges for some species (Ricciardi et al., 1998; Saunders et al., 2002), and preservation and protection of critical mussel habitat has the potential to

Naturally reproducing unionid populations can take decades to recover after severe and prolonged disturbances. As mentioned earlier, mussels are dependent on critical densities to facilitate successful reproduction (Downing et al., 1993), and many areas where unionids have been extirpated lack access to restocking populations (Strayer et al., 2004). In these situations, artificially stocking mussels can help restore populations and eventually enable them to become self-sustaining (Strayer et al., 2004). Mussel relocation and reintroduction have been met with varying levels of success, mostly due to lack of knowledge of specific habitat requirements and handling techniques (Cope and Waller, 1995). Many successful propagation techniques have also been developed over the last few years (Barnhart, 2006; Henley et al., 2001), and although field trials of lab-reared mussels are limited, artificial propagation techniques hold much promise to enhance unionid populations in the future, provided the degraded environmental conditions that caused the decline in the first place

The loss of biodiversity across biomes and habitats has direct and profound implications for human populations around the world (Sala et al., 2000). The functioning of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems is dependent on the diversity of their constituent organisms (Covich et al., 2004; Kinzig et al., 2002; Loreau et al., 2001), and the dependence of humans on these ecosystem services makes protecting and restoring biodiversity a priority for both the present and future generations. Freshwater ecosystems have received less consideration from the public and researchers, despite the critical linkages between freshwater systems and human well-being (Aylward et al., 2005; Costanza et al., 1997; Jackson et al., 2001). It is clear that through our actions we are degrading and damaging our freshwater ecosystems beyond their abilities to recover (Allan and Flecker, 1993; Dudgeon et al., 2006; Richter et al., 1997; Strayer and Dudgeon, 2010), and continuing these unsustainable activities puts all the

Freshwater unionid mussels are an often-overlooked part of freshwater biodiversity, and one that is the most threatened (Ricciardi and Rasmussen, 1999; Williams et al., 1993). Unionids are key components to their ecosystems, carrying out many important ecological functions (McCall et al., 1995; Strayer et al., 1999; Vaughn and Hakencamp, 2001) and influencing the diversity of benthic communities (Aldridge et al., 2006; Gutierrez et al., 2003; Spooner and Vaughn, 2006). Their unique reproduction strategy, feeding behaviors, specific

significantly aid in the recovery of unionids.

are corrected.

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**7** 

*México* 

**Effects of Climate Change** 

*Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla* 

**in Amphibians and Reptiles** 

Saúl López-Alcaide1 and Rodrigo Macip-Ríos2

*1Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México 2Instituto de Ciencias de Gobierno y Desarrollo Estratégico,* 

During the past decade it has been documented that the average of earth temperature increased 6 °C in a period of 100 years. The higher amount of this phenomenon has been recorded between 1910 and 1945 and, from 1976 to present date (Jones, 1999; Kerr, 1995; Oechel et al., 1994; Thomason, 1995). From 1976 to present the temperature rising has been the faster recorded in the last 10,000 years (Jones et al., 2001; Taylor, 1999; Walther et al., 2002), and this caused the maximum daily temperature increase in the southern hemisphere (Easterling et al., 2000), as well as a significant temperature increase in the tropical forest areas (Barnett et al., 2005; Houghton et al., 2001; Santer et al., 2003; Stott, 2003). According to projections, the average temperature of earth may increase up to 5.8 °C (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPCC, 2007) at the end of current century, which actually represents and enormous

Although the historical data describes a changing climate during the last 350 million years of amphibians and reptiles history (Duellman & Trueb, 1985), the abrupt rising of the temperature during the last century could have a great impact on ectotherm organisms, which depend of environmental temperature to achieve physiological operative body temperatures (Walter et al., 2002; Zachos et al., 2001). Thus, the accelerated grow of earth temperature could affect physiological, reproductive, ecological, behavioral, and distribution traits among amphibians and reptiles (Cleland et al., 2006; Dorcas et al., 2004; Pough, 2001; Gvozdik & Castilla, 2001). In this context, a review of the published studies is necessary to evaluate and summarize the evidence of climate change effects in amphibians and reptiles. This review should provide an overview that should be helpful for researches, students, and policy makers, in order to address how climate change affects amphibians and

Due to the available published information are not equal for amphibians and reptiles, the present chapter are divided in two: amphibians and reptiles. In each chapter subdivision a physiological, reproductive, and distribution effects are issued as long as information was available. Additional information in amphibians such as synergic effects of environmental factors due climate change, and evolutionary adaptations are addressed. At the end of the chapter a conclusion section is added in order to summarize the most important trends

threat for biodiversity (Mc Carty, 2001; Parmesan & Yohe, 2003).

reptiles, and the possible responses of these organisms to climate change.

**1. Introduction** 

addressed in this review.

