**3. Changes in forest fragmentation**

### **3.1 Methodology**

An important aspect of fragmentation is the scope and structure of fragments (shape, size, spatial arrangement and the like). These spatial parameters can be assessed using several quantitative methods (D΄Eon et al., 2002; Keitt et al., 1997; Kopecká & Nováček, 2008; McGarigal& Marks, 1995; Riitters, 2005; Ritters et al., 2002). In the study of Kummerle et al. (2006), authors used satellite data and compiled land cover maps followed by computation of fragmentation indexes in the boundary regions of Poland, Slovakia and Ukraine. However, actual and reliable information about the land cover and its changes are important input data for any forest fragmentation assessment.

In the early 1990s, the CORINE Land Cover (CLC) database became an essential source of land cover information in the project concerning the majority of the EC countries as well as the PHARE partner countries from Central and Eastern Europe. Standard methodology and nomenclature of 44 classes were applied to mapping and generation of the database in 1:100,000 scale using the 25 ha minimal mapping unit (Feranec & Oťaheľ 2001). The need of updated databases became the impulse for realization of the CLC2000 and CLC2006 projects. All participating countries used a standardized technology and nomenclature to ensure the compatibility of results for the environmental analysis, landscape evaluation and changes. An example of cartographic expression of qualitative changes in forest fragmentation in the selected study area on the regional level related to the years 2000 and 2006 that are based on CLC data assessment is offered here. The applied methodological procedure makes it possible not only to quantify the scope of forest diminishment but also to detect qualitative changes in forest biotopes that survive in the study area.

CLC 2000 and CLC 2006 data layers were used as the input data in the process of forest fragmentation assessment. With the aim to assess the degree of forest fragmentation in the selected model territory, the methodology presented by Vogt et al. (2007) was applied. In the process of morphological image analysis we used the Landscape Fragmentation tool (LFT) developed by Parent and Hurd (2008). LFT is able to perform the fragmentation analysis to

It also damaged the natural undergrowth and artificially restored growth on an area amounting to about 13 hectares. It was additional factor that contributed to the significant

An important aspect of fragmentation is the scope and structure of fragments (shape, size, spatial arrangement and the like). These spatial parameters can be assessed using several quantitative methods (D΄Eon et al., 2002; Keitt et al., 1997; Kopecká & Nováček, 2008; McGarigal& Marks, 1995; Riitters, 2005; Ritters et al., 2002). In the study of Kummerle et al. (2006), authors used satellite data and compiled land cover maps followed by computation of fragmentation indexes in the boundary regions of Poland, Slovakia and Ukraine. However, actual and reliable information about the land cover and its changes are

In the early 1990s, the CORINE Land Cover (CLC) database became an essential source of land cover information in the project concerning the majority of the EC countries as well as the PHARE partner countries from Central and Eastern Europe. Standard methodology and nomenclature of 44 classes were applied to mapping and generation of the database in 1:100,000 scale using the 25 ha minimal mapping unit (Feranec & Oťaheľ 2001). The need of updated databases became the impulse for realization of the CLC2000 and CLC2006 projects. All participating countries used a standardized technology and nomenclature to ensure the compatibility of results for the environmental analysis, landscape evaluation and changes. An example of cartographic expression of qualitative changes in forest fragmentation in the selected study area on the regional level related to the years 2000 and 2006 that are based on CLC data assessment is offered here. The applied methodological procedure makes it possible not only to quantify the scope of forest diminishment but also

CLC 2000 and CLC 2006 data layers were used as the input data in the process of forest fragmentation assessment. With the aim to assess the degree of forest fragmentation in the selected model territory, the methodology presented by Vogt et al. (2007) was applied. In the process of morphological image analysis we used the Landscape Fragmentation tool (LFT) developed by Parent and Hurd (2008). LFT is able to perform the fragmentation analysis to

Fig. 6. Fire of 2005 damaged 230 ha of forest biotopes (Photo: P. Barabáš)

fragmentation of forest in the Tatra National Park.

important input data for any forest fragmentation assessment.

to detect qualitative changes in forest biotopes that survive in the study area.

**3. Changes in forest fragmentation** 

**3.1 Methodology** 

clasify a land cover type of interest into four main fragmentation components. Although originally intended for forest fragmentation analysis, the LFT is also aplicable to any land cover type of interest.

CLC data layers are accessible in vector format. For the identification of forest fragmentation, conversion of LFT into the raster format was needed. The preparatory steps consisted of data selection for the model territory and their conversion to the grid reclassification of classes. The module *Polygrid* with 25 m cell size was used for the conversion of the vector format to raster – grid. Cell size was opted taking into account the fact that in interpretation of land cover the LANDSAT 4 TM a LANDSAT 7 ETM satellite images with the resolution capacity of 25 m were used.

As the LFA tool requires a 3 class land cover map as an input, it was necessary to aggregate land cover classes in order to discern forest and other than forest areas, i.e. to reclassify land cover classes so that the grids input into the analysis contains the following values:


Forest is classified into four main fragmentation components: *patch, edge*, *perforated*, and *core* (Fig.7). 'Core forest' is relatively far from the forest/non-forest boundary and 'patch forest' comprises coherent forest regions that are too small to contain core forest. 'Perforated forest' defines the boundaries between the core forest and relatively small perforations, and 'edge forest' includes the interior boundaries with relatively large perforations as well as the exterior boundaries of the core forest regions.

Fig. 7. Illustration of four types of spatial pattern on an artificial map (Vogt et al., 2007)

The forest area classification is based on a specified edge width (Parent & Hurd 2008). The edge width indicates the distance over which other land covers (i.e. urban) can degrade forest. The core pixels are outside the "edge effect" and thus are not degraded from

Destruction of the Forest Habitat in the Tatra National Park, Slovakia 267

2000 2006 Change 2000 - 2006

fabric 58 37,99 58 38,44 0 0,45

commercial units 9 6,01 10 6,26 1 0,25 124 Airports 1 1,53 1 1,53 0 0

sites 1 1,26 1 1,26 0 0 133 Construction sites 0 0 5 2,36 5 2,36

facilities 13 10,07 13 10,26 0 0,19

land 34 278,02 36 275,01 2 -3,01

plantations 1 0,07 1 0,07 0 0 231 Pastures 92 128,49 91 126,98 -1 -1,51

pattern 18 18,04 18 18,04 0 0

**311 Broad-leaved forest** 6 3,46 6 3,46 0 **0 312 Coniferous forest** 26 492,66 36 373,45 10 **-119,21 313 Mixed forest** 26 20,01 24 18,01 -2 **-2**  321 Natural grassland 27 81,43 27 81,43 0 0 322 Moors and heathland 38 91,11 38 91,11 0 0

woodland/shrubs 79 51,52 82 174,28 3 122,76 332 Bare rocks 7 60,96 7 60,96 0 0

412 Peatbogs 1 0,56 1 0,56 0 0 511 Water courses 2 1,42 2 1,42 0 0 512 Water bodies 1 0,01 1 0,01 0 0

Number of polygons

Total class area (km2)

69 34,42 69 34,14 0 -0,28

40 40,7 40 40,7 0 0

Number of polygons

Total class area (km2)

Total class area (km2)

Number of polygons

CLC class\*

121 Industrial or

112 Discontinuous urban

131 Mineral extraction

142 Sport and leisure

211 Non-irrigated arable

222 Fruit trees and berry

242 Complex cultivation

243 Land principally occupied by agriculture with significant areas of natural vegetation

324 Transitional

areas

333 Sparsely vegetated

\* CLC classes are described in Feranec & Oťaheľ (2001). Table 1. CORINE land cover classes on the study area

proximity to other land cover types. Edge and perforated pixels occur along the periphery of tracts containing core pixels. Edge pixels make up the exterior peripheries of the tracts whereas perforated pixels make up the interior edges along small gaps in tracts. Patch pixels make up small fragments that are completely degraded by the edge effect.

Changes in forest fragmentation were further assessed according to the following types:


According to experts, the fraze *habitat fragmentation* should be only used in connection with particular plant and animal species regarding the definition of the *habitat*. Franklin et al. (2002) stress that although the notion of *habitat* in connection with a particular species often represents a particular vegetation type, for instance forest interior which can satisfy all ecological demands of the particular species, in many cases it is a combination of several vegetation types (for instance a meadow and a forest while forest provides the living space and the meadow satisfies the reproductive needs of the species). Regarding the above-said, it should be emphasized that CLC databases make it possible to assess fragmentation of selected land cover classes (for instance forest fragmentation) not fragmentation of stands or biotopes of particular species. Another problem in assessment of biotope fragmentation is the fact that the division of the selected area affects species in a different way. Franklin et. al. (2002) use the example of narrow road that can cause fragmentation of the biotope of amphibians but would not alter that of birds of pray. For this reason, the cited authors consider indispensable to define the hierarchic level where the fragmentation is assessed. Fragmentation on the supranational level affects spatial distribution of individual populations, fragmentation on the regional level influences dynamics of population and that on the local level modifies living conditions and reproduction of particular individuals. CLC databases regarding the minimum size of the mapped area (25 ha) makes it possible to assess fragmentation on the regional level.

#### **3.2 Results**

Between 1990 and 2000, land cover in the Tatra National Park was relatively stable (Kopecká & Nováček, 2008, 2010). Recorded landscape changes were particularly connected with changes of abandoned agricultural land (pastures, arable land) into woodland scrub and with changes of transitional woodland scrub into forest by natural development. In the period 2000-2006, a remarkable decrease of forestland in the study area was recorded. Decrease of the area of the CLC forest classes (classes 311, 312 and 313) on land cover maps from 2000 and 2006 was connected with an increased number of transitional woodland/shrubs polygons (CLC class 324, see Table 1). This land cover type is represented by the young wood species that are planted after clear-cuts or after calamities of any origin, forest nurseries and stages of the natural development of forest (Feranec & Oťaheľ 2001).

The change of forest into transitional woodland indicates a temporary fragmentation with possible forest regeneration. On the other hand, forest destruction in the National Park facilitated the development of travel and tourism (new hotels, ski parks, etc.). An increased number of construction sites (CLC class 133) indicate that urban sprawl associated with permanent forest fragmentation can be expected in future.

proximity to other land cover types. Edge and perforated pixels occur along the periphery of tracts containing core pixels. Edge pixels make up the exterior peripheries of the tracts whereas perforated pixels make up the interior edges along small gaps in tracts. Patch pixels

Type 3: Discontinuous forest changed into non-forest (Patch, Perforated and Edge in

According to experts, the fraze *habitat fragmentation* should be only used in connection with particular plant and animal species regarding the definition of the *habitat*. Franklin et al. (2002) stress that although the notion of *habitat* in connection with a particular species often represents a particular vegetation type, for instance forest interior which can satisfy all ecological demands of the particular species, in many cases it is a combination of several vegetation types (for instance a meadow and a forest while forest provides the living space and the meadow satisfies the reproductive needs of the species). Regarding the above-said, it should be emphasized that CLC databases make it possible to assess fragmentation of selected land cover classes (for instance forest fragmentation) not fragmentation of stands or biotopes of particular species. Another problem in assessment of biotope fragmentation is the fact that the division of the selected area affects species in a different way. Franklin et. al. (2002) use the example of narrow road that can cause fragmentation of the biotope of amphibians but would not alter that of birds of pray. For this reason, the cited authors consider indispensable to define the hierarchic level where the fragmentation is assessed. Fragmentation on the supranational level affects spatial distribution of individual populations, fragmentation on the regional level influences dynamics of population and that on the local level modifies living conditions and reproduction of particular individuals. CLC databases regarding the minimum size of the mapped area (25 ha) makes it possible to

Between 1990 and 2000, land cover in the Tatra National Park was relatively stable (Kopecká & Nováček, 2008, 2010). Recorded landscape changes were particularly connected with changes of abandoned agricultural land (pastures, arable land) into woodland scrub and with changes of transitional woodland scrub into forest by natural development. In the period 2000-2006, a remarkable decrease of forestland in the study area was recorded. Decrease of the area of the CLC forest classes (classes 311, 312 and 313) on land cover maps from 2000 and 2006 was connected with an increased number of transitional woodland/shrubs polygons (CLC class 324, see Table 1). This land cover type is represented by the young wood species that are planted after clear-cuts or after calamities of any origin, forest nurseries and stages of the natural development of forest (Feranec & Oťaheľ 2001). The change of forest into transitional woodland indicates a temporary fragmentation with possible forest regeneration. On the other hand, forest destruction in the National Park facilitated the development of travel and tourism (new hotels, ski parks, etc.). An increased number of construction sites (CLC class 133) indicate that urban sprawl associated with

Changes in forest fragmentation were further assessed according to the following types: Type 1: Continuous forest changed into discontinuous forest (Core in forest fragmentation map from 2000 changed into Patch, Perforated or Edge in 2006) Type 2: Continuous forest changed into non-forest (Core in forest fragmentation map

make up small fragments that are completely degraded by the edge effect.

from 2000 changed into Fragmenting land cover in 2006)

2000 changed into Fragmenting land cover in 2006)

assess fragmentation on the regional level.

permanent forest fragmentation can be expected in future.

**3.2 Results** 


\* CLC classes are described in Feranec & Oťaheľ (2001).

Table 1. CORINE land cover classes on the study area

Destruction of the Forest Habitat in the Tatra National Park, Slovakia 269

Fig. 8 and Table 2 demonstrate the decrease of the compact forest areas (Forest core) in 2000 and 2006. On the other side, an increased percentage of disrupted forest areas was observed. Pursuing the applied methodology, these areas were classified as Perforated Forest, Forest

 2000 2006 Change 1990-2006 Fragmentation component km2 % km2 % km2 % Patch forest 0,964 0,07 0,632 0,05 -0,332 -0,02 Perforated forest 1,646 0,12 1,689 0,12 0,043 0 Edge forest 129,891 9,56 116,652 8,58 -13,239 -0,98 Core forest 357,930 26,32 275,952 20,29 -81,978 -6,03 Non fragmenting land cover 63,695 4,68 62,931 4,63 -0,764 -0,05 Fragmenting land cover 805,635 59,25 901,905 66,33 96,27 7,08 Total 1359,761 100,00 1359,761 100,00 0 0

The assessment of different types of forest fragmentation (Fig. 9) showed, that the change of continuous forest into the non-forest area was dominant (61%). Discontinuous Forest changed into non-forest area amounted to 22% of the changed territory and the percentage

Fig. 9. Map of changes in forest fragmentation in 2000–2006 (Kopecká & Nováček, 2010)

Patches and Forest Edge fragmentation components.

Table 2. Changes in forest fragmentation in the period 2000 - 2006

of continuous forest changed into discontinuous forest was 17%.

Fig. 8. Forest fragmentation in Tatra region in a/ 2000, b/2006 (Kopecká & Nováček, 2010)

(b)

(a)

(b)

Fig. 8. Forest fragmentation in Tatra region in a/ 2000, b/2006 (Kopecká & Nováček, 2010)

Fig. 8 and Table 2 demonstrate the decrease of the compact forest areas (Forest core) in 2000 and 2006. On the other side, an increased percentage of disrupted forest areas was observed. Pursuing the applied methodology, these areas were classified as Perforated Forest, Forest Patches and Forest Edge fragmentation components.


Table 2. Changes in forest fragmentation in the period 2000 - 2006

The assessment of different types of forest fragmentation (Fig. 9) showed, that the change of continuous forest into the non-forest area was dominant (61%). Discontinuous Forest changed into non-forest area amounted to 22% of the changed territory and the percentage of continuous forest changed into discontinuous forest was 17%.

Fig. 9. Map of changes in forest fragmentation in 2000–2006 (Kopecká & Nováček, 2010)

Destruction of the Forest Habitat in the Tatra National Park, Slovakia 271

similar conditions possible so that they were comparable in terms of properties and features

Tabular synthesis confirmed 10 types of phytocenoses, mostly secondary, identifiable in the calamity area by mere visual observation (Fig. 11). They are: 1*. Calamagrostis villosa,* 2*. Chamerion angustifolium,* 3*. Calluna vulgaris,* 4*. Vaccinium myrtillus,* 5*. Avenella flexuosa,* 6*. Picea abies*, 7*. Sphagnum magellanicum,* 8*. Carex rostrata,* 9*. Juncus effusus,* and *10. Veronica officinalis*  (Olšavská et al., 2009). Humid substrates are colonized by phytocenoses with the dominating species of *Sphagnum magellanicum* and *Carex rostrata.* The second type of phytocenose is that of associations with increased share of types requiring the higher N level: *Chamaerion angustifolium* and *Veronica officinalis.* Associations with the dominant *Calamagrostis villosa*, are the one most frequent and they form a distinct mosaic along with overgrowths of *Chamaerion angustifolium,* in burnt down places. In future it is expected that *Chamaerion angustifolium*, will be pushed out by *Calamagrostis villosa.* Associations of *Lariceto-Picetum* especially *Vaccinium myrtillus, Avenella flexuosa, Picea abies* and the type of *Calluna* 

*vulgaris,* bound to the most acid soil represent the climax stage of forest.

Fig. 11. Natural revitalization of the damaged area (Photo: M. Kopecká)

Some species may be perfectly capable of surviving in a remnant forest many others may not. A forest patch is not the same as a piece of original forest: edge effects may now encroach or even traverse the whole patch. For example, Repel (2008) analysed the breeding bird assemblage structure; nesting, foraging and migrating guilds; bird and habitat

of the forest ecosystem (Fleischer & Matejka, 2009).

The negative effects on forest biotopes increased when the fallen and broken trees were removed by heavy machinery in order to prevent the large-scale bark-beetle damage. Despite of this, bark beetles destroyed more than 1,700,000 trees before the year 2010 (Fig. 10). This forest habitat changes were not included in the fragmentation analysis based on CLC 2006.

Fig. 10. Bark beetle calamity followed after the windfall (Photo: P. Barabáš)
