**2.4 Epidemiology in vineyard**

Black aspergilli are affected by several factors in the vine environment, i.e., grape status , the number of damaged grape berries, meteorological conditions, vineyard location, the cropping system as well as chemical treatments (Battilani et al., 2003b, 2006; Belli et al., 2005; 2007a; Blesa et al*.,* 2006; Clouvel et al., 2008; Hocking et al., 2007; Leong et al., 2006). Generally fungi have been detected in vineyards and on grapes from setting. However, grape aspergilli increase gradually, reaching their maximum values at the beginning of veraison and ripening (Battilani et al., 2002). As *Aspergillus* species are not considered primary pathogens, various grape damage, such as attack by other fungi or mechanical injury, dramatically increases the risk of fungal infection by these species and OTA contamination (Serra et al., 2006; Belli et al., 2007b). However, grape damage due to insects, birds or other fungal infections, is the primary factor affecting the development of the disease and OTA accumulation in grapes (Cozzi et al., 2006).

Some Australian studies have demonstrated that vineyard soil at a depth of 0–5 cm beneath the vines is the primary reservoir of black aspergilli (Clarke et al., 2003; Kazi et al. 2004; Leong et al. 2006). Concentrations were also higher in the soil directly beneath the vines compared to the inter-row area. It is postulated that air movement deposits spores from the soil onto the grapes berry surfaces, because BA spores in air samples were higher closer to

Mycoflora and Biodiversity of Black Aspergilli in Vineyard Eco-Systems 265

Fungi belonging to *Aspergillus* spp. were present in all the sampled matrices from the pea stage and they were predominant to *Penicillium* spp. from early veraison to ripening. Fungi from 6 genera were isolated on grapes at the ripening stage in eight different vineyards

Population densities of *Aspergillus* spp. in grape wash water ranged between 4.5 x 103 and

The most frequent *Penicillium* species isolated from the vineyard eco-system were *P. chrysogenum*, *P. expansum* and *P.olsonii* (Tab. 2). *P. verrucosum* was isolated from only one soil sample. Among the *Aspergillus* species, the most frequent were from section *Nigri*; the level

0 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V7 V8

Fig. 2. Population composition (%) detected in 8 vineyards (V1-V8) from 20 grape samples,

of contamination by *A. ochraceus* and *A. flavus* was low.

(Fig. 2).

1.2 x 104 cfu ml-1.

*Rhizopus* spp.

*Penicillium* spp.

*Cladosporium* spp.

*Botrytis* spp.

*Aspergillus* spp.

*Alternaria* spp.

during the ripening stage and over a 2-year survey.

the soil (Kazi et al., 2003a). Soil temperature could also affect the incidence of *A. carbonarius* in the soil; the optimal temperature for spore survival was around 25 °C, with counts decreasing at 15 °C and 35°C. Survival at 40 °C was poor (Kazi et al., 2003b, 2004).

 Agronomic practices and biological and chemical treatments have been found to reduce BA colonization and OTA levels in grapes and grape-derived products (reviewed in Varga & Kozakiewicz, 2006).
