**4. Conclusion**

268 The Dynamical Processes of Biodiversity – Case Studies of Evolution and Spatial Distribution

MPVCT 158 MPVCT 170 MPVCT 190

MUCL 29039 \*

*A. niger*

*A. tubingensis*

*A. carbonarius*

MPVCT 193 MPVCT 164 MPVCT 174 MPVCT 162 MPVCT 178 MPVCT 182 MPVCT 198 MPVCT 201 MPVCT 184 MPVCT 185 MPVCT 188 MPVCT 189

MPVCT 191 MPVCT 195 MUCL 1981 \*

MPVCT: Micothèque of Institute of Plant Pathology, University of Catania, Italy; USA; MUCL:

Fig. 4. UPGMA dendrogram obtained from fAFLP analysis with the selective primer pair E-AT (Cy5-labelled) and M-CT on 17 isolates (10 *A. niger*, 3 *A. tubingensis,* 4 *A. carbonarius*) and 2 reference strains isolated from grape samples in the same vineyard. Fragments between 50

European countries (Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, Greece and Israel) and the four main groups were obtained by AFLP clustering analysis of the strains, three of them showing a well-defined homogeneous population/species with intraspecific homology higher than 48%: *A.carbonarius*, *A. tubingensis* and *Aspergillus* 'uniseriate'. The fourth cluster, called *A. niger* 'like', showed low homology with *A. niger* 'type strain' and high internal heterogeneity. The intra-population variability of *Aspergillus* Section *Nigri* strains isolated

Micothèque de L'Universitè Catholique de Lovain, Belgium

and 600 bp were analysed with PHYLIP® v. 3.66 software

\* Reference strains

This chapter summarizes data on grape mycoflora, toxigenic fungi and mycotoxin contamination at the pre-harvesting, harvesting and processing stages. Grape rotting and spoilage can be caused by a variety of fungal species, including *Botrytis cinerea*, *Penicillium*, *Aspergillus*, *Alternaria* and *Cladosporium*. In recent years, black *Aspergillus* species (Section *Nigri*) and in particular *A. carbonarius* and *A. niger* aggregate have been described as the main source of grape contamination with the mycotoxin ochratoxin A. In this chapter, we highlighted how *Aspergillus* species distribution on European grapes may occur and vary in relation to meteorological conditions and geographical areas and several studies have shown an increase in the amount of OTA in warmer climates. The literature on various molecular methods used for species identification is reviewed and a critical evaluation of the usefulness of various techniques and genomic loci for the species identification of black aspergilli is presented. Reports of the occurrence of black aspergilli in vineyards and their potential toxigenicity must be reconsidered on the basis of the wide molecular biodiversity found within morphologically undistinguishable strains of this section. Mycotoxin production is a characteristic of the species, so by studying the species intraspecific biodiversity can predict potential mycotoxin hazards. Different isolates belonging to the black aspergilli species showed varying abilities to produce OTA so it becomes utmost importance to guarantee a quality control of the grapes and grape derived products, through accurate contaminant mycoflora identification.
