**3. Current state of forests in Greece**

The first systematic effort to record Greek forests was made by the Forest Service via the "First National Forest Inventory" that started in 1963 and ended in 1992. The inventory data cover important quantitative aspects of forests, allocated geographically by county, catchment basin and forestry. However, qualitative data, on one hand concerning the trees and on the other hand the entire forest ecosystem, are not adequately covered.

Therefore, according to this first national inventory of Greek forests, land uses in Greece, were as shown in Table 1.


Table 1. Land uses according to the first inventory of Greek forests

Deforestation / Reforestation in Mediterranean Europe: The Case of Greece 45

dioxide and, generally, all beneficial to humans functions of forests that have been

**Ownership type Land (Ηα) Percentage %**  State forests 1,644,005 65.5 Municipal 301,527 12.0 Monasterial 109,946 4.4 Charitable Institutions 11,225 0.4 Forests in public ownership 245,845 9.7

Private 199,870 8.0 **Total Forests 2,512,418 100.0** 

Greek forests according to their utility and functions can be divided into: a) Productive Forests which are important for the production of forest products or other goods of primary production, b) Protective forests, which might have special protective effects on soils and underground water, might also protect subjacent settlements, cultural monuments and structural works and facilities and c) Forests of special scientific, aesthetic, ecological or geomorphological interest, such as National Parks (10), Aesthetic Forests (19), conserved natural heritage sites or Recreation Forests that can be used for leisure or act as agents of

Depending on their capacity to produce wood, they can be divided into Industrial Forests (covering 25.4% of the country's land) which are capable of "*producing 1 m3 of wood / Ha / year, as well as trees with trunks of cellulose wood (with a diameter) of at least 1, 2 m*" and Nonindustrial Forests (covering 23.9% of the land of the country) constituting of multibranched dwarf trees and shrubs which do not currently produce marketable timber products and are available for grazing, firewood and protection of catchment basins ( Ministry of Agriculture,

Depending on their management form, they can be divided into: high forests (34.7%), whose regeneration, naturally or artificially, made with seeds or seedlings from seeds, coppice forests (48%), whose revival originates from coppice sprouts for species that possess the ability to multiply in this way (oak, beech, chestnut, maquis) and are plainly anthropogenic

Finally, depending on the extent of human influence and the degree of deterioration caused by human intervention, forests are divided into Virgin or Natural, when anthropogenic disturbances have not influenced the natural development of the forest ecosystem (in Greece there is such a forest in Mount Rhodope) Semi-natural, where human intervention has affected the natural progression, however without making impossible its function and natural development, and Artificial or Plantations where forests result from human management actions that control their creation process and

Regarding the sanitary condition of Greek forests, it is strongly influenced by biotic (insects, fungi), as well as abiotic (drought, late frosts) factors. Up until today, there have been no signs of damage (defoliation / needle-fall), attributable to air pollution and acid rain in particular, although episodes of acid rain have been recorded (Oikonomou *et al*.,

and finally medium forests (17.3%) (Kotoulas et al., 1989).

mentioned above.

tourism development.

1992).

evolution.

2004).

Table 4. Type of Greek forests ownership


However, the inventory of 1981 produced different results presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Land uses according to the inventory of 1981

From the above tables, it becomes evident that the land of Greek forests has increased by 3.4%, whereas today, the land occupied by forests (industrial forest) contributes for 25.4% of the total country land, thus, overall, Greek forests have increased by 6.4% since the first forest inventory.

The composition of Greek forest according to species can be observed in Table 3 below (Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate Change / General Directorate for Development and Protection of Forests and Natural Environment, 2010).


Table 3. Forest cover according to tree species

Mediterranean evergreen sclerophyllous vegetation (maquis) is dominant, as demonstrated on the table, while the oak is a common species in Greek forests as well.

Regarding the ownership regime of Greek forests, the vast majority of them, as shown in Table 4 (Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate Change / General Directorate for Development and Protection of Forests and Natural Environment, 2010) below, are public. The management of all Greek forests of different ownership regimes is subject to State control and management of all forests takes place based on the principle of sustainability of yields. However, there are cases of non-compliance with the principle, where extraction of higher woody mass than the one that ensures the productivity of the specific ecosystem takes place with the consequence of its gradual quantitative and qualitative degradation, which adversely affects the biodiversity of forest ecosystems, the future production of wood, the quality and quantity of water, the protection against soil erosion, the capture of carbon


dioxide and, generally, all beneficial to humans functions of forests that have been mentioned above.

Table 4. Type of Greek forests ownership

44 Soil Erosion Studies

**Land uses % of the total expanse of the country** 

From the above tables, it becomes evident that the land of Greek forests has increased by 3.4%, whereas today, the land occupied by forests (industrial forest) contributes for 25.4% of the total country land, thus, overall, Greek forests have increased by 6.4% since the first

The composition of Greek forest according to species can be observed in Table 3 below (Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate Change / General Directorate for

**Tree species Land (Ηα) Percentage %** 

Abies-Picea *abies* 3,297.62 13.1 Pinus *halepensis-brutia* 4,757.77 18.9 Pinus *nigra* 1,370.47 5.5 other Coniferus 237.87 0.9 **Total Coniferus 9,663.73 38.4** 

Quercus 7,475.49 29.8 Fagus 2,190.70 8.7 other Broadleaved 1,017.65 4.1 maquis 4,776.61 19 **Total Broadleaved 15,460.45 61.6 Total 25,124.18 100** 

Mediterranean evergreen sclerophyllous vegetation (maquis) is dominant, as demonstrated

Regarding the ownership regime of Greek forests, the vast majority of them, as shown in Table 4 (Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate Change / General Directorate for Development and Protection of Forests and Natural Environment, 2010) below, are public. The management of all Greek forests of different ownership regimes is subject to State control and management of all forests takes place based on the principle of sustainability of yields. However, there are cases of non-compliance with the principle, where extraction of higher woody mass than the one that ensures the productivity of the specific ecosystem takes place with the consequence of its gradual quantitative and qualitative degradation, which adversely affects the biodiversity of forest ecosystems, the future production of wood, the quality and quantity of water, the protection against soil erosion, the capture of carbon

on the table, while the oak is a common species in Greek forests as well.

However, the inventory of 1981 produced different results presented in Table 2.

Forests 22.4 Forestlands – Rangelands 39.8 Agricultural crops 29.90 Settlements, arid areas, rocks 5.60 Lakes, rivers, marshes 2.30

Development and Protection of Forests and Natural Environment, 2010).

Table 2. Land uses according to the inventory of 1981

forest inventory.

**Α. Coniferous** 

**B. Broadleaved** 

Table 3. Forest cover according to tree species

Greek forests according to their utility and functions can be divided into: a) Productive Forests which are important for the production of forest products or other goods of primary production, b) Protective forests, which might have special protective effects on soils and underground water, might also protect subjacent settlements, cultural monuments and structural works and facilities and c) Forests of special scientific, aesthetic, ecological or geomorphological interest, such as National Parks (10), Aesthetic Forests (19), conserved natural heritage sites or Recreation Forests that can be used for leisure or act as agents of tourism development.

Depending on their capacity to produce wood, they can be divided into Industrial Forests (covering 25.4% of the country's land) which are capable of "*producing 1 m3 of wood / Ha / year, as well as trees with trunks of cellulose wood (with a diameter) of at least 1, 2 m*" and Nonindustrial Forests (covering 23.9% of the land of the country) constituting of multibranched dwarf trees and shrubs which do not currently produce marketable timber products and are available for grazing, firewood and protection of catchment basins ( Ministry of Agriculture, 1992).

Depending on their management form, they can be divided into: high forests (34.7%), whose regeneration, naturally or artificially, made with seeds or seedlings from seeds, coppice forests (48%), whose revival originates from coppice sprouts for species that possess the ability to multiply in this way (oak, beech, chestnut, maquis) and are plainly anthropogenic and finally medium forests (17.3%) (Kotoulas et al., 1989).

Finally, depending on the extent of human influence and the degree of deterioration caused by human intervention, forests are divided into Virgin or Natural, when anthropogenic disturbances have not influenced the natural development of the forest ecosystem (in Greece there is such a forest in Mount Rhodope) Semi-natural, where human intervention has affected the natural progression, however without making impossible its function and natural development, and Artificial or Plantations where forests result from human management actions that control their creation process and evolution.

Regarding the sanitary condition of Greek forests, it is strongly influenced by biotic (insects, fungi), as well as abiotic (drought, late frosts) factors. Up until today, there have been no signs of damage (defoliation / needle-fall), attributable to air pollution and acid rain in particular, although episodes of acid rain have been recorded (Oikonomou *et al*., 2004).

Deforestation / Reforestation in Mediterranean Europe: The Case of Greece 47

According to the Greek Parliament (2003) in the explanatory report regarding the new Law on Forests, recent land use changes on forests and forest land in Greece are the result of complex economic and social processes that result in creating spatial patterns in which a decline in the forest component can be observed. This negative image is due to high growth rates, coupled with an inefficient and fragmented land planning and urban design legal framework (Rizos, 2004). In several areas, forests and forest lands take the greatest heat for the expansion of urbanization and of agricultural or livestock operations (Beriatos, 2002, Christopoulou et al., 2007). Particularly in southern Greece, the islands and much of continental lowland and upland areas, forests are gravely destabilized due to fires, overgrazing, widespread building out of the city plan, and the creation of traffic

According, again, to Minetos (2009), who studied the changes in land use in the time period 1990-2000, the 'diffusion' of urban land uses outside city plans and settlements in Greece, has negatively affected forest lands. The phenomenon extends to areas that are relatively remote. On the contrary, no trends of extending rural uses to the detriment of forests, in counties designated by a dynamic agricultural sector, were found. Finally, tourism development in recent years, due to the institution of Environmental Impact Assessments, had limited effects on forest lands, except for some cases of intense tourism growth in out of

Overgrazing occurs when the number of animals using a pasture is greater than the grazing capacity, assuming that the excess number of animals could range from a few to very many. Consequently, the number of animals kept in a pasture or grazing intensity is an important indicator of pasture degradation (Papanastasis, 1998; 2000). Grazing results in the deterioration of pastures leading to erosion and desertification of soils as well as in inadequate nutrition of livestock animals since they can not receive an adequate ration in a

Since ancient times, grazing, mainly involving goats and sheep, can be viewed as one of the key factors of degradation in mountainous and upland (semi-mountainous) Mediterranean ecosystems. This is due to the large number of animals, the constant, throughout the year, grazing and the combination of stockbreeding with deforesting logging and fires for improving fit for pasture material (Greek Committee for Combating Desertification, 2000). Mediterranean rangelands include pastures, as well as "forest" rangelands, namely low bushy land (e.g. phrygana, garrigues), shrubs (e.g. maquis) and sparse forests (tree cover less than 40 %). According to Le Houerou (1981), these pastures are being grazed with a density of 2.2 sheep / Ha. Bearing in mind that the grazing capacity of Mediterranean rangelands cannot

surpass 1 sheep / Ha, we conclude that Mediterranean pastures are being overgrazed.

(Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate Change, 2010).

In Greece, grazed forestlands (forest rangelands) cover 40% of the country. In these, the largest area is occupied by forests (48%), followed by grasslands (32.5%), shrublands (15.1%) and finally phrygana (4.4%). Grazed forests are estimated to stretch for about two million Ha. The proprietary rights of these areas belong, in the largest proportion (75%), to the state and their use (occupancy) belongs to the municipalities and communities. The continuous and ongoing for many years overgrazing has led to deterioration of both the forage and soil

**4.1 Deforestation in Greece** 

infrastructures (Minetos, 2009).

city plan areas.

**4.1.1 Overgrazing** 

degraded pasture.
