**3. Quality management in higher education**

The term quality is of central importance in contemporary global higher education, and the conception of quality sets benchmarks and criteria for teaching, learning, assessment, and research. Quality in the new millennium reflects "the management philosophy" as a result of the increased pressure associated with competition [32]. Quality management in higher education is an "integral part of academic life and will not go away" ([10], p. 556).

Academic literature on higher education identifies different quality management approaches for supporting learning programs in higher education. Studies agree that the main quality management approaches used in higher education are total quality management (TQM) and QA [10]. Although these two approaches use different methods and tools, they both clearly seek to achieve similar aims, such as continuous improvement and supporting students and other stakeholders. However, the focus on QA has increased since 2000 in the academic literature on higher education, while studies in the prior two decades focused on TQM. The work of Hoecht [10] highlights several characteristics of TQM, which show it does not match the needs of higher education. These characteristics provide some evidence that higher education should adopt a QA approach rather than TQM. Moreover, Jauch and Orwig [33], examine three factors to prove that TQM is inconsistent with the higher education processes. These three factors are continuous improvement, customer focus, and integrated management system, which are explained as follows:


Thus, the major focus of this chapter is on QA rather than TQM. QA is a system that consists of interconnected mechanisms that can promote and change higher education [1]. Enders and Westerheijden [34] report on how QA provides several benefits for higher education institutions and the needs of students. They examine the importance of QA in European higher education, where it is considered a tool to "refocus, modernize, and harmonize higher education provision and curricula for the new requirements of international mobility and employability, transparency and accountability, and of strengthening Europe in the competitive world-order." Akalu [35] finds out that QA can be seen through the "academic rigor" and "hard work" that is largely associated with "academic excellence," and maintaining academic standards. It can also be seen through the commitment to knowledge and the recruitment of the best students and the provision of the best learning experiences. Furthermore, the academic literature indicates the importance of the comprehensive process of QA, which ensures rigorous procedures are applied to supporting higher education programs [36]. Therefore, QA develops according to the needs of higher education and offers a very wide scope through its processes, tasks, and diversity of its aspects, which thereby supports higher education.
