Education in the Pandemic

#### **Chapter 7**

## Pandemic Pivot: A Faculty Development Program for Enhanced Remote Teaching

*Heather Leslie, Alejandra Lizardo and Ashley Kovacs*

#### **Abstract**

The novel coronavirus COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the higher education sector all over the world and has been most disruptive to residential academic institutions that offer mostly, if not wholly, in-person instruction. Of the 1.5 million college faculty members in the United States, about 70% had never taught a virtual course prior to COVID-19. During spring 2020, colleges had to pivot to remote instruction without much notice for faculty to prepare. Some referred to this as "emergency remote teaching" as it did not allow adequate time to thoughtfully plan out a course for a remote format. Over the summer and fall of 2020, many colleges invested in training programs to help faculty design and deliver their courses in a remote format. This article describes an online faculty development program that was created for faculty at a residential liberal arts university that, prior to COVID-19, offered the majority of courses on campus in-person. The objective of the program was to help faculty plan out and design their remote courses in the Blackboard Learning Management System using an instructional design framework known as backward design. This program ended up receiving the 2021 Blackboard Catalyst Award for Training and Professional Development.

**Keywords:** COVID, remote teaching, online teaching, online learning, faculty development, online course design, instructional design, faculty training

#### **1. Introduction**

During the spring of 2020, higher education institutions had to pivot to remote instruction due to the COVID-19 pandemic where little advance notice was given to allow faculty to adequately plan and design their course for a remote format. This sudden shift was referred to as "emergency remote teaching" as opposed to online teaching because courses that are designed for online learning require months of planning, often in collaboration with academic technology and instructional design specialists. Like many institutions, the university described in this article was faced with a similar dilemma of having to move all of its courses, the majority of which are offered in person on campus, to a remote format. For the spring 2020 term, the

institution extended spring break by one week and live training sessions were held for faculty to learn Zoom and Blackboard basics to finish out the remainder of the spring semester.

A survey of 400 faculty conducted by the Office of Institutional Research found that prior to spring 2020: 69% of faculty respondents had taught exclusively in an in-person classroom environment; 13% had taught a hybrid class (partly in-person and partly online); and 18% had taught at least one class fully online. About 20% of faculty respondents were already using Blackboard at the time they transitioned to the remote environment and 12% were experienced with using Zoom. The report on the survey results indicated that, overall, faculty were resilient and resourceful in adapting quickly to remote teaching and that students were generally flexible and understanding, which some attributed to the fact that relationships had already been built in-person in the classroom before the pandemic hit [1–3]. This report also noted challenges faculty and students faced including technological challenges such as internet connectivity and equipment problems; pedagogical challenges such as engaging students in a remote class and students being in different time zones as well as Zoom fatigue; and other challenges related to the pandemic itself and the lifestyle changes people had to make that created additional stress.

To address the challenges related to pedagogical support, the authors of this article designed and facilitated a professional development program for faculty to help them plan and design a remote course using Blackboard Learning Management System and an instructional design framework known as backward design. The following describes the structure and content of the remote teaching faculty development program, the results from a conducted survey on faculty participants, lessons learned and reflections by the instructional designers of the program, and future directions for faculty development and support for remote teaching.

#### **2. Enhanced remote teaching training program**

During summer 2020 a training program for campus faculty was developed by four instructional designers from the university's learning design center. The training program consisted of an organization page in Blackboard called Remote Teaching Resource Center (RT101) and a course in Blackboard called RT102: Course Design for Enhanced Remote Teaching 102 (RT102). The organization in Blackboard (RT101) housed tutorial videos and job aids (written manuals with step-by-step instructions) on the technological tools available to faculty to teach their remote courses. Tools available included Blackboard, Zoom, and Panopto (a platform for creating and hosting videos). All faculty (including adjunct faculty) were automatically enrolled in the organization so they could get access to the training resources on using the technology tools. Faculty were encouraged to enroll in the course in Blackboard, RT102: Course Design for Enhanced Remote Teaching, and a stipend of \$500 was issued to faculty who completed the course. Over the summer and fall of 2020, 257 faculty completed RT102.

The instructional designers who developed the training program usually work with faculty subject matter experts to create courses for the university's online programs. However, after the pandemic hit and the campus was closed, campus faculty needed pedagogical and technological support to teach their courses remotely and the university did not have a large staff of instructional designers to work with each individual on-campus faculty member one-on-one to redesign their course for

*Pandemic Pivot: A Faculty Development Program for Enhanced Remote Teaching DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.108964*

a remote format. Therefore, it was decided that the best way to provide the campus faculty with support at scale, was by introducing them to the basics of online course design via a training course. This course, RT102, had to be developed rather quickly in the span of about five weeks. The course launched in late June 2020, running multiple weekly sections in June, July, August, September, October, November, and January, and was facilitated by the same instructional designers who designed the course. In total, 30 training courses were facilitated in summer and fall of 2020. In addition to the training course, the instructional designers facilitated webinars during the summer of 2020 on strategies to engage students on Zoom that focused on flipped/active learning and retention strategies using Blackboard's Retention Center tool. Recordings from these webinars were posted in the RT101 organization so all faculty could access them even if they were not able to attend the webinars or the RT102 course. This article focuses mainly on the course, RT102, and the results, lessons learned, and future directions for faculty development for remote teaching.

#### **2.1 Module 1**

RT102 consisted of five modules with each module corresponding to a phase in the backward design process. Module One was about crafting clear and measurable learning outcomes using Bloom's (2001) Taxonomy action verbs (revised) [4]. This module focused on creating module-level learning outcomes that align to courselevel and program-level learning outcomes. Faculty were asked to reflect about the big picture takeaways from their courses and how they can create meaningful and compelling learning outcomes that engage students and encapsulate their own goals for their course. Faculty participated in a threaded discussion forum on ways they can get students to engage with learning outcomes.

#### **2.2 Module 2**

Module Two was about creating assessments and rubrics that are used to evaluate student evidence of learning outcomes achieved. This module focused on designing authentic assignments that allow students some choice and autonomy to demonstrate their achievement of the learning outcomes [5]. Unlike many conventional forms of assessment such as multiple-choice exams, authentic assessment requires students to "do" the subject and mimics real-world problems or situations that people face in the field [6]. Examples of authentic assignments include projects, experiments, demonstrations, presentations, and other assignments that result in an artifact that students submit. This artifact provides evidence of the learning outcomes achieved and students can choose to showcase their work in a portfolio for potential employers to view. In this module, faculty also took an online proctored exam so they could experience what it's like from a learner perspective. Because many faculty turned to online proctored exams in spring 2020, this allowed faculty to gain some insight on the student experience to inform their own course design choices. Faculty discussed their personal experience taking the exam and presented their assessment ideas in a blog activity.

#### **2.3 Module 3**

Module Three was about creating peer learning activities that prepare students to succeed on assignments, engage meaningfully with their peers, and gain constructive feedback. This module focused on pedagogical aspects of social learning theory such as social presence in online interactions and the importance of developing community [7]. This module also included practical resources on asynchronous technological tools to facilitate peer learning in Blackboard such as discussion boards, blogs, wikis, and group tools. Faculty shared their ideas for encouraging students to engage with each other in a collaborative wiki activity.

#### **2.4 Module 4**

Module Four was about curating and creating instructional materials such as readings, videos, and web resources that align to the learning outcomes, assessment, and learning activities. This module highlighted the use of open educational resources (OER), which have been known to improve student retention and engagement, as an alternative to traditional textbooks [8]. This module also focused on pedagogical aspects of multimedia learning [9] with practical resources to support faculty's creation of instructional videos. Faculty shared their ideas for their own instructional materials in a group threaded discussion activity.

#### **2.5 Module 5**

The final module (Module Five) was a faculty showcase where faculty present their plan for how they intend to apply the backward design framework to their remote course. Faculty could choose to present their plan as a recorded video presentation, written paper, or slide deck, following the principles of universal design for learning [10] and authentic assessment. Faculty would then upload their showcase to a discussion forum to share with peers and comment on each other's work. With permission, faculty showcases were also posted in RT101 Blackboard Organization and organized by school, department, and program so that other faculty could view their colleagues' showcases from past cohorts and get inspiration or ideas for their own showcase. In Module Five, faculty also filled out a self-evaluation rubric to rate themselves on their plan for learning outcomes, assessments, peer learning activities, and instructional materials and reflect on their learning and takeaways from the course. Faculty submitted their self-evaluation rubric as an assignment so only the course facilitator would be able to view it.

Each module followed a consistent format which included:


*Pandemic Pivot: A Faculty Development Program for Enhanced Remote Teaching DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.108964*


#### **3. Results**

The following describes the results from a survey given to faculty after they completed the RT102 course. There were 125 faculty who filled out the survey. Here is a summary of the survey results on the overall satisfaction rate from the RT102 course.

#### **3.1 Post-course survey**

See (**Table 1**)


#### **Table 1.**

*Overall satisfaction rate from RT102.*

#### **3.2 Follow up survey**

Faculty were asked in a follow-up the survey if they were able to apply what they learned in the training to design their own remote course. There were 77 faculty who filled out the survey.


Faculty comment highlights are included in Appendix 1. The faculty development program was the recipient of the 2021 Blackboard Catalyst Award for Training and

Professional Development which recognizes individuals and/or institutions "who use Blackboard programs to support and enhance professional development within or outside their organization" [11].

#### **4. Lessons learned**

Survey results from faculty participants in RT102 indicate that, overall, this faculty development course was successful in terms of faculty satisfaction with the course and faculty being able to apply what they learned. It was helpful for faculty to take an online course (RT102) from a learner perspective since many of the faculty participants had never taken an online course before and were now expected to teach their courses remotely when COVID-19 hit. Getting first-hand experience from a learner perspective can inform faculty's course design as well as pedagogical and technological choices for their own remote course [12]. This was especially true for faculty who gained first-hand experience taking an online proctored exam. After taking the exam, many faculty shared in their blog post that they found the experience stressful and invasive and would opt instead for alternative forms of assessment, like authentic assignments. Other faculty indicated that they would continue to use proctored exams but that they would be better able to prepare their students for what to expect. Many faculty stated that they felt taking an online course with colleagues from their department or discipline was a beneficial experience.

Some of the challenges faculty cited was the time commitment required to complete the course and the difficulty with being able to transfer certain courses or disciplines to a remote format such as hands-on science labs. Along these lines, some faculty did not think that the backward design framework worked well for their subject matter and that the framework presented in RT102 was too structured and did not allow enough flexibility. This is a valid critique of backward design as not all learning is linear and not all learning can be planned out in advance. Some faculty who are used to being able to improvise and teach material on the fly as they do in-person may find the framework of backward design limiting and cumbersome. Additionally, some faculty from STEM disciplines and in fine arts such as sculpting did not feel that backward design was a framework that worked well for their discipline. Perhaps a competencybased framework would work better for some STEM disciplines.

Some faculty were expecting the RT102 course to focus only on technology and were surprised by the focus on the methodology of design. One faculty commented: "Frankly, I was surprised that the course spent so much time and scholarly work surrounding learning outcomes; I thought it was simply training regarding tech. VERY GLAD about the emphasis on learning outcomes, as we all aim to be as on-target with these with the remote and hybrid versions of our classes as possible." Another faculty member stated that the workshop changed her perception. "I had no idea what backward design was. The information on each module was not only helpful, it really changed how I can teach and learn from the online environment." Because many faculty do not receive formal training in course design or pedagogy in their doctoral program, it is helpful for them to receive professional development in areas that can help them improve their teaching.

While some faculty stated that they plan on incorporating what they learned from RT102 into their in-person or hybrid classes, others viewed the backward design approach as being associated only with the online modality. Some faculty may view remote teaching along with backward design as a temporary shift and that "it's easier

#### *Pandemic Pivot: A Faculty Development Program for Enhanced Remote Teaching DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.108964*

to cover more material in a face-to-face class." Others shifted their perspective on how to teach, regardless of modality, stating that RT102 helped in "reminding us to focus on the student experience, and what they should learn, and working backward from there to design the course."

It should also be noted that the instructional designers who created RT102 have a background in creating fully online asynchronous courses. The campus faculty came from a background of teaching mostly in-person courses and were under the impression that they were not expected to immediately pivot to teaching "online" courses when COVID-19 hit. Rather they were expected to teach remotely, using a combination of Zoom and Blackboard.

Online course design typically requires months of planning and usually involves instructional designers, academic technology specialists, librarians, and faculty subject matter experts. It was not feasible to transition all campus courses to online courses given the limitations of staff resources and time required to complete such an undertaking. Hence, the rationale for creating a faculty development course to help faculty transition to teaching their courses remotely. However, going forward, it would be prudent to explore alternative frameworks to backward design that are more agile and adaptable for remote teaching as opposed to frameworks used predominantly in online learning.

Additionally, it is worth considering ways to restructure faculty development programs to be less time intensive and using perhaps micro-learning modules or mini courses in order to accommodate busy faculty with heavy workloads. This was the rationale for extending the RT102 course duration from one week to two weeks. Additionally, compensating faculty for their time to engage in professional development is a worthwhile investment in course quality as the university did in this case. When possible, allotting sufficient time for faculty to engage in professional development by reducing workload expectations can also pay dividends toward teaching excellence and faculty job satisfaction [13]. Having faculty participate in courses that mimic the student experience can also allow the opportunity for faculty to develop learner empathy which can result in their ability to design learner-centered courses, an approach considered effective in education [14]. This becomes increasingly important as new models of teaching and learning, including online and hybrid modalities, become more mainstream in the near and distant future as well as in the case of emergencies when universities will need to, once again, pivot to the remote teaching format.

#### **5. Future directions**

Although no one knows what the future holds, some are predicting that higher education will continue to rely more heavily on digital technology [15]. Others are forecasting that this trend toward digitization in higher education will only expedite post-COVID as evidenced by the explosion of new technology tools coupled with people becoming more acclimated to working and learning remotely [16]. For students who grew up using screens and are comfortable with online interactions, the shift to online courses may not pose as big a learning curve compared to educators who have historically relied less on technology. As institutions of higher education position themselves for a new period of technological disruption, consideration must be given to faculty development to prepare instructors for the future of teaching. The work of teaching will continue to evolve with the advances made in technological innovation, impacting pedagogies faculty use. Likewise, pedagogies will also influence technology as new tools are developed based on learning science and expertise in education.

Attitudes toward technologies and pedagogies also impact their widespread use and adoption. Even though online education has grown substantially in recent decades, prior to COVID-19, most college faculty had never taught an online course and likely had no desire to do so. A previous study found that most faculty, administrators, and students perceived online education to be inferior as compared to face-toface delivery in six different categories: retention of course content, critical thinking, rigor, discussion depth, engagement, and quality [17]. But during the pandemic, many did not have a choice. It was remote teaching or nothing if a campus was closed.

Attitudes are also continuing to shift toward more student-centered educational experiences [18]. If universities are going to live up to the ideals of increasing access to liberal education and improving student outcomes, then planning the design of education using frameworks such as backward design will continue regardless of if the education experience is offered in person or online. Universities may also find themselves needing to be more versatile as they adapt and evolve toward the future.

While the pivot to remote teaching was not perfect, education was able to continue during an emergency thanks to online technology. One certainty about the postpandemic future is that disruptive emergencies such as natural disasters and events will continue to impact education delivery. And once again universities will find themselves needing to pivot to a virtual format. Regardless of whether the approach toward remote teaching is proactive or reactive, the investment in faculty development programs aimed to support faculty in their technological and pedagogical advancement will be a necessary priority for universities in the future.

#### **6. Conclusion**

This chapter described a faculty development program that was designed to help campus faculty transition to teaching their courses remotely during COVID. Overall, this program was successful according to faculty satisfaction surveys and the Catalyst Award that was given to the team in the category of professional development and training. As the world moves forward, technology continues to advance and evolve, providing numerous opportunities to innovate in the education space. There is no longer a disconnect between online and on-site as modalities are fluid. Institutions that invest in faculty development will be more prepared to pivot to online in the next emergency. They will also be better positioned to reimagine how education can be transformed for student-centered learning and success in the years to come.

#### **Additional information**

Parts of this book chapter were initially published as a preprint article in the institutional repository, Digital USD, in January 2021. The preprint article is entitled *Pandemic Pivot: A Faculty Development Program for Enhanced Remote Teaching*. The preprint article has not been peer-reviewed.

#### **Appendix**

Faculty Comment Highlights from Surveys. Survey Question: What was most useful from the workshop? Changing my perception. I had no idea what backwards design was. The information on each module was no only helpful, it really changed how i can see teach and learn from the online environment.

I thought the daily emails with tasks and reminders were super useful to keep me engaged and on top of the work needed. The resources shared are fantastic and the showcase was helpful to get insight from others

Frankly I was surprised that the course spent so much time with scholarly work surrounding learning outcomes; I thought it was simply training regarding tech. VERY GLAD about the emphasis on learning outcomes, as we all aim to be as on-target with these with the remote and hybrid versions of our classes as possible. WELL DONE

I found talking to my colleagues on the discussion boards extremely helpful. The prompts forced me to put in writing some of my ideas which helped greatly as I plan the course.

I will now teach my modules differently (even when we are in-person), with clear modular LOs and better formative assessments. I also will be able to better engage the students in peer-to-peer learning.

I appreciated that the workshop made me produce tangible assignments, LOs, etc.

Getting to practice the Blackboard tools as if I were a student in my own class--blog, discussion board, Wiki.

The values and strategies it taught and the metacognitive component by which the course emulated all the values and strategies it taught.

the sense of camaraderie amongst the instructor and the participants~ ~ a great model for what we want to achieve in our classes~

Seeing examples of how to structure the class in Modules in Blackboard, including the types of content and materials that can be bundled together into a learning module. It emphasized how important it is to organize the class in a clear and easy to follow structure so that students can keep track of everything - especially when they will need to navigate so much content for all of their classes.

The integration of the tools into the course itself was most valuable. For example, using a blog, discussion board, wiki, all provided us with the experience of using the tools we might incorporate into our classes. The faculty showcase at the end was another example of us doing something we could adapt for use in our own classes.

Exposure to different tools and resources that will help with remote teaching. Taking it with colleagues in my department, so we could share our thoughts and ideas about our courses.

It helped me focus my thinking on some discrete areas of my courses, such as peer involvement and building community. It linked to some good materials on online teaching. And reminding us to focus on the student experience, and what they should learn, and working backward from there to design the course, was useful.

Exposure to literature that supported different pedagogies. Ability to practice what we learned.

The course was great. I liked in particular how it illustrated what it taught so that I have not only a conceptual understanding but also a physical model to remember, emulate, and experiment with. [Course facilitator] did a remarkable job designing the course, encouraging participation, inviting authenticity and creativity, and serving as a model instructor of online pedagogy.

I still believe that there may be more interactions in a face to face class, and that it's easier to cover more material in a face to face class. My responses have become more positive about online learning since learning about different approaches and techniques in RT102.

#### Faculty comment highlights from follow up survey (after faculty taught their fall 2020 remote course).

I received positive feedback from my students in course evaluations specifically regarding the LSM organization and remote delivery of my courses. They noticed that I had worked to redesign the course for the remote format this semester and that things ran smoothly.

The RT102 class definitely prepared me for the fall semester; aside from rubrics (instead I give detailed instructions and a checklist), I applied really everything I learned from the class.

I had a very positive experience this semester, and received lots of positive feedback from students. I used Blackboard for the first time and integrated learning goals from the first day, which helped me structure the course all the way through the final exam. I also used the online discussion board, but found that feature to be less useful. I'm going to continue to experiment with incorporating online discussion into remote learning classes.

The RT102 course was super helpful, especially on the practical components of running a course online. After reading my student reviews I am confident that students learned a lot, even with the online environment.

Thank you! It has changed my mind completely about how effective remote teaching can be— excellent course!

The collaboration and support were incredible. People with experience shared tips and tools. This fostered the kind of online environment instructors would want to replicate in their own courses.

#### **Author details**

Heather Leslie\*, Alejandra Lizardo and Ashley Kovacs University of San Diego, San Diego, United States

\*Address all correspondence to: hleslie@sandiego.edu

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Pandemic Pivot: A Faculty Development Program for Enhanced Remote Teaching DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.108964*

#### **References**

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[2] Hodges C. et al. The difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning. *Educause Review*. 2020. Retrieved from: https://er.educause.edu/ articles/2020/3/the-difference-betweenemergency-remote-teaching-and-onlinelearning

[3] Institutional Research and Planning. Faculty Survey on Remote Teaching and Learning Results: Report prepared by Institutional Research and Planning June 2020. 2020

[4] Anderson LW. A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York, NY: Pearson; 2000

[5] Mueller J. Authentic assessment toolbox. 2018. Retrieved from: http:// jfmueller.faculty.noctrl.edu/toolbox/ index.htm

[6] Wigging G, McTighe J. Understanding by Design. 2nd ed. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development; 2005

[7] Richardson JC, Maeda Y, Ly J, Caskurlu S. Social presence in relation to students' satisfaction and learning in the online environment: A metaanalysis. Computers in Human Behavior. 2017;**71**:402-417

[8] Griffiths R et al. OER at Scale: The Academic and Economic Outcomes of Achieving the Dream;s OER Degree Initiative. SRI International; 2020. Retrieved from: https://www.sri.com/ publication/education-learning-pubs/ oer-at-scale-the-academic-andeconomic-outcomes-of-achieving-thedreams-oer-degree-initiative/

[9] Mayer R. Multimedia Learning. 2nd ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2009

[10] Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST). Optimize individual choice and autonomy. n.d. UDL Guidelines. Retrieved from: https:// udlguidelines.cast.org/engagement/ recruiting-interest/choice-autonomy

[11] Blackboard, Inc. Blackboard announces winners of 2021 catalyst awards*. PR Newswire*. 2021. Retrieved from: https://www.prnewswire. com/news-releases/blackboardannounces-winners-of-2021-catalystawards-301318851.html

[12] Leslie H. Trifecta of student engagement: A framework for an online teaching professional development course for faculty in higher education. Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning. 2019;**13**(2):149- 173. DOI: 10.1108/JRIT-10-2018-0024

[13] Ibrahim L. From survive to thrive: Using professional development to advance online teaching. Journal of Literacy and Technology. 2020;**21**(3):44-58

[14] Darsih E. Learner-centered teaching: What makes it effective? Indonesian EFL Journal. 2018;**4**(1):33-42

[15] Alexander B. Academia Next: The Futures of Higher Education. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press; 2020

[16] Galloway S. Post Corona: From Crisis to Opportunity. New York, NY: Portfolio; 2020

[17] Kelly D, Rebman C. Perception and acceptance of online education: Do online courses pass the muster? Issues in Information Systems. 2014;**15**(2):49-58

[18] Stout SK. Student-centric transformation. *Inside Higher Ed*. 2021. Retrieved from: https://www. insidehighered.com/views/2021/07/26/ colleges-can-thrive-if-they-focus-lessbusiness-models-and-more-studentsopinion

#### **Chapter 8**

## Synchronous Learning in Institutions of Higher Learning during COVID-19: Lessons from Developing Countries

*Tinayeshe Shumba and Tunika Munkuli*

#### **Abstract**

The coronavirus outbreak, known as COVID-19, is one example of a pandemic that the world is currently grappling with. The effects were disruptive in both developing and developed countries. The teaching and learning in Institutions of Higher Learning (IHL) in developing countries were not spared. The study focused on exploring the effects of synchronous teaching and learning and analysing how quality teaching and learning were achieved. An exploratory design study was used in the study. Data was collected using qualitative interviews. The study found that several IHL adopted synchronous teaching and learning. To ensure a smooth transition from face-to-face to online platforms, regular training must be offered to lecturers and students. Institutions of higher learning must lobby policymakers and IHL managers to fund ICT infrastructure in the colleges and universities for ease of adoption of a new method of teaching and learning.

**Keywords:** synchronous learning, accessibility, institutional support, student-readiness, student engagement

#### **1. Introduction**

The advancement of information and communication technology (ICT) in developing countries and the reduction of data costs have made synchronous teaching and learning possible. Synchronicity occurs simultaneously, and the interactions transpire without a time lag in real-time [1]. This indicates a very short lapse between interactions, as in the case of text-based instant messaging (IM) or short message service (SMS). Scholars describe synchronous learning as a real-time, instructor-led online learning event in which all participants are logged on simultaneously and communicate directly with each other [2, 3]. Synchronous learning is increasing its footprint in IHL as students demand flexibility in learning and delivering lessons [4]. Many scholars use different names referring to the same concept of teaching and learning on an online platform. The concept was described as remote learning [5], technology-enhanced learning [6], synchronous online learning [7], synchro modal

learning [8, 9], hybrid synchronous teaching [10] and synchronous hybrid [9]. The study used the term 'synchronous learning' to refer to online teaching and learning in real-time. Interactive features like annotation tools, polls, breakout rooms, video and screen sharing make teaching more interesting among facilitators and students. Synchronous learning focuses on real-time interactions, whilst asynchronous learning refers to the learning system that allows students to learn independently. The students benefit in several ways, including collaborating with other students in remote places. The study note synchronous learning engages students in real-time regardless of their different environmental locations. Online student engagement is described as the degree of interest, cognitive ability, attention, interaction, time, and effort that students in IHL show during synchronous learning [6]. Synchronous teaching and learning have gained momentum in IHL due to the prolonged lockdown measures that many governments implemented to curb the spread of the coronavirus. Several instructors in IHLs are now faced with the challenge of adopting a new method of teaching and assessing students' work online. The literature [11], notes that the lack of prior experience with synchronous online teaching and inadequate training are major sources of frustration among instructors and students.

#### **2. Context of synchronous learning in institutions of higher learning**

The context of synchronous learning in IHLs is shaped by the facilitation conditions these institutions provide, in addition to the cultures inherent to academic disciplines [12]. A plethora of evidence in the literature suggests that technological infrastructure and resources are directly and indirectly related to the adoption of synchronous learning in IHLs [13]. During COVID-19, IHL in South Africa moved their teaching approaches from face-to-face to synchronous learning. However, the challenges like poor connectivity and attendance during the lesson were noted. Asynchronous solutions were adopted to support synchronous learning and assist students unable to connect live lessons. The study found the poor network and high cost of data contributed to poor student engagement during online lessons. It was noted that some institutions delayed moving to synchronous learning due to the poor preparedness of instructors and the use of outdated institutional infrastructure. The lack of devices and user-friendly learning management systems like Blackboard, Microsoft Teams, and Zoom, among others, made it difficult for poorly funded IHL to implement change in the method of teaching and learning [14]. Improvements were noticed after some time as every institution tried hard to save the academic year.

#### **3. Purpose of the study and research questions**

Students' academic progression in IHLs during the COVID-19 pandemic was a great concern as it led to poor performance and high attrition rates among students. The scholar [15] found a lack of course material, online learning facilities, and a reduction in contact hours as obstacles that affected the pass rate and throughput rate in IHL. The researchers [16] concluded that some IHL are unaware of how to develop assessable online content and how to manage the synchronous learning environment. The study seeks to understand the impact of COVID-19 on IHL and identify challenges and lessons that can be drawn from implementing synchronous learning in IHL. The research question guiding the study is "*What are the effects of synchronous* 

*Synchronous Learning in Institutions of Higher Learning during COVID-19: Lessons… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109414*

*online teaching and learning methods in IHLs in developing countries?"* The objectives of the study are to 1) Explore the impact of COVID-19 on synchronous teaching and learning in IHLs; 2) Identify the challenges and benefits of synchronous teaching and learning in IHLs, and 3) Make recommendations to support professional development in synchronous learning environment.

#### **4. Literature review**

In developed countries, synchronous online teaching and learning have been the norm for the past two decades. The synchronous delivery model was adopted as a tool to aid learning in institutions of higher learning instead of replacing face-to-face interaction [1]. The scholars analysed synchronous learning management systems (LMS) and recommended that interactive features that must be added to LMS include chat rooms, annotations, discussion forums, journals, wikis, break-out rooms and options for non-verbal gesture buttons [17]. The instructor's pedagogical approaches and readiness to adopt technology-integrated instructions ultimately influence instructor-student interactions during synchronous lessons [18]. Synchronous learning requires technologically aware and experienced facilitators to manage the LMS. In contrast with synchronous learning, the researcher [19] regards asynchronous learning as a situation where students access the learning material uploaded beforehand, in their own time. This type of learning has been the most commendable, especially for emerging countries where students struggle with network connectivity and internet access. However, asynchronous learning has disadvantages, including the possibility of students receiving delayed feedback on their enquiries. This frustrated students, and they ended up demotivated with the online teaching and learning approach. In the study, synchronous learning was affected by load shedding. IHL increased their capital expenditure by buying generators to back up power failure. The students could not join classes because of load shedding and poor network. Lecturers were not exceptions as they were affected too, compromising the quality of lesson delivery.

#### **5. Synchronous online teaching and learning**

Computer-mediated communication emerged in developed countries over two decades ago, but it is now prevalent in developing countries. Scholars distinguish synchronous and asynchronous teaching, depending on whether the interaction occurs in real-time [20]. Student engagement was found to be one of the most important aspects of enhancing quality teaching and learning [6]. Scholars call student engagement 'the holy grail', owing to its importance in academic success [21]. Synchronous teaching and learning promote student engagement compared to asynchronous teaching and learning. Synchronous online teaching and learning allow students and lecturers to interact meaningfully, ask questions and receive instant feedback [22]. Furthermore, synchronous learning allows students to engage by sharing their understanding of the content studied beforehand, both with other learners and with the instructor. This assists in clarifying concepts and eliminating any misconceptions about the subject matter, thereby promoting meaningful learning [23, 24]. Research [25] notes that educators have discovered the efficiency, ease of access and diverse collaborations offered by synchronous online teaching and learning that is likely to continue being an optional delivery method even after the relaxation of the lockdown measures.

#### **6. Institutional support for synchronous online teaching and learning**

Institutional support was found to be vital for learners in IHLs when transitioning from face-to-face to synchronous learning [26]. The researchers [27] who reviewed award-winning online institutions noted the importance of putting the educator on centre stage in designing, assessing and facilitating. The research made it clear that lecturers in IHLs must take ownership of teaching methods, technology, and content in the modules they facilitate. Module facilitators who received mentoring, technical support and training for software and hardware used in class were found to have higher institutional satisfaction than those who did not [28]. Several studies have shown synchronous online teaching and learning integration associated with technical and pedagogical support [29–31]. A shared vision championed by the teaching and learning management helps different technology among facilitators in IHL. This motivates lecturers to change quickly to the new method. The lack of shared vision [32] was the cause of confusion affecting the quality of teaching and learning in an online space.

#### **7. Student accessibility and readiness**

Previous studies have described students in IHL in different terms 'digital natives' [33], 'millennials' [28], the 'net generation' [34] and 'digital generation' [35]. An empirical study [36] confirms that most students had access to mobile phones, which they use for texting, participating in social media and engaging in synchronous learning. Nonetheless, students' awareness of technology is insufficient unless they are taught and trained to navigate LMS. Furthermore, students must develop a sense of ownership over their studies. Previous research noted limitations among young adults in using technology for educational purposes [37]. The World Bank noted poor internet access as making it difficult for students in developing countries to engage in synchronous learning. Synchronous online teaching and learning have challenges, and there have been recommendations for lecturers, students, and managers to improve learning in IHLs. Participants must connect using the right equipment; all participants must arrange their physical space to optimise visual and audio presentations; students must be allowed to introduce themselves online by opening webcams, chat with peers and teachers in real-time to augment their social presence [6, 25]. Facilitators are advised to know the background of their learners in terms of online interaction, connectivity, and engagement [38]. Facilitators and students must familiarise themselves with the functions of the learning management system. The need to embrace an online teaching and learning persona cannot be overemphasised. Lecturers must set ground rules with their students [38] to achieve a clear direction. The lecturers must take advantage of the features that promote online engagement, such as chat, short surveys and cold-calling techniques. The students must be accountable for managing their virtual online space. Developing a communication plan enables students to engage with their facilitator without experiencing challenges. The prior teaching experience was positively related to a teacher's general self-efficacy and attitude towards synchronous teaching and learning. The facilitators' perceptions of the student readiness for synchronous learning impact the design and facilitation of online courses [27]. The survey noted that physiological disabilities such as anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorders cause significant barriers to learn in IHL. The research has noted that the number of students with

*Synchronous Learning in Institutions of Higher Learning during COVID-19: Lessons… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109414*

disabilities who are enrolled in IHL continues to rise [39]. Researchers [40] observed a trend in synchronous learning where opportunities for completing studies among students with disabilities are increasing. Universal design for learning principles was instrumental in enhancing the quality of the teaching and learning experience for all tertiary students [41]. The contributing factor is the delivery of content in multiple ways, enabling synchronous learning. Similar findings were noted in research [42] that argued students with disabilities are a diverse population who are challenged in many ways in terms of navigating online courses that do not cater for accessibility. Students with disabilities have different demographic characteristics, with differences in gender, socio-economic status, age, sexuality, culture and ethnicity. Institutions of higher learning must support these students by not focusing on their disability but on the whole person, in the same way, they do for able-bodied students.

#### **8. Research methodology**

The study used an exploratory approach to obtain participants' in-depth views and learning perceptions. The exploratory method assists in interrogating an area where little or no information about the phenomenon is available. Synchronous learning during the COVID-19 pandemic had not been researched in IHLs, especially in a developing state context, hence the current study's need. Data were collected from 25 respondents using an open-ended questionnaire administered to lecturers and students from IHL in the Limpopo province of South Africa. The survey and collected data from 15 students and 10 lecturers ensured a good representation of participants. Telephone interviews were utilised to probe responses. The open-ended questionnaire was emailed in advance to allow respondents to familiarise themselves with the questions ahead of the interview. This approach was cost-effective as the researchers incurred no travelling costs. Participants and the interviewer were less exposed to the risk of meeting COVID-19-positive individuals during the data collection process. Common themes in the study were identified using thematic analysis.

#### **9. Findings and discussion**

The survey uncovered crucial insights on optimising synchronous teaching and learning among the IHL lecturers and students during the COVID-19 pandemic. The descriptive statistics of respondents were analysed separately based on age, gender and academic qualifications. A total of 25 respondents were interviewed after receiving the questionnaire in advance. The results were analysed separately, i.e., lectures and students. Gender is a nominal data variable in the study, therefore measures like median, mean and standard deviation were not helpful for the paper. Out of 15 students who took part in the study, 60% were females, and 40% were males. The mean age of the entire group of participants, that is, lecturers and students, was 29 years of age and the median age was 26. The youngest participant was 19, whereas the eldest was 41. The data showed a deviation or dispersion from the mean to 10 years. In terms of qualifications, all respondents had qualifications ranging from higher certificates to degrees.

The study found changing to synchronous learning as the only option available to save the academic calendar under lockdown. A clear plan of action was shared with the stakeholders on moving to synchronous learning. Learning management system

pieces of training and support was given to both the lecturers and students on the use of technology prior to the transition and as it was made an ongoing activity depending on identified developmental areas. The ICT support includes devices given to lecturers and students who were not having gadgets. Slides and textbooks helped to support offline solutions activities.

The study found many challenges that negatively impacted the synchronous delivery of lessons, including lack of access to data, poor connectivity, inability to navigate effectively on the LMS, and minimised student engagement. Data access was one of the main challenges to South African students. The institutions of higher learning provided data packages to lecturers and students for them to engage effectively during lessons. Furthermore, it was found that some LMS were heavy on data usage, e.g., blackboard, as the data provided by the institutions was depleting very fast. Other institutions switch to LMS and use those that do not consume much data, like zoom, for synchronous learning.

The study found that many students could only join some of the scheduled synchronous sessions utilising the allocated data. They had to top data from their coffers, and the students from poor backgrounds were greatly affected as they could not afford to buy extra data. Affordability concerns made students choose sessions to attend and not to attend as a way of saving available data. The study found data challenges to lecturers having less impact as they were conducting lessons onsite and could afford to buy. They were able to maintain a presence in the synchronous learning environment. The other finding was poor sound quality during the lessons. Some students complained that lecturers were not audible enough during online classes and, at times, background noises disturbed the learning process. The use of wireless speakers, e.g., Jabra speakers, solved this challenge later when they were bought to support learning. In addition, half of the students who attended had no access to laptops hence they were using smartphones, but they could not be used to type assignments and other online submissions. The instructions had to open campus over the weekends and increase machines on the computer laps to accommodate students who wanted machine use. The research notes that some gadgets were not supporting the LMS at different institutions, which exacerbated the problem, e.g., some smartphones made it challenging to view projected slides and could not access features needed to participate during the lessons. The challenge of network connectivity was more on students who stay in remote areas. About half of the students interviewed indicated network connectivity issues which compromised their studies. One student indicated a lack of network signals in the area where she resided and would occasionally travel some distance to get network connectivity so that she could catch up. Lack of personal space to attend synchronous lessons was a big obstacle. Family members were disturbed during synchronous learning and listened to recordings after the lessons. This negatively affected student engagement as they would be on mute all the time so that background sounds from their environment would not interfere with the online sessions and only relied on the chat option. In modules which required calculations, it was found to be challenging to master the concepts. Lecturers end up organising booster sessions to revise and reinforce the concepts.

Some students cited that joining synchronous lessons whilst watching TV, this compromised learning. This speaks to students' readiness to adopt synchronous teaching and learning methods. Institutions are supposed to continuously offer support to develop self-responsibility towards their studies to ensure effective and deeper learning. From lecturers' side, one of the major concerns was the lack of engagement by most students during online sessions. Lecturers posed questions during the

*Synchronous Learning in Institutions of Higher Learning during COVID-19: Lessons… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109414*

discussion, and most students were not forthcoming in interacting with their lecturers and peers. One lecturer indicated that it was one of the most difficult situations to deal with when questions were met with deafening silence in a lecturing career. When the lecturer called out students' names to contribute, they remained mute. The lecturers could not agree on nonverbal cues to check if students were following. Lecturers mostly ended up talking, failing to promote student engagement and interactive participation.

#### **10. Conclusions and recommendations**

Based on the findings from the study, it is crucial to note that synchronous learning has become a necessity in IHL and will shape future learning programmes. The study recommends that policymakers and administrators in IHL increase the budget meant for teaching and learning to cover additional ICT infrastructure and personnel who needs to sustain synchronous learning. The study view lecturers and students as the cornerstones of synchronous learning, hence proper orientation is recommended every time the new academic year starts or is deemed necessary. New employees to the organisation must undergo a rigorous orientation to impact skills, enabling them to use the LMS without a challenge. The study recommends all IHLs invest in ICT infrastructure to effectively manage the synchronous teaching and learning space. The investment must be made in many forms, like acquiring new equipment, software and training staff on managing the new learning management systems. The teaching and support staff must be given access to ICT tools and be trained on using the learning management system (LMS) continuously. The training must be tailored to address the needs of the students, academics and other stakeholders involved. The students must be taught how to use the LMS to submit assessments, log a query, register, access student material, participate in lessons, and track financial statements, among other things. The study recommends training students on time management and managing learning activities whilst engaging in synchronous and asynchronous learning. The study noted that adopting the synchronous teaching and learning approach in IHLs is a technical and pedagogical and instructional challenge. It is recommended that enough preparation from lecturers, learners and other stakeholders is a prerequisite to ensure the effective implementation of the synchronous teaching and learning model. The study recommends cross-collaboration among teams at an IHL. The team could comprise of lecturers, content developers, ICT teams, the operations department, and sales teams to enable the success of the synchronous learning model. The study noted that moving lecturers and students out of the traditional classroom, i.e., face-to-face learning, must be viewed as a pedagogical transformation that requires the rapid mobilisation of resources among different stakeholders, colleges and universities. Synchronous teaching and learning, therefore, require lecturers to be flexible and adaptable in dealing with unanticipated circumstances, e.g., system failure and load shedding. The study recommends an alternative strategy to be in place to enable engagement with students who fail to attend a synchronous learning session. The study recommends that lecturers record their online sessions to help students who fail to engage synchronously access the learning activities conveniently. Asynchronous learning becomes an alternative approach to complement synchronous engagement. Asynchronous engagement tools like blogs, listservs, wikis, google documents, and voiceovers improve student engagement online. The synchronous tools, which include text-based charts, two-way video and audio conferencing, web conferencing,

interactive whiteboards, real-time-sharing documents, instructor-led floor control, viewable class list and participation meters, assist in making synchronous learning more real and enjoyable. The challenges in synchronous teaching and learning, including integrating technology into teaching practices and communication channels, negatively affect student engagement [6]. The challenge of monotony in synchronous teaching and learning was found to be taking place when the LMS is used as a one-way channel of passing information to students. IHL must make use of virtual private networks (VPN) connections at their campuses to carb network problems. The IHL must ensure that its facilitators and course instructors have professional teaching qualifications and teaching experience. Those falling short must undergo some training on online teaching and learning to ensure success in delivering the synchronous teaching and learning model. Lecturers are recommended to enhance interaction with students using the virtual whiteboard and grouping students into breakaway rooms during the presentation to enable them to work in smaller groups. The lecturers must allow students to post their activities, share hyperlinks and make some presentations. Whiteboards were found to act as discussion conduits as they encourage the scaffolding of concepts in the classroom. Synchronous learning was found to be cost-effective, allows peer discussion, stimulates critical thinking and promotes cognitive engagement among innovative twenty-first students. The study recommends a cross-national study among public and private institutions of higher learning to see the impact of synchronous learning during the COVID-19 pandemic.

#### **Author details**

Tinayeshe Shumba1 \* and Tunika Munkuli<sup>2</sup>

1 Faculty of Commerce, IIE Rosebank College, South Africa

2 IIE Rosebank College, South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to: tinashumba2000@gmail.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Synchronous Learning in Institutions of Higher Learning during COVID-19: Lessons… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109414*

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#### **Chapter 9**

## Higher Education: What does the Neurocognitive Evidence Say for Decision-Making and Complex Problem Solving?

*Ximena Paz Martinez Oportus and Alex W. Slater*

#### **Abstract**

Higher education aims to train suitable professionals for a globalized context and develop transversal skills that allow them to function successfully in society with the current demands. Higher education includes the entry of young people from 18, with professional careers lasting at least 4 to 5 years, graduating at approximately 23 years of age. Cognitive neurosciences show that brain maturation of the prefrontal lobe (associated with executive functions, such as decision-making, planning, and cognitive flexibility) is completed around 25 years of age, continuing with the myelination of the various processing networks. Thereby, raises the question of how to approach the resolution of complex problems that demand a battery of technical, procedural, attitudinal, and ethical implications, among others, in a brain that is still developing, still dealing with the regulation of its characteristic emotional states. At this stage of the life cycle. The chapter will allow us to reflect on the scaling of these competencies based on neuroscience to suggest methodologies that will enable, depending on the entry profile of the students, to address specific methods.

**Keywords:** higher education, neuroeducation, executive functions, problem solving, didactics

#### **1. Introduction**

Students who enter higher education are in emerging adulthood (from now on EA), a culturally constructed evolutionary period, ranging from 18 to 29 years of age, in which students are in the majority pursuing higher education in institutes or universities in most countries.

Five general characteristics of the stage in this period are defined, with an emphasis on EA [1]:


It is in this educational stage where, from curricular planning, students must make decisions and solve complex problems associated with methodological, didactic, and evaluation strategies during this period. Based on this reality, the question arises, how to generate the scalability of the learning results related to these two points, understand and attend to the neurocognitive period in which our students find themselves? We know that the competency scalability models have been studied and defined, but do we know the methodological strategies that reliably determine the achievement of the indicators?

This research also seeks to visualize this biological and social issue in the same document to generate the approach to these questions about the methodological strategies used to achieve skills. It is independent of the scalability of the skill domain in which it is located, such as being a guide to understand the faith.

#### **2. Emerging adulthood and executive functions**

The executive functions (from now on, EF) are developed through sequencing and with intervals. Some processes are carried out earlier than others and in different periods of the life cycle [2]. During the EA process, the EF presents development, potentiation, and changes that facilitate the survival of the individual. The executive functions are fundamental for achieving goals since they coordinate and organize basic cognitive processes, such as memory and perception, required for purposeful behavior [3].

EF are composed of different abilities related to the brain's prefrontal areas. The development of these is extensive in the individual's life cycle, beginning in childhood until adulthood [4]; in this course, their effect takes place throughout childhood and adolescence, reaching a peak in early adulthood. In this way, the interaction between the individual and the environment influences prefrontal maturation, allowing the consolidation of the neural networks that support executive functioning [5]. These networks continue to develop until adulthood when our student is already growing in the world of work.

#### **3. EF as complex cognitive functions**

Admission to higher education and university life requires that students self-regulate behaviors and emotions, decision-making, planning, and design strategies to be protagonists of their training process. In addition, students migrate to another institution, with other requirements and adaptation needs arising. According to Luria [6], for the development of EF, the maturity of the prefrontal lobe is required to develop even the monitoring of their learning [7]. This is how higher education students in the EA period do not have the full development of their EF and face a series of biopsychosocial factors that impact their understanding and interpretation of the world.

Various investigations focus on the differences in academic performance according to the degree of development of cognitive functions, evidencing that individuals who have difficulties in their development decrease their performance in tests that require

#### *Higher Education: What does the Neurocognitive Evidence Say for Decision-Making… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109378*

working memory, planning, and monitoring [8]. However, most of this evidence is carried out in children, with the most remarkable diversity in neurocognitive development due to various biopsychosocial variables that make it more quantifiable. Furthermore, these highly complex cognitive functions develop as the individual grows and is exposed to challenges that allow them to respond in search of survival.

This point is highly relevant since young people who still need to gain the skills of emotional or thought regulation will find it challenging to achieve a transcendental process in higher education that is significant for their professional development [9]. Once these self-regulation skills have been developed, we could think about the success of problem-solving and, as the management of disciplinary and interdisciplinary concepts progresses, the correct escalation to the resolution of complex problems.

Why is emotional regulation so relevant? What happens when this function needs to be adequately developed? Emotional regulation positively impacts the training process, determining that the student can redirect ideas, behaviors, and knowledge since the attentional circuits remain alert to the task. Still, at the same time, they are eager for more information from the environment, filtering what is essential to the process. This does not happen when the student is in an unregulated stressful and emotional state, which promotes the activation of the amygdalin zone and primary responses, such as fight, freeze, or flight, which hinders the teaching-learning process in the entire context.

The question arises as to how we develop this crucial executive function before promoting skills of high metacognitive value, such as solving complex problems. Under this prism, the need to reinforce self-knowledge and the recognition of emotions becomes crucial in developing transversal competencies as part of the navigation chart toward solving complex problems. This is reinforced by the fact that from 2020 to date, most of our students have been connected to screens, which have various impacts already known by cognitive neurosciences, one of which is crucial in post-development.

Pubertal are mirror neurons and social cognition. Understanding this as a humanizing function of anthropological value is part of the subjective and intersubjective construct of social construction and, therefore, of solving problems with collective impact.

As a pedagogical strategy, the empathic approach assumes that the educational phenomenon implies emotional transfer, and not only conceptual recognition of the other, but also considering observational learning to enable formative processes in the context of recognizing the other in their existence. Research suggests that this process also impacts verbal and nonverbal language expression and, at the brain level, promotes insular activation of emotional interoceptive mapping.

Recalling these EA, we know that in this population, there is a state of sleep debt that impacts student performance and an irregular sleep-wake cycle that affects metabolic and hormonal circadian processes that impact memory the next day [10, 11].

This set of antecedents and the absence of pedagogical strategies that impact the developing neurocognitive processes worsens the academic performance indices and exacerbates the dropout rates in higher education—in the long term, generating more significant frustration in the young population and, with this affecting the mental health of a significant percentage of the population.

#### **4. Resolution of complex problems and decision-making**

Problem-solving is part of systems thinking; it must be operational to understand and model the solution. This problem-solving determines the mobilization of a wide

range and diversity of knowledge and skills. Since there are divergences in implemented methodologies to solve problems and challenges, the student is expected to be provided with a thought structure that can be adapted to each process. At this point, decision-making begins as a fundamental part of FE.

However, the evidence suggests facilitating or inhibiting the processes, depending on the degree of emotional regulation that the individual possesses.

There is great diversity in how people regulate their thoughts and actions. Despite this, the mechanisms underlying these differences in autoregulatory processes are unknown [12]. Various studies make it possible to define and determine that the development of these EF in children and adolescents can be enhanced since the differences are evident. However, it is difficult in young or AD individuals because standardized tests do not allow for intersubjective analysis or measurement of the stress level experienced by the individual with whom they are initially tested.

Under psycho-pedagogical models and learning theories, questions related to this topic can be answered, but are the theories comparable in adult individuals? The more likely it is that each stimulus in the environment promotes the development of new connections. But what kind of stimuli? For example, can an individual with low selfconcept or empathy development, and therefore, low social skills promote adequate emotional self-regulation as central EF.

We know that reading favors attention, cognitive flexibility, monitoring, and semantic memory; writing allows the development of planning, inhibitory control, and follow-through (when evaluating spelling); and mathematics participate in working memory and logical thinking. However, in our higher education classrooms, we have digital native students who do not use manual writing, do not need spell checking since it is automated, and many mathematical processes are solved with technology.

When new questions arise, it is then to generate processes and transformation of the school and of higher education that allow student-centered learning to capture and take charge of the profiles and abilities of the new generations. Moreover, when we indicate skills, we refer to skills of the technical dimension (knowledge or knowledge), the methodological (know-how or the ability to apply knowledge), the participatory (knowing how to be), and mainly, the personal (knowing how to be and know how to live together).

It is then part of the social and ethical responsibility of teachers and institutional policies to understand that higher education institutions not only train professionals but also train people who must be agents of social change.

#### **5. Higher education and its possibility of transforming**

We know that solving complex problems requires developing critical thinking, so that students in an environment bombarded with information can discriminate valuable data from those that are not useful while using creativity to find solutions. However, these teaching-learning ecosystems must be consistent with the individual's neurobiological stage of development.

It is, therefore, necessary to provide students with tools to perform successfully in life and skills related to adaptability and resilience in the face of changes currently taking place at a political, scientific, economic, cultural, and social level. The achievement of critical skills to achieve these objectives determines broadening the training horizons far beyond what happens within the university, either virtually

*Higher Education: What does the Neurocognitive Evidence Say for Decision-Making… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109378*

or face-to-face, expanding the limits of strictly curricular training and favoring interdisciplinarity.

In addition, it is essential to highlight how transversal skills are understood and how they are being developed in the curriculum and within the hidden curriculum, which nourishes and reinforces dominant ideas and belief systems in each institution. Therefore, it underlies all educational experiences. This concept encompasses the interpersonal relationship of teachers, the expectations and trust they have with students, taking into account affectivity, interest, empathy, and other relevant soft skills. It must be gradually transferred to higher education to generate contention and joint construction of knowledge. Therefore, it refers to the immersion of the dialogue in the formative process of higher education, facilitated by the teacher [13].

It is how students must have tools to achieve decision-making in safe contexts and be prepared for it to gradually adapt to the changes that will occur once they go out into the world as professionals in various areas.

The need arises to have guidelines that guide the student and facilitate the adaptation process to arouse their curiosity and motivation and inspire that the process is genuinely transformative and that the educational process extends beyond the traditional classroom.

For these guidelines to have an impact, our focus must be on the teachers, professors, and collaborators, who participate in the educational process, creating an ecosystem that promotes natural and significant change. Furthermore, an ecosystem that promotes systemic thinking is given because global transformations related to the arts, science, and technology permeate society as a unit. Therefore, it is also urgent to rethink and observe the emerging and coexisting phenomena, so that through the educational process, it is an interconnected and interrelated network that impacts the lives of individuals at all its edges and can be analyzed.

Systemic thinking through methodological strategies, which must be connected with the socio-emotional skills of students in EA, gradually promoting all EF, where the student feels safe and protected, and giving room for error as a crucial methodology in teaching. Feedback on the didactic and evaluation process.

#### **6. Methodological proposals**

In this analysis, it will be crucial to use strategies that allow the development of research and creation and where the student feels safe from making a mistake as a fundamental part of the training process. On the other hand, training instances where students emotionally connect promote social interaction, cognition, and self-concept. Furthermore, finally, didactic strategies, where the student is not only the protagonist or an active participant in his training process but also projects himself in the first person when creating the memories to activate the attentional networks continuously.

It is suggested to consider the following:



#### **Table 1.**

*Proposal of methodological strategies.*

*Higher Education: What does the Neurocognitive Evidence Say for Decision-Making… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109378*


**Table 2.**

*Proposal of evaluative strategies.*


Strategies are recommended that, through their standardization of processes, not results, allow feedback to the teacher with greater precision, such as design thinking and even mindfulness, when working with emotional intelligence and self-regulation.

We propose the following tables of methodological strategies (**Table 1**) and evaluation strategies (**Table 2**).

Regardless of the methodological strategies, we can propose, we cannot leave the well-being of students aside as a fundamental part of their understanding of the world, the development of resilience, and self-concept. It is the basis of the importance of education for humanity. Well-being is not only the result of it, but it is necessary to conceive it in the process of it. Well-being and education must go together; these are alchemies of the life of the human being in each stage of his development, and all experience is vivid in his interpretation of reality. Generating a training process that promotes positive psychological states, such as resilience associated with well-being, improves performance in work and academic environments [14].

It could be part of micro-curricular or extracurricular interventions or immersed in the hidden curriculum we mentioned earlier.

They are ensuring that the strategies are formative and summative, according to the methodology and didactics used, and that allows continuous feedback to students.

#### **7. Conclusions**

The EA is determined in a stage of neurodevelopment, where even executive functions are strengthened, depending on emotional management influenced by the biopsychosocial context of this life cycle age. That is why generating strategies that facilitate, guide, and improve decision-making with a defined path and promote the resolution of complex problems in a controlled environment will allow the student greater comfort at the time of the training process and security. Understand that there is room for error and feedback on this scaling of abilities and skills.

Regarding the mechanisms that will allow the enhancement of the competencies associated with the resolution of complex problems, there are not only methodological ones (for which we identified the main development guidelines) but also some processes that would allow students to enhance the development of their skills. This is because it improves their well-being, and thus, reduces the risk of mental health disorders.

It would be prudent for curriculum development activities to mix interdisciplinary activities. This could be associated with methodologies of problem-solving processes, project generation, challenge-based learning, research, service learning, and simulation; but is necessary that allows the student to correctly manage their time to favor protective environments of well-being, motivation, and inspiration toward the goal. This is not new; what we can rescue is that it is known that there is evidence, as previously highlighted, of the hours of rest and sleep and their relationship with the circadian hormonal cycles; however, the schedules in most of the academic programs begin first thing in the morning. These programs were formulated for the teacher, forgetting, in a certain way, that it is the teacher who is the one who facilitates and the student who generates knowledge.

We have many opportunities to make a change that means more than curricular or methodological differences.

#### **Acknowledgements**

Thanks to the Universidad Mayor for constantly promoting an improvement in the training process of its students.

Thanks to Saint Rose School for supporting the achievement of this publication, which also promotes a constant change in the training strategies of young people of diverse cultural imprints to generate a transformative educational process that manages to expand outside the classroom.

#### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **Author details**

Ximena Paz Martinez Oportus\* and Alex W. Slater Dirección Innovación Academica, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile

\*Address all correspondence to: ximena.martinez@umayor.cl

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Higher Education: What does the Neurocognitive Evidence Say for Decision-Making… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109378*

#### **References**

[1] Barrera-Herrera A, Vinet EV. Adultez Emergente y características culturales de la etapa en universitarios chilenos. Terapia psicológica. 2017;**35**(1):47-56. DOI: 10.4067/ S0718-48082017000100005

[2] Fonseca Estupiñan G, Rodríguez Barreto L, Parra PJ. Relación entre funciones ejecutivas y rendimiento académico por asignaturas en escolares de 6 a 12 años. Revista Hacia la Promoción de la Salud. 2016;**21**(2):41- 58. https://www.redalyc.org/articulo. oa?id=309149631007

[3] Welsh MC, Friedman SL, Spieker SJ. Executive functions in developing children: Current conceptualizations and questions for the future. In: McCartney K, Phillips D, editors. Blackwell Handbook of Early Childhood Development. Blackwell Publishing; 2006. pp. 167-187. DOI: 10.1002/9780470757703.ch9

[4] Finegood ED, Blair C. Poverty, parent stress, and emerging executive functions in young children. In: Deater-Deckard K, Panneton R, editors. Parental Stress and Early Child Development: Adaptive and Maladaptive Outcomes. New York: Springer; 2017. pp. 181-2017. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-55376-4\_8

[5] Diamond A. Why improving and assessing executive functions early in life is critical. In: Griffin JA, McCardle P, Freund L, editors. Executive Function in Preschool-age Children: Integrating Measurement, Neurodevelopment, and Translational Research. Washington: American Psychological Association; 2016. pp. 11-43. DOI: 10.1037/14797002

[6] Manga D, Ramos F. El legado de Luria y la neuropsicología escolar. Psychology, Society & Education. 2011;**3**(1):1-13

[7] Rojas-Barahona CA. Funciones ejecutivas y educación. Comprendiendo habilidades claves para el aprendizaje. Santiago de Chile: Ediciones UC; 2017

[8] Visu-Petra L, Stanciu O, Benga O, Miclea M, Cheie L. Longitudinal and concurrent links between memory span, anxiety symptoms, and subsequent executive functioning in young children. Frontiers in Psychology. 2014;**5**:443. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00443

[9] Diogo B-L, Nancy L-M, Carlos R-G. Las Funciones Ejecutivas Del Lóbulo Frontal Y Su Asociación Con El Desempeño Académico De Estudiantes De Nivel Superior. Rev Ecuat Neurol. 2018;**27**(3):51-56

[10] Yanongo K, Valda LT, Mesa LB. Importancia del sueño en los procesos de aprendizaje y memoria para los estudiantes universitarios/Importance of sleep in learning and memory processes for college students. Ciencia & Conciencia. 2020;**3**(1-12)

[11] Payne JD, Tucker MA, Ellenbogen JM, Wamsley EJ, Walker MP, et al. Memory for semantically related and unrelated declarative information: the benefit of sleep, the cost of wake. PLoS One. 2012;**7**(3):e33079

[12] Miyake A, Friedman N. The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: Four general conclusions. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2012;**21**(1): 8-14. DOI: 10.1177/0963721411429458

[13] Vázquez Recio R, López Gil M. y Calvo-García, G El currículum oculto del fracaso escolar y del abandono educativo temprano. Investigación en la Escuela, 2019:**98**:16-30

[14] Salanova M, Schaufeli W, Martínez I, Bresó E. How obstacles and facilitators predict academic performance: The mediating role of study burnout and engagement. Anxiety, Stress & Coping. 2010;**23**(1):53-70

#### **Chapter 10**

## Experience-Based Reflections on the Blended Learning Pedagogical Approach in Higher Education

*Kirpa Chandan, Carmel Kealey, Patrick Timpson and Brian Murphy*

#### **Abstract**

This chapter reflects upon the blended learning approach involving the delivery of a work-based, competency-focused programme in higher education. Based on their experience, the authors present the various approaches taken to deliver an optimal blended model for this programme type in the domain of Hearing Aid Audiology. Synchronous and asynchronous online learning are appraised and strategies to encourage learner engagement are explored. Advantages and limitations of the blended approach are considered, including the external factors which can influence outcomes in blended programmes. The chapter also discusses how the rapid, unplanned, upskilling of a high percentage of academic staff to deliver online programmes during the COVID-19 global pandemic has resulted in a cohort of highly experienced academics now proficient in online delivery. This upskilling has contributed to more efficient online delivery in the post-pandemic era. The impact of this upskilling of both the learners (through increased digital literacy) and academics has created an educational ecosystem with more universities embarking on the delivery of blended learning programmes or fully online programmes. This positive outcome in the post-pandemic era may have an impact on the future delivery of programmes in the WBL space, adopting a blended learning approach, and incorporating online learning.

**Keywords:** work-based learning, healthcare, blended learning, online learning, course design adaptation

#### **1. Introduction**

This chapter explores the adoption of a blended learning mode of delivery for a part-time programme with work-based learning (WBL) as a core component. The blended learning approach contrasts to the traditional, face-to-face, pedagogical medium of delivery. The experiences of the authors when designing and delivering this type of programme will be explored. The authors provide an overview of some of the decisions made, the strategies applied, the successes and limitations of the model employed. The chapter also discusses the impact of blended learning on programme design involving WBL orientated programmes. This discussion is set in the context

of a new, emerging educational landscape of curriculum development in the post-pandemic COVID-19 era. The chapter concludes with a discussion of how this model may be altered and applied to other Allied Health Sciences type programmes incorporating WBL.

#### **2. Case-study: remodelling a part-time programme to incorporate a blended learning mode of delivery**

The chapter is set in the context of a specific case-study which involves the development of a Higher Certificate in Science (HC Sc) in the domain of Hearing Aid Audiology. The programme was delivered at a Higher Education Institute (HEI) in the Republic of Ireland (ROI). The National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ ) is a 10-level system used to describe qualifications in the Irish education and training system. The NFQ shows how General Education Awards, Further Education and Training and Higher Education Awards are mapped against the 10 levels of the framework. Under the NFQ, a Higher Certificate (HC) is aligned as a Level 6 programme. The HC aligns to Level 5 under the corresponding European Qualifications Framework (EQF). The EQF [1] supports mobility across the EU and allows qualifications attained in any EU country to be classified and organised into an eight-level system. The EQF allows learners, education providers and employers a mechanism to compare qualifications between different countries' national qualifications systems. The NFQ Level 6 qualification is aligned to a Level 5 Foundation Degree under the Framework for Higher Education Qualifications (FHEQ ) of Degree Awarding Bodies in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Foundation Degree programmes which integrate WBL and focus on the part-time learner are found in several domains including the Allied Health Sciences. The authors have previously shown, [2], how the integration of a model of blended learning can often prove to be the optimal mode of delivery for this cohort of learners.

The programme discussed in this case-study required learners to attend the HEI one day per week for four semesters with learners completing an applied practice module in their workplace. Feedback from academic staff and learners indicated that the design of the programme was challenging and found to be operating ineffectively for both the learner and employer as stakeholders. Consequently, a review of the curriculum design was initiated. The multifaceted review included four tiers to be considered:


The outcome of this review culminated in a redesign of the HC programme. This resulted in the introduction of a blended learning mode of delivery which incorporated both online learning and WBL, with face-to-face elements delivered in oncampus, residential block periods of study and training. The adapted programme was

#### *Experience-Based Reflections on the Blended Learning Pedagogical Approach in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109471*

submitted for re-evaluation, through the HEI's standard Quality Assurance processes and procedures. This Quality Assurance process involved both internal review and validation by a panel of external assessors which included an international Professor of Audiology, a senior representative of the professional body, and an online learning specialist from an external university.

The Programme Design Team introduced week-long residential blocks into the modified programme, with the aim of addressing the significant disruption caused to students having to return to the HEI once per week to engage with face-to-face sessions in the original programme delivery. The week-long residential block system also was expected to alleviate concerns raised by the students enrolled on the original programme with respect to the substantial weekly travel costs incurred going to and from campus for just one day on a weekly basis. As is the norm on many of these programmes which serve a national cohort, students often reside at considerable distances from the HEI.

Academic staff expressed the view that consecutive days on campus would enable a better educational experience for the learner. This would allow the students to have more time to engage with the lecture content in a supportive educational environment, and facilitate greater interaction with their peers and the academic staff. The residential block model was deemed to benefit not only the teaching of theoretical concepts but also professional practice in Audiology. Additional time allowed for a more in-depth exploration of topics and the application of theoretical principles to practice. The remodelled programme included supportive online learning between the residential blocks. This complemented the face-to-face sessions and kept learners engaged with the core theoretical concepts. WBL was integrated continuously throughout the two years of the programme. The integration of this learning model provided most of the required practical skills, professional competencies, and training opportunities. Additional training and practical assessment took place when students were on campus for the residential blocks. In total, there was a total of six residential blocks over the two years of the programme.

#### **2.1 Pedagogical considerations in curriculum design**

Where possible, programme design should include a variety of pedagogical approaches at both the programme and modular levels. This helps to accommodate different learning styles, provide a conducive learning environment and a supportive platform to allow each learner to succeed. This approach is the essence of Universal Design for Learning (UDL), encapsulating choice in all areas of pedagogical delivery. The UDL framework helps to promote an inclusive education in a diverse classroom setting [3]. It encompasses how learners engage with their programme of study, how they engage with the assessment model and how they learn. UDL also places a high degree of responsibility on the academic staff delivering a programme, as they are tasked with finding novel ways to address the challenges of a diverse student cohort [3] whilst ensuring an inclusive learning environment.

A behaviourist approach to teaching and learning has an emphasis on learned behaviours. Cognitivism is considered an active process and constructivism uses novel understandings by working through problems, by combining knowledge from different sources [4]. Various pedagogical methodologies include but are not limited to traditional, university-style lectures, problem-based learning (PBL), active learning activities (such as case studies, critical reviews of procedures, flipped classroom activities etc.) and practical tasks associated with clinical competency procedures.

In the flipped classroom approach, traditionally what would be completed in a classroom setting will be carried out by the student in their own time or vice-versa [5]. Adopting the mixed methods approach [4], helps to ensure that all modes of learning are supported. Regardless of students' perception of their learning style preference, adequate support should be provided in the educational environment to allow them to achieve their individual best.

Additionally, it is important for graduates to develop capacity for independent learning, reflective and evidence-based best practice, and the ability to enhance their problem solving and team-working aptitudes. As advocated in Ref. [4], using a combination of pedagogical approaches assists the learner in nurturing such skills and competencies. Several studies across multiple disciplines outline various modules and programmes which highlight the importance of the development of transversal skills within a curriculum [6, 7]. The incorporation of generic, transversal skills within a curriculum is important in healthcare, as such skills are essential to the Allied Healthcare practitioner working daily in a modern, multi-disciplinary professional environment.

#### **2.2 Reflection on implementation of a part-time programme incorporating WBL, delivered through blended learning**

#### *2.2.1 Reflection on the residential block model*

Residential study programmes are often an integral component of blended learning programmes. The Open University in the UK has used a model of Residential Summer Schools to great effect as part of its blended learning approach to programme delivery. One of the authors of this current Book Chapter served as a Residential Tutor at one of the week-long Open University Summer Schools in Chemistry at the Department of Chemistry at the University of Nottingham over several years. Reflecting on the pedagogical benefit of such a model the authors see the advantage of the Residential School model to the part-time learner, as part of the blended learning mode of delivery. The key to the success of such a model is the integration of several key strands within the residential programme. These include having a dedicated team of enthusiastic and supportive academic and technical staff, a suitably tailored induction session, an intensive programme of practical work, tutorial sessions and a strong programme of social activities. This interaction creates an environment where students experience community life in a university setting. Any residential programme should also ensure that students have access to the various support networks that universities provide to full-time students, including access to Student Resource Centre personnel, healthcare and other pastoral supports, access to library, IT, and sports facilities. Of course, the challenge for the university in supporting a residential programme almost always centres on the deliberation between the economic cost of running such a programme (often outside of formal teaching time during a semester) and the educational benefit gained by the part-time learner, while being on campus.

With respect to the HC programme, the establishment of the "university community" ecosystem developed from the outset of the programme. As part of the first residential block, an induction programme designed by the Programme Team was delivered to include scheduled sessions from student support services including the Student Resource Centre, the Students' Union, and library support staff. The induction programme ensured that all students were aware of and had access to all academic and pastoral support services. The induction also included a comprehensive

#### *Experience-Based Reflections on the Blended Learning Pedagogical Approach in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109471*

IT session. For students on blended programmes, the virtual learning environment (VLE) plays a particularly important role as it is their primary point of contact with peers and lecturers. The VLE provides access to the online classroom and acts as a repository for programme information and activities. Interestingly, students who use VLEs regularly have been shown to perform better at examinations than those who only use it as a resource just before an examination [8]. Therefore, within the IT session, the session leader typically demonstrated how to engage with the Moodle VLE, source information, upload assignments, use forums and discussion boards, communicate with peers and lecturers and so forth. Whilst a small number of the students on the HC programme had prior experience of VLEs, many had no previous experience. The Programme Team found that it was important to schedule this hands-on session at the beginning of the programme. The IT session also showed students how to log onto and get familiar with Adobe Connect which was the platform used for both synchronous and asynchronous online lectures at the time of the initial programme delivery. Providing these sessions during the induction ensured all students attained the basic skills to use the platforms required for the online elements. This helped reduce the possibility of potential problems arising later during programme delivery.

Residential block activities in the programme included traditional, face-to-face lectures, workshops, group work, smaller group tutorials, practical training, and assessment. In the context of WBL, the Programme Design Team was conscious that many of the learners on this programme were returning to education after many years and had limited experience of university life. As most of these students were on campus during the residential blocks, the Programme Design Team concluded on reflection that this type of learner can feel extremely isolated and may not consider themselves part of the "university community". During the recent COVID-19 global pandemic, this degree of social isolation of the online learner was found to have grown exponentially. This was the personal experience of the authors in their own universities when supporting their student cohorts in their learning pathways throughout the pandemic. As academic staff, the authors found that not only were they serving their central academic function, but in addition the pastoral role of the academic staff member increased, which invited considerable self-reflection on the optimal mode of learning style that should be fostered. In many cases the authors found that the creation of an active learning ecosystem in their programme delivery, maximising student peer-to-peer interactivity, had to be elevated. The challenge for the university academic is often to create the educational and social environment of the university community in a uniquely online world. Of course, the experiences gained by this academic form of self-reflection creating a university community for the online learner provides a perspective that the academic often may not fully appreciate. This is of particular consideration especially when working with learner cohorts in fully online or blended learning programmes, incorporating a WBL element.

The authors found that one main advantage of the weekly residential block model was that students experienced a structured induction during the initial stages. Induction sessions were conducted by the Academic Team and representatives from the wider HEI support services. Due to time constraints with respect to effectively delivering the programme, the restricted model of students being present on campus for only one day per week, resulted in students having a relatively shorter induction programme than would normally be the case. This caused problems later in the original programme, as students were often unaware of HEI policies particularly around assessment processes, and support networks. Academic staff who had taught on both iterations of the programme felt that the benefits of the multiple induction sessions in the week-long

residential block model contributed to the delivery of a considerably more efficient and streamlined programme. Students were aware from the start of the programme of the available support services such as academic writing and mathematics tutorials. Several students availed of these services, in contrast to the cohort who were enrolled initially on the programme, and who were present on campus for only one day weekly. Additionally, learners taking the revised programme were aware of the importance of deadlines and assignments, mitigation, and penalties for late submission as they were provided with this information verbally during their induction (in addition to the relevant handbooks and regulations). Both students and staff felt that the week-long residential blocks allowed students to be part of the HEI community. Students also informally relayed back to academic staff that as they were on campus in block periods, they got to network with their peers in the evenings which made their studies more enjoyable. Informal study groups were established by the students themselves during the residential programme, which proved advantageous during the programme roll-out.

From the collective academic and management experience of the authors across a broad spectrum of programmes, frequently it was found that the students considered the first residential induction week as involving a degree of "information overload". Learners may not recall everything that they were told during this session. The Programme Design Team found it was important that key documentation was also provided in hard-copy format following the induction session, such as the Programme Handbook and other relevant information. One of the recommendations from the focus groups with stakeholders indicated that it was "… important that the HEI provides the same pastoral care to online learners". Therefore, in addition to the strategies discussed, a Personal Tutor system was implemented for the programme. Learners had a dedicated member of the academic staff who served as a personal contact for advice or support throughout the entire programme. As the authors reflect on the world of online learning in the post-COVID-19 world, the importance of the establishment of the Personal Tutor system for universities engaging in any form of programme delivery with an online model is essential. For universities of the future to be fully designated as student-centred educational communities, the centrality of each learner must be at the core of programme delivery.

The authors reflected upon feedback gathered from the stakeholders. They concluded that the residential block approach for delivery was successful and had several beneficial outcomes. For the student cohort, it provided a significant reduction in travel time to and from campus. Their residential block was found to be intensive but focussed. Students were not distracted by work commitments and responsibilities or other external factors but could fully engage with the learning. Additionally, students also reported that importantly it provided them with an opportunity to get to know their peers and build informal support networks. Academic staff who taught both on the original one day per week on-campus programme and the remodelled blended programme felt that the week-long residential blocks worked much better for students for a number of reasons:


*Experience-Based Reflections on the Blended Learning Pedagogical Approach in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109471*

the delivery of theory and practical training. Whereas in the previous model, the scaffolding modules were afforded little face-to-face time as the focus was on core material.

The first iteration of the blended programme included six residential blocks. Based on feedback from the first student cohort and as discussed in [2] the learners felt that more residential blocks were needed. Therefore, the number of blocks was increased to seven for the subsequent cohort.

Taking a wider prism view beyond COVID-19, some of the authors also engaged recently in the introduction of Team-Based Learning (TBL) in programme delivery in programmes in the STEM area. TBL is an established model of group work [9–11] and has been found to be an excellent way to develop key skills such as critical thinking, communication and teamwork. Using this approach students are motivated to learn and engage in the learning process. TBL empowers students to become effective problem solvers and gain the requisite skills to become lifelong learners. The main methodology applied in TBL is that learners study core content outside of formal class time employing a flipped classroom approach through guided reading. Learners then engage in group activities to consolidate understanding and application of their acquired knowledge. In TBL resources for self-directed pre-class study are provided. The TBL Study Packs include guided reading, internet resources and textbook chapters. This prepares learners for the Readiness Assurance Process (RAP), Application Exercises, laboratory work, training sessions and workshop sessions. In TBL, learners are assessed via a range of assessments and engage with a Readiness Assurance Test (RAT) at the commencement of each TBL class. This includes both Individual (iRAT) and Team Assessments (tRAT). On completion of each iRAT assessment, learners form their pre-assigned teams (5–7 learners) and retake the assessment collectively as a team (tRAT). Once all the answers have been collated, learners receive real-time, in-class feedback from academic staff. The teams of learners apply their new knowledge and understanding to a range of formative and summative Application Exercises (AE). These may include role plays, problem-solving, experimental work, training exercises and reports, depending on the subject domain.

The authors' recent experience of TBL suggests that this model would be an excellent platform to adopt at a Residential School, where the part-time learner engaged in WBL forms the student cohort. TBL has been applied effectively at a number of universities worldwide including the University of Bradford in the UK in the field of Pharmacy [12]. The Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Biotechnology at the Technological University of the Shannon in the ROI has also adopted the model more recently in Pharmacology, Engineering and Business. TBL is now considered as a model of international best practice and can easily be integrated into blended programmes with a WBL remit.

#### *2.2.2 Reflection on the effectiveness of a blended learning approach for the delivery of the WBL programme from the case-study*

To evaluate the effectiveness of the blended approach, the authors investigated whether the blended approach is appropriate for programmes where there is a WBL element that involves the development of competencies. Data collection began when the first cohort completed the two-year HC programme and after the second cohort had completed their first year of the programme. Feedback was collected from learners, employer representatives and academic staff regarding the effectiveness and suitability of a blended learning approach. Employer feedback was important to

ensure that as a HEI, the needs of the profession were considered. Research findings are presented in Ref. [2]. Learners confirmed that the blended model enabled them to attain a qualification whilst in employment. A range of positive comments was evident from analysis of the survey of learners. Comments included students stating that the model allowed them to continue in employment and students stating that their financial outlays were significantly reduced with the modification of the programme delivery to the week-long residential blocks, spread over the academic year. The learners also commented favourably on the flexible, accessible nature of the model. 94% of the students surveyed felt that the online sessions supported the face-to-face sessions during the residential blocks [2]. Some limitations reported on the blended approach included: Students felt that more in class face-to face-time was needed; one employer suggested that clearer guidance was needed as to academic staff availability. Some academic staff also raised the same issue that there was a mismatch between students' expectations/the timings of student requests with staff availability [2].

#### *2.2.3 Reflections on the operational challenges of embedding synchronous and asynchronous activities*

The online elements of the programme were delivered using both synchronous and asynchronous learning and teaching approaches. Synchronous elements were carried out in real-time at a set time and date similar to a traditional face-to-face lecture, allowing for two-way live interaction. The asynchronous activities provided the learner with flexibility as to when they engaged with programme content material. A transparent feasible timetable, clearly outlining the synchronous and asynchronous activities was critical for the success of the programme. In advance of designing the schedule, Module Leaders worked together to determine the number of sessions required to be delivered synchronously and those that could be completed asynchronously. Synchronous and asynchronous activities were decided in advance of the commencement of each semester as students needed to organise their schedules. During the planning process, this had to be considered at programme level, as the level of synchronous sessions across all modules in any one week had to be feasible and practicable for students. For the first cohort, designing the schedules by the Programme Team proved particularly challenging. The HEI timetabling system was not set up to manage a programme with concurrent synchronous and asynchronous delivery and on-site residential blocks. The Programme Leader liaised with each of the Module Leaders and collated their requirements for delivery for each of their respective modules. A week-by-week schedule for all modules was then constructed. Clear instruction regarding synchronous and asynchronous activities was provided in advance of the commencement of the programme, thereby facilitating both students working fulltime and academic staff who often had additional teaching commitments. Across the modules, the number of live synchronous sessions was limited to one or two maximum per week to make engagement and delivery feasible.

The Academic Team found that there were some technical difficulties in the first week of delivering the live online elements of the programme. Staff reported that it was challenging and difficult to deal with technology issues whilst also delivering a lecture. In most cases, problem solving enabled the live classroom lecture to continue but in some instances the session had to be rescheduled which resulted in considerable inconvenience. As students and academic staff became more familiar with the technology, fewer issues were encountered and in general online lectures ran smoothly. Academic staff progressively became more proficient with the technology, appeared to cope better with IT problems as they arose and were able to deal with issues more promptly.

#### *Experience-Based Reflections on the Blended Learning Pedagogical Approach in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109471*

The live sessions were conducted to be as interactive as possible. Learner engagement was maximised by using different methods such as the chat box function within Adobe Connect, verbal engagement, polls and/or using the interactive whiteboard [2]. The main advantage of the live webinars was that they were conducted in real time and allowed two-way interaction between the learners and lecturers and interaction between peers. It was also particularly important to use live sessions for the more difficult topics as it provided the student with an opportunity to ask questions and get clarification from the lecturer in real time. This meant the lecturer was able to discuss an answer in a more meaningful manner, explain a concept in further detail and engage with the entire class cohort to ascertain if a topic or answer required further explanation. This approach mirrored the normal staff-student type of engagement encountered in the educational setting of a traditional face-to-face lecture. Live webinars also provided students with an interactive learning environment where they could engage with each other outside of the residential blocks and therefore helped create a more collaborative and supportive peer-to-peer network.

Asynchronous sessions allowed the learner to access the material in their own time. This provided learners with a degree of flexibility to engage with material content at a time that best suited the individual. Activities included pre-recorded lectures and other supplementary videos. Academic staff found that substantial time was required for the preparation of pre-recorded lectures. Whilst one may argue that this time implication may balance out over subsequent years of delivery (as prerecordings may potentially be used again for future cohorts), most lecturers tend to update content annually so recordings would also have to be updated/re-recorded. An advantage of employing pre-recorded lectures, however, is that students can study subject content at a pace and time that suits the individual. In this programme, asynchronous activities were released at a specific day each week and students were requested to engage at some point during the same week. Prompt engagement was important as activities generally built upon prior knowledge.

#### **2.3 Reflection on WBL**

#### *2.3.1 Challenges to WBL*

The primary challenge when delivering a work-based, competency-focused programme relates to achieving consistency of the application of standards set by the professional body, across all training sites. The professional standards set by the professional bodies are aligned to the quality standards set by the HEI, as determined by the Aim and Objective of the validated programme and its associated Programme Learning Outcomes. It is imperative that all students receive appropriate training that meets the standards of the profession. To achieve consistency, training is best conducted to defined competency standards and universally applied across all sites [2].

To help avoid/address the challenge of ensuring consistency of workplace training, three quality enhancement strategies within the programme were introduced:


#### *2.3.2 PE training*

A one-day mandatory training course at the HEI was designed for the PEs responsible for the training of students in the workplace. The literature has since recommended that there should be greater focus on the education and training of PEs [13]. It is widely recognised that universities must consider mandatory training for PEs particularly in relation to performance-based assessment [14]. Training for the PEs on the HC programme was particularly critical as they played a pivotal role in assessing a summative practical competency logbook. The PE training day included tailored sessions designed to support the PE in their responsibilities. The programme included the following sessions:


The quality standards and assessment sessions are particularly important. As reported in Ref. [15], a large variation was found in the judgement of PEs when assessing nursing students' performance. Therefore, training for PEs was necessary to help ensure consistency in assessment performance and assessment to the correct standards. As found in a corresponding study involving a radiography programme [16], students reported that one of the factors they felt affected their ability to complete their clinical assessments was PEs being unaware of what was needed to complete assessments. Consequently, the Programme Team on the HC worked with PEs to ensure they were fully aware of what was required for practical assessments. A session was delivered for the PEs to guide them in providing meaningful formative feedback to students during their WBL. The literature emphasises the importance of fostering a "feedback culture" and engaging with students to allow them take on board feedback received [17]. Cognisant of the fact that some PEs may not have supervised/taught students previously, the Programme Team also provided a session on student learning styles. During this session, the Programme Team discussed with the PEs how knowledge of students' preference for a particular learning style can help the PE support the student to achieve and succeed [18].

PEs were also provided with hard copy supporting documentation including a dedicated PE manual which provided additional information and links to resources, programme requirements and timelines. Providing PEs with training and associated learning materials serves as a useful resource in the provision of practice-based training [14]. Moreover, regulatory bodies need assurance from universities that PEs are competent in preparing and assessing healthcare students so in turn the students' become competent professionals in the workplace [19].

*Experience-Based Reflections on the Blended Learning Pedagogical Approach in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109471*

#### *2.3.3 Educational audits of work-based sites*

Each work-based training site was formally audited by two academic staff from the HEI. The academic staff comprised a Lead Auditor who was the Programme Leader and a clinically qualified Audiologist, as well as a second Auditor who was another management/academic staff member involved in the programme. The Lead Auditor attended each site visit, thereby ensuring consistency of the audit process. The quality element of the educational audit of the work-based clinical site was arranged in advance with the work-based PE. During the visit the Auditors completed an extensive 9-page document examining areas such as:


Four outcomes were possible from the site audit:


The HEI Auditors typically supplied a copy of the report to the PE within one week of the audit. Where an overall classification of 2 or 3 was awarded, the Auditors were required to supply a recommendation to the PEs as to the issues that needed to be addressed to deem the site suitable for training provision. Timelines to address these issues were provided and follow up agreed. The site visit audit also provided a forum (in addition to the PE training) for PEs to ask any additional questions to HEI staff.

HEI staff found the site visits particularly useful as they provided an opportunity to make sure each site had the necessary resources to deliver an effective and consistent educational experience to the students. Most of the site visits achieved a rating of 2 or 3 and therefore had some recommendations to address. All sites audited addressed the recommendations. If it had been the case that any site had not addressed compulsory recommendations or had achieved a rating of 4, these sites would have not been deemed suitable nor used in the workplace training of students.

#### *2.3.4 Reflection on the impact of WBL*

WBL can promote the link between practical training conducted in the workplace and HEI discipline-based imparted knowledge [20]. On reflection, the authors feel that the WBL elements of the blended HC in Hearing Aid Audiology programme served their purpose effectively in delivering the overall aim of the programme. The authors believe that the three quality assurance strategies discussed in 2.3.1. helped prevent any significant issues arising in the workplace training and assessment. The strategies helped promote the application of the appropriate quality standards required by the HEI through its quality framework and aligned to the professional standards set by the professional bodies. The strategies also promoted appropriate application of the assessment model within the workplace setting. As discussed in Ref. [2], the authors came to the overall conclusion that in relation to WBL, the HC programme prepared the learner for the workplace and enabled the learner to successfully attain the required competencies.

A systematic review of WBL in nursing found that time constraints and pressures within professional practice can make critical reflection difficult to apply [21]. As part of the audit of the HC sites, PEs were asked how often they would meet with students to encourage them to critically reflect on their professional practice as part of their overall reflection on WBL [22]. The role of the PE in this process is significant. Where time was deemed insufficient by the PE to carry out this function during the normal working week, Auditors made compulsory recommendations as part of the audit follow-up process. Also, by building this practice into the audit process, it meant that during the programme if students felt they were not provided with ample time to discuss their progress with the PE through a self-reflective process, the Programme Leader could act as a liaison between the student and the PE. The PE was reminded in such circumstances of the process expected by the HEI as part of their role and responsibility, having agreed to sign up to the WBL process. In a few instances, a small number of students reported to the HEI Programme Leader that the PE was not allocating sufficient time to the student to meet them and engage in this reflection process. The Programme Leader was able to gently intervene and remind the PEs of their agreement in the audit process, and in most cases, this was addressed immediately. The academic staff understood that PEs' primary obligation is to their clinics, and that PEs often have high workloads, so these issues are typically addressed and solved informally. In one case, this was not addressed immediately, and the PE needed to be reminded several times. Sometimes issues can remain unresolved for an extended period. In this case a meeting was held between the PE and Programme Leader. The PE was reminded of the importance of scheduled, regular reflection with the student and after this meeting, the issue was typically rectified. The author found that by requesting the PE to commit to regular meetings with their student encouraged more regular reflection for the students with the PEs and helped improve the students practice and enhance the WBL.

#### **2.4 Additional strategies**

Whilst overall the blended model worked well for this HC WBL programme, the authors consider that several minor changes could be made to enhance this type of programme. Ideally, the involvement of a Learning Technologist or IT Technician acting as a support person in the delivery of all live online lectures would be beneficial to address any technical problems quickly. Whilst cost implications may prevent a

*Experience-Based Reflections on the Blended Learning Pedagogical Approach in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109471*

Learning Technologist/IT Technician being a viable option for all webinars across each module, the authors feel that as a minimum some degree of technical support should be available for the first two webinars of any online programme to help students and staff with any technological issues as they arise.

The authors also believe that for a programme where students are required to obtain practical competency in patient-facing programmes, a fully online programme with WBL is not sufficient. Residential blocks provide additional opportunities for learners to enhance their practical training, engage in person with the academic staff and gain greater exposure to theoretical concepts through the associated on-campus supporting lecture and tutorial sessions. Although the authors found that student feedback strongly supports the week-long residential blocks in this HC programme, the authors acknowledge that alternate options for the delivery of face-to-face sessions may work more optimally for other discipline-based programmes.

#### **3. Reflections on a changing educational pedagogical landscape post-pandemic**

As the authors of this chapter contemplate the optimal model and mechanism for delivering a blended learning WBL programme to part-time learners their thoughts necessitate greater reflection on delivery across the periods of pre- and post-pandemic COVID-19. Like so many other academic staff around the globe, the authors of this chapter embarked on a further journey of self-discovery, whilst navigating the online world which universities faced overnight in March 2020, resulting from the unprecedented COVID-19 global pandemic.

An example is taken from one of the authors who co-ordinated the rapid move to fully online teaching for a new part-time MSc Hearing, Balance and Communication programme in 2020 at University College Cork in the ROI. The author had 3 years previous experience in coordinating and delivering components online and overall the move to online teaching for the MSc proved to be effective. The MSc programme consisted of both core and elective modules. The majority of the modules were offered via three routes:


Whilst the overall transition to this delivery mode worked smoothly, some challenges were encountered. The students enrolled on the programmes were also working professionals and the teaching was scheduled to be delivered over two-day blocks for smaller credit modules and three-day blocks for larger modules. The student cohort comprised of professionals from a range of multidisciplinary medical and healthcare backgrounds who continued to work throughout the pandemic. Although teaching had to be moved online, the university found that it had to maintain the original schedule of the two or three intensive block days to avoid clashes with students' work schedules. To address the problem faced, it was found that the only way to deliver successful, interactive, online sessions condensed into the two or three full days was for synchronous delivery to be employed in a "conference style" approach. Due

to the different entry routes for each module, the author as part of the Programme Team was cognisant that those attending particularly via the CPD route may not have had previous experience of the online delivery in an educational setting. Using past experience of working online with part-time students, the author ensured that stepby-step instructions were provided in advance to help attendees participate online. To help navigate the challenges of intensive full days of live online delivery, the author coordinating this programme ensured that there was always a minimum of two members of staff present (in addition to the speaker/lecturer) throughout each of the intensive two three-day online webinars. A member of the IT Technical staff was also on standby. One member of staff was given the role to introduce the plan for the day, introduce each speaker, ensure smooth transitions between speakers and so forth. The second staff member was available to answer any queries, assist in monitoring the chat box, help guest lecturers with IT issues and where needed contacting the IT Technical support on standby. There were some instances of guest lecturers needing some IT assistance. Having the second member of staff available and IT colleagues on standby was critical. This resulted in an overall successful delivery of several two-tothree-day sessions throughout the pandemic on the MSc.

Due to the rapid, unplanned, upskilling of a high percentage of higher education staff globally to deliver programmes online overnight during the COVID-19 pandemic, many academic staff are now highly experienced in delivering online programmes. This upskilling, in a very positive way, has contributed to more efficient online delivery of current programmes in the post-pandemic era. Throughout the period following Spring 2020, Learning and Teaching Centres at universities worldwide provided an excellent repository of resources and training sessions to facilitate this upskilling of academic staff in the online world. In parallel, relatively new technologies and platforms came to the fore of academic delivery, including Zoom and MS Teams. In a very short period academic staff became proficient in the delivery of programmes online and gained greater competency in the use of emerging technologies. In addition, the pandemic in many ways catalysed many part-time learners who previously struggled with technologies to become adept and skilled rapidly. The impact of this upskilling of both the learner and the academic staff member has created an educational ecosystem which now means that more universities are taking the plunge into the delivery of blended learning programmes or fully online programmes. The world of educational delivery certainly has taken on a new trajectory. This positive outcome in the post-pandemic era may have an impact on the future delivery of programmes in the WBL space, adopting a blended learning approach, incorporating online learning.

Considering the potential that this world of blended learning holds for the university of the future, corresponding alignment with educational policy both at the national (i.e. ROI or UK) and at the European level may be evident in this context. On 16 June 2022, the Council of the European Union (EU) adopted a Recommendation on a European approach to micro-credentials encompassing lifelong learning and employability [23, 24]. The Recommendation aims to support the development, implementation, and recognition of micro-credentials across the university and enterprise sectors and across the EU member states. As articulated by the Council, an effective culture of lifelong learning is essential in ensuring that communities and employees have the requisite knowledge, skills-base and competencies required for continuous professional development and personal growth. Micro-credentials certify the learning outcomes of short-term learning experiences, which may be short programmes of study or defined training periods. The flexible nature of

#### *Experience-Based Reflections on the Blended Learning Pedagogical Approach in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109471*

micro-credentials makes them highly attractive to employers and employees. The short bite-sized nature of micro-credentials also align their application with the ECTS model adopted by European universities across the EU.

There has been exponential growth in the recent development of micro-credentials throughout the EU. This development aligns squarely with the continued growth in programmes delivered via the blended learning mode. The European Council has stated that the opportunities afforded by micro-credentials allow for the provision of more flexible, learner-centred forms of education and training. Another benefit of micro-credentials is that they offer education and training opportunities to a broader spectrum of diverse learners. Micro-credentials can play a very effective role through educational means in assisting some of the socioeconomically disadvantaged groups in society.

The impact of the potential development of micro-credentials can be seen in some of the mission statements of European universities formed through the establishment on a pan-European basis of European University Alliances. European Universities are transnational alliances that have the potential to raise the quality standards and competitiveness of European higher education, [25], paving the way for the university of the future. A key aim of these Alliances is to deliver student-centred curricula, jointly delivered across the various university partnerships. One recently established Alliance has been the creation of the RUN-EU Regional University Network. RUN-EU is now to become an alliance of nine higher education institutions with similar mission statements drawn from across various regions of Europe. The Alliance was established in 2020 under the European Universities Initiative. The Technological University of the Shannon is one member of this European Alliance. As a member of this Initiative, the university is central to the creation of a regional development-oriented European University that embodies the values of sustainability, multiculturalism and inclusiveness, encapsulated in its overall mission [26]. Since 2020, several short-advanced programmes (SAPs) have already been developed across the Network and the university of the future will see further growth in this type of programme. The authors consider this strategic trajectory for many of the European universities to be a platform to allow closer alignment of universities with enterprise and business. Such an alignment can capitalise on WBL opportunities, increased blended learning modes of delivery and greater use of educational technologies to support learning.

One of the authors has recently been involved in designing a Foundation Degree in Hearing Aid Audiology at the University of Central Lancashire in the UK, which is similar in scope and structure to the HC. The authors own previous experience in delivering the HC in the ROI (focus of case-study of this chapter) proved an important experiential step in contributing to the most effective, overall programme design. The author also coordinated and delivered modules on two MSc programmes online during the pandemic at University College Cork in ROI. This collective combination of experiences in online learning helped to inform overall programme design elements for the Foundation Degree at the University of Central Lancashire.

The Foundation Degree programme is designed in a similar fashion to the HC programme combining on-campus residential blocks and integrated face-to-face teaching with WBL and online learning. The programme was accredited by the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC) in August 2022 and is due to commence in September 2023. Within the same School of Medicine at the University of Central Lancashire there are other allied healthcare programmes with similar structures successfully operating in both Ophthalmic Dispensing and Optometry. On these programmes students acquire practical experience in their work-based practices

and attend the university in residential blocks for face-face instruction with the remainder of the learning conducted online. The Optometry programme was the first Optometry programme in the UK to be delivered in the blended format and graduates have all successfully registered with their registration body.

The authors suggest that this model integrating the residential block model, online learning and WBL will continue to develop and expand in future programme development. The model has the potential to be adopted by other professions both within healthcare and other subject domains, such as in the STEM area.

#### **4. Conclusions**

The model used for the HC Sc Hearing Aid Audiology programme can be applied to many other Allied Health professional programmes or programmes in other discipline areas that involve competency-based training. The HC programme was delivered through a blended learning mode of delivery that incorporated a residential block model, online learning (synchronous and asynchronous) and WBL. Introduction of week-long residential blocks, combined with WBL for competency skills and online learning, proved through this case-study to be a very effective and sustainable model. This model has the capacity to be attractive to employees wishing to upskill, whilst remaining in employment. The flexibility of the structure allows the model to be used across a wide range of discipline areas at all academic levels in tertiary education.

As a result of the COVID-19 global pandemic, the advent of both fully online and blended programmes has been significantly accelerated. The world of education has changed irrevocably, as lecturers (and members of the teaching profession) were catapulted into online teaching rapidly, often with no prior formal training in this space. The HC began prior to the pandemic and technology has evolved significantly in recent years since the programme was designed. MS Teams and Zoom technologies are now commonplace additions to online delivery platforms. Whilst many universities have returned to on-campus instruction in the post-pandemic era, many HEIs have retained online elements. A high percentage of universities have now also commenced delivering fully online courses, thereby widening educational provision. Access to higher education has evolved in this period, particularly for specific cohorts who previously may not have been able to enrol on full-time, traditional programmes. The impact of the acceleration of online learning post-pandemic has opened up a world of programmes to multiple cohorts. These include part-time learners wanting to acquire academic qualifications, part-time learners requiring upskilling through the increased volume of micro-credentials available or employees wishing to enrol on CPD courses.

One of the authors delivering Masters level CPD modules during the pandemic, surveyed participants who suggested that flexibility of online delivery of CPD courses allowed them to engage in increased professional development. The European Council has recently consolidated some of these educational opportunities and have stated that the opportunities afforded by micro-credentials allow for the provision of more flexible, learner-centred forms of education and training. One clear benefit of micro-credentials is that they offer education and training pathways to a broader spectrum of diverse learners.

The background of learners is also an important consideration when designing online or blended learning programmes. Whilst many school leavers may have

#### *Experience-Based Reflections on the Blended Learning Pedagogical Approach in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109471*

experience and be particularly proficient with technology, this may not apply to all schools. This holds especially for those schools located in poorer socioeconomic areas within a region that may not have access to the necessary technological infrastructure. The HC programme discussed in this chapter involved a foundation level HC for mature students. The educational background of these students was diverse. To ensure that all registered students embarking on the programme had a sufficient standard of digital literacy, the Programme Team included a significant digital skills element as part of the induction. The authors found through their experience that it is important when designing blended or fully online programmes to be cognisant of the fact that even in the post-pandemic age of vast technology, it should not be taken for granted that all learners will be proficient with all IT platforms. For some programmes inclusion of this digital skills session may not be necessary. Hence, by scheduling this as an optional session puts the onus on the student to decide whether they need this training or not.

One of the challenges facing Programme Design Teams when converting/designing blended/online programmes with a work-based or placement element in the field of healthcare is to ensure that the programme is fit for purpose and meeting professional body regulations. It is particularly essential that programmes that involve the training of healthcare students who will be working with patients retain their rigour. University policy of having robust Quality Assurance and Quality Enhancement procedures in place that facilitate excellence in the practice of work based/placement elements is essential.

It has also become evident that social isolation can become a concern for both students and staff in a fully online world [27]. It is important that Programme Design Teams consider ways to prevent this from occurring in online/blended programmes. During the pandemic many accounts were reported by the international media of students stating that online lectures were all asynchronous and students had no synchronous interaction with their lecturers. Strategies designed to avoid this were discussed in this chapter. These include building a meaningful, structured induction session into a programme from the outset. This builds the foundation for the establishment of a university community of learners, academic staff and associated university student supports. Additionally, ensuring that online elements comprise of at least some synchronous components is important. Incorporating learning and teaching strategies such as TBL into programmes can also help promote peer-to-peer learning. Two-way interaction between the lecturer and students and peer-to-peer networking further creates the environment of a connected university community, placing the learner at its core.

### **Author details**

Kirpa Chandan1 \*, Carmel Kealey2 , Patrick Timpson2,3 and Brian Murphy2

1 University of Central Lancashire, Preston, United Kingdom

2 Technological University of the Shannon: Midlands Midwest, Athlone, Republic of Ireland

3 Atlantic Technological University, Sligo, Republic of Ireland

\*Address all correspondence to: kchandan@uclan.ac.uk

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Experience-Based Reflections on the Blended Learning Pedagogical Approach in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109471*

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#### **Chapter 11**

## Flipped Classroom Approach of Teaching Chemistry in Higher Education

*Kaouther Ardhaoui*

#### **Abstract**

The flipping classroom method has been increasing steadily in acceptance and approval worldwide. In fact, there is a global agreement on the benefits of flipping courses at all levels and different majors. This approach has been largely adopted, specifically at the level of higher education. Our findings revealed an amelioration of the mean student's success percentage with the use of Edmodo and Moodle during the environmental chemistry course taught with the flipped approach. This paper reviews the flipped classroom method as an advantageous active learning method and counsels its combination with modern information and communication technology (ICT) for better profit as well.

**Keywords:** chemistry courses, higher education, flipped teaching, ICT, classroom approach

#### **1. Introduction**

According to Bonwell and Eison [1], the term "active learning" has never been specifically defined in educational researches and books. Some general features are usually related to the usage of policies that promote active learning in the class: Students' duty is not limited to listening. Low importance is given for transmitting information and much more on rising students' skills. Students are implicated in higher-order reflection (analysis, synthesis, and evaluation), and they are involved in activities (e.g., reading, discussing, and writing). A particular importance and consideration are bestowed on students' investigation of their own attitudes and standards.

Moreover, active learning is defined as any instructional method that engages students in the learning process [2]. The core elements of active learning are student activity and engagement in this learning process. Active learning is often contrasted to the traditional lecture, where students passively receive information from the instructor [2]. This strategy of active learning is generally adopted to improve Students' Critical Thinking, Performance, Creativity, Motivation, and Communication Skills [3–6]. Furthermore, Bonwell and Eison [1] stated that there is a Serious Problem in Higher Education which is described in eight perceptible discrepancies in the practice of higher education, counting the gap between teaching and learning, the gap between teaching and testing, and the gap between educational research and practice which were also acutely studied by Weinert et al. [7]. A thoughtful discrepancy also

occurs between how university educators typically teach (i.e., counting mainly on the lecture method) and how they intend and are supposed to teach (i.e., employing active learning to enable students' control of subject matter, improve academic capacities, and build personal perceptions and principles). Then there are solutions to abolish this discrepancy by adapting the lecture, performing more inspiring class discussions, and using other tactics related to active learning, such as blended teaching.

Essentially, this paper reports the important features of some reviews about flipped courses, especially chemistry courses at the level of higher education, in addition to modern techniques potentially useful to increase the benefits of flipping courses.

#### **2. Presentation of the flipped course method**

McNally et al. [8] identify a flipped classroom broadly, if events that have typically and traditionally happened inside the "classroom" (e.g., lectures) occurred outside the session. Crucial essentials of what founds a flipped classroom consist of (a) an opportunity for students to acquire introduction to study content before the class (e.g., recorded lectures), (b) an encouragement for students to prepare for class (e.g., pre-class quizzes), (c) a process to evaluate student understanding (e.g., graded pre-class quizzes), and (d) in-class activities that emphasize on higher-level cognitive activities including active learning, peer learning, and/or problem solving.

Additionally, the basic purpose of flipping the classroom is to relocate activities traditionally conducted within the classroom, like lectures, to educational resources that students engage with before attending class. This reallocation is intended to free classroom time to create meaningful learning situations for in-class interaction between students and teachers [9]. Also, Cheng et al. [10] define the flipped classroom instructional strategy as students learning with instructional supporting materials like documents or videos before class and then engaging in interactive and collaborative learning activities that facilitate their understanding, application, analysis, evaluation, and creation during class. Besides, O**'**Flaherty & Phillips confirm that students who are most profoundly involved will reflect, inquiry, speculate, estimate, and make links between ideas [11]. Otherwise, students who are disconnected seem to take a superficial method to learning by replicating transcripts, converging on disjointed evidences and hopping to deductions. During the flipped course, teachers and students have particular duties. In fact, Ozdamli & Asiksoy resumed and listed these roles as follows [12]:

#### **3. Teacher's role**

Create learning conditions based on direct questioning of knowledge, become a facilitator to promote learning, engage in one-on-one interactions with students, correct misunderstandings, personalize learning for each student, use technical equipment suitable for learning conditions, and create interactive discussions and conditions, increase student engagement, share lecture videos as extracurricular activities, provide feedback by applying teaching strategies.

#### **4. Student's role**

Take responsibility for their own learning, watch pre-class lecture videos and use learning materials to prepare for lessons, study at their own pace, interact with

#### *Flipped Classroom Approach of Teaching Chemistry in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109235*

teachers and friends as necessary, receive and give feedback, participate in class discussions, and participate in teamwork.

As regard to some confusions and misunderstandings of what flipped learning is, the Flipped Learning Network delivered the subsequent definition (Flipped Learning Network, 2014):

*"Flipped Learning is a pedagogical approach in which direct instruction moves from the group learning space to the individual learning space, and the resulting group space is transformed into a dynamic, interactive learning environment where the educator guides students as they apply concepts and engage creatively in the subject matter" [13].*

#### **5. Flipping courses in chemistry**

Bodner stated that the principal learning theory in chemistry education is constructivism, which aims to base students**'** approach to learning, by absorbing new ideas and information so that it makes sense with what they already know [14]. Teaching underneath the sphere of constructivism would consequently mean that teachers do not just inform students what they are in need to acquire, but deliver structured activities so that they become able to build their knowledge within the strictures of their own prior knowledge [13]. Besides, Bergmann & Sams affirmed that flipping the classroom establishes a framework that ensures students receive a personalized education tailored to their individual needs [15]. Likewise, Bancroft et al. stated that numerous studies represent increasing evidence that flipping chemistry lecture courses have the potential to yield small to moderately significant gains in student academic performance compared to traditional lecture-based courses [16]. While studying the flipped classroom model in higher education, Al-Samarraie et al. revealed that chemistry was the foremost subject that profited from applying such approach. The flipped course was found to enable students**'** engagement and selfefficacy in studying by inspiring them to reflect on the topic and work with peers to answer questions and crack issues [17].

For example, in their evaluation of a flipped-format general chemistry course, Weaver and Sturtevant found that this teaching procedure increased student exam scores and passing rates [18]. In another study on organic chemistry, Fautch showed an improvement in the summative assessment of the students attending the flipped course with a noticeable gain in confidence and passion for the subject [19].

In our previous research [6], we found that flipped courses did not only improve achievement in a notable way, but they also boosted motivation levels. The likeliest explanation for this association between motivation and achievement is that increased motivation, the immediate reaction to a new learning task, is an affective state that involves feelings of arousal, alertness, attention, and concentration and is, therefore, a key initiator of productivity and achievement [20]. Our results were in line with subjective impressions: considering novel learning methods like flipped courses, revealed that these might be not only more motivating in comparison to classic courses, but also added that they might trigger knowledge acquisition. These outcomes are in agreement with those of Weaver and Sturtevant, who, after three years handling ACS (American Chemical Society) standardized exams, executed flipped courses and found that scores in the latter were significantly higher by almost one standard deviation when equated with students' preceding scores in conventional courses [18].

Our results agree, in an additional context, with a similar meta-analysis on the effects of flipped courses on learning results [21]. During this meta-analysis, the author established a strong positive impact of flipped courses and showed the definite potential of face-to-face time and quiz activities, which seem to configure the largest effect size.

#### **6. Combining flipped courses with other technics**

Observing the results' evolution of the achievement tests is related to the environment chemistry course that we have been teaching since 2018. We noticed a continuous improvement in the results of the students attending this course, where the flipped teaching techniques were considered, with the use of applications. In fact, during the university year 2018–2019, a flipped course with paper documents was taught, during the university year 2019–2020, a flipped course with numeric documents displayed on Edmodo was proposed, and during the university year 2019–2020, the same course was taught with Moodle where documents were displayed in addition to interactive activities. The mean student's success percentage was 74.2% in 2018; 77.3% in 2019; and 81.8% in 2020; such a result is likely to be due to the handling of ICT. This is in accordance with similar studies on the effect of modern technologies of communication on student grades. Actually, chemistry students' own smartphones, laptops, and tablets and could use appropriate apps to complement traditional forms of learning. There is a positive correlation between the relative grades obtained using mobile applications and the final exam grades [22]. Moreover, according to Guerrero et al., handling mobile applications in the lectures enthused not only collective work but also the use of mobile technologies for studying basic sciences [23]. In the laboratory, this technological skill abridged the average time of practices and led to an important reduction in reagent waste in the experiences as well as improved the number of successes regarding problem samples. In fact, interactive learning is one of the approaches, which is very important to explore in higher education. In addition, the use of modern computer software in educating chemistry makes the basis for rising students**'** curiosity in chemistry, delivering knowledge, and combining knowledge. Chemical computer software is a program intended to accomplish calculations of complex chemical equations and procedures, the structure of chemicals, their identification, and the presentation of the characteristics of various substances [24].

#### **7. Discussion**

Numerous studies have shown the advantages of using the flipped course approach in several disciplines, such as Hew et al.**'**s second-order meta-analysis of flipped classroom usage across subjects found that the flipped classroom approach improved overall academic performance compared to traditional non-flipped classrooms [25]. In a similar context, according to a systematic review performed by Akçayır and Akçayır, a reverse course leads to positive academic outcomes because it encourages improvement in student learning (e.g., enhanced motivation to learn, positive student attitudes) [26]. Recently, Jong reported that students from teaching subjects of language education, social and humanities education, and mathematics and science education, appreciated flipped courses as having desirable benefits for attention, relevance, and satisfaction, especially in chemistry teaching at the higher education level [27].

#### *Flipped Classroom Approach of Teaching Chemistry in Higher Education DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109235*

Meanwhile, some challenges and limitations were reported, related essentially to the lack of students' engagement in the extra class activities [11], the risk of being stubborn at the beginning and may come to class without preparation, and this approach is also seen as increasing rather than relieving teachers**'** responsibilities [12]. Consequently, some solutions are proposed in order to counter these issues, such as open teacher–student communication before flipping, showing students how to learn through flipped classrooms, and using gamified learning materials to monitor and motivate students**'** studying [28].

Additionally, using modern technologies like computers and applications raises the efficiency of teaching and the interest of students in learning. In fact, Ottenbreit-Leftwic et al. enlightened the results of surveys indicating that teachers use technology to address both majors (e.g., creating customized instructional materials, improving classroom management through student engagement) and student needs (e.g., improving student comprehension and equipping students with technology skills) [29]. Similarly, Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich proposed that teachers' mindsets must change to embrace the idea that teaching will not be effective without the appropriate use of information and communication technology (ICT) resources to facilitate student learning [30].

It is then advisable to combine the flipped course approach with modern technologies. In fact, the unified flipped learning model is wished for including the features of mobile and wireless communication technologies into the flipped classroom model to afford a director for researchers and educators to create operative flipped learning activities and plans for activating students**'** learning effortlessly across frameworks [31]. Furthermore, incorporating game elements into a flipped classroom increases motivation, participation, and learning performance. It is also found that the platforms, Moodle and Kahoot, are the most preferred platforms and points, badges, and leaderboards are the most used game elements for gamification [32]. Hence, the flipped course method is recommended in teaching chemistry courses in higher education, especially while combining this method with modern information communication technology.

#### **8. Conclusion**

This paper presents some eminent features of the advantages of adopting a flipped classroom approach, particularly during chemistry courses at the university, with a preference for joining this approach with modern technologies like computer and mobile applications. We found that combining applications like Edmodo and Moodle with the flipped course triggered better success percentages for students than paperbased flipped courses. Such a combination is now considered and generalized to all our courses where Moodle is used to teach chemistry flipped courses related to green chemistry, water treatment, and cosmetic formulation.

### **Author details**

Kaouther Ardhaoui

Higher Institute of Applied Biology of Medenine, Arid Region Institute of Medenine, Research Laboratory of Eremology and Combating Desertification, University of Gabes, Gabes, Medenine, Tunisia

\*Address all correspondence to: ardhaouikaouther@gmail.com

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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## The Use of Metacognitive Strategies in EFL Academic Writing

*Putri Handayani, Kamaluddin Yusra and Baharuddin*

#### **Abstract**

Metacognitive is one of the subcategories of learning strategies that consist of planning, monitoring and evaluating. In academic writing, students may have different attitudes towards the use of strategy they might use positive or negative attitudes, namely cognitive, affective and behavioural strategies, depending on personal preferences. This study aims at determining students' attitudes towards metacognitive strategies based on the three dimensions of attitude. The study identifies how students implement metacognitive strategies at the planning, monitoring and evaluating stages of academic writing. The participants of the study were 26 students in IV-B Academic Writing at the English Education Department of the University of Mataram, Indonesia. Questionnaires and interviews were used as data collection instruments, and all students answered the questionnaire. Six students were interviewed as a sample to verify information from the questionnaire. The study shows that the students have a positive attitude in using metacognitive strategies. The study also indicates that the students, at a cognitive level, are aware of the importance of metacognitive strategies in writing the academic papers. The study confirms that students use metacognitive strategies as the background knowledge of ideas before writing down developing the idea, drafting and evaluating the structure and quality of writing.

**Keywords:** metacognitive strategies, attitudes, learning strategies, academic writing, language learning

#### **1. Introduction**

Writing ability is an important skill for students in developing other skills and in completing other tasks in future professional life. In the process of writing, students need knowledge of the correct use of grammar, genres and vocabulary and the ability to self-regulate their own learning [1]. Since writing is a complex process, every student has different strategies to overcome their difficulties in writing, organise and evaluate their writing process in a structured manner [2]. In writing, students use learning strategies by managing and using a set of skills in the academic and non-academic settings, and they have to learn from previous or other sources of learning in order to complete tasks that they are facing more effectively and efficiently [3]. Oxford [4] classifies learning strategy into two categories, that is, direct and indirect strategies. A direct strategy is used within writing processes and student writers can make use of events from memory (i.e., memory strategy), or from previous knowledge (i.e., cognitive strategy), or other alternative ways

where writing ideas cannot be developed from memory or previous knowledge (i.e., compensation strategies). Indirect strategies, on the other hand, are used rather secondarily to writing processes and student writers can support their writing with awareness on personal style of writing (i.e., metacognitive strategies), with personal attitudes towards a particular style of writing (i.e., affective strategies) and with information and assistance from fellow student writes (i.e., social strategies). This study focuses metacognitive strategies and students' attitude towards strategies, and the students' strategies in implementing metacognitive strategies when writing academically.

Metacognitive strategy is an action that gives learners a way to coordinate their learning process because it has gone beyond cognitive devices [4]. It means that the strategy that helps students use cognitive devices and proves to them how to conform to the learning process. Additionally, O'Malley and Chamot [5] classify metacognitive strategies into three subcategories, they are planning, monitoring and evaluation. According to them, with the application of metacognitive strategies, learners can develop their skills in terms of planning, monitoring and evaluating their ideas.

Some researchers have proven the success of the use of metacognitive in the writing process, for example, stated that metacognitive strategy on writing skills expands learners' metacognitive awareness and makes them have a positive attitude towards writing [6, 7]. It also helps the learners to focus on the steps of writing and eliminates shortcomings in writing, the ability to achieve higher thinking capacity and more aptitude to concentrate on writing. But in fact, each student has a different opinion towards the use of strategies in their academic learning. Those opinions are said to be their attitude whether positive or negative. In this study, attitude is the tendency of students to act positively or negatively to the use of metacognitive strategies in academic writing in terms of three components of attitude.

Unlike the previous research, conducting this research is important to further explore and understand students' attitude towards metacognitive strategies in terms of cognitive, affective and behavioural. No one discussed perspectives in the previous studies mentioned above, including the three components. And the second one, it is crucial to know how they use metacognitive strategies in academic writing classes, especially at the English Education Department University of Mataram. Students and lecturers can collaborate to raise awareness and see their response towards metacognitive strategies in the process of learning and what is their attitude towards it. This is in line with the metacognitive sense, which is a person's knowledge of how he or she learns. Therefore, we need to know how they use metacognitive strategies at the stage of planning, monitoring and evaluating so that students and teachers together build students' metacognitive awareness in order to know their attitudes whether positive or negative in terms of those three components. So that they can maintain it or fix it and make their learning practice to be successful in the future.

#### **2. Literature review**

As the chapter discusses attitude and metacognitive strategies, this section describes theories related to the research that serves as the foundation for this study.

#### **2.1 Attitude**

Attitude plays a crucial role in the learning process because it is an act of one's predisposition that arises towards an object, whether positive or negative. Furthermore,

#### *The Use of Metacognitive Strategies in EFL Academic Writing DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109374*

Mensah et al. [8] defined attitude is a kind of psychological tendency that develops as a result of an experience that affects a person's perception of situations, objects, people and reactions to them either positively or negatively, favourably or unfavourably and neutral or ambivalent. They also stated attitude as a concept of focus on how an individual thinks, acts and behaves. Similarly, Latchana and Dagnew [9] claimed that attitude can be said as a key of concept to understand human behaviour and is defined as a mindset consisting of beliefs and feelings. In summary, attitude is an evaluative process about an object, a person, an event or phenomenon, whether it is positive or negative, reflecting on how we feel about things.

In order to know one's attitude, we cannot only look at the general definition of attitude. For this reason, we need the structure of attitude, because we have to know the components that are in it. Wenden [10] believes that attitude is the learners' tendency to act and consists of three components: cognitive, affective and behavioural. It also tends to encourage learners to adopt certain learning behaviours. So, it is important to know the attitude of students in terms of those three components. The three components are described as follows:

#### **Cognitive component**

Cognitive component is an individual's evaluation consisting of beliefs, thoughts or knowledge towards an object, people, idea or event. It seems to affect the learning process because it relates to one's thoughts or perceptions.

#### **Affective component**

The second is the affective component, related to an individual's emotions or feelings towards an object, person or issue. An affective component affects one's preferences such as like or dislike or how the object makes you feel.

#### **Behavioural component**

The last one is the behavioural component of how one's predisposition in act. How individuals act towards an object depends on their attitude towards the cognitive component and affective component. The answer of this component is not only necessarily in the form of an action that can be evaluated directly, but also can be in the form of statements or sentences.

Learners' attitude in the learning processes plays an important role in influencing learners in setting learning objectives, problem-solving skills, learning beliefs and forming internal or external motivations in all aspects of students' academic performance [11]. Students' learning attitude can be interpreted as a predisposition of students' behaviour when they learn something. Furthermore, in her research, Khikmah stated that learners' attitudes in learning are their own responsibility to the beliefs they have in the learning process and should be evaluated.

A positive attitude in the learning process is very important for students because if they do not have that attitude, they will not be good at carrying out the learning properly. It can be concluded that students' achievement is influenced by their attitude towards the learning process that will drive them to metacognitive awareness because it refers to a person's way of raising awareness about their thought processes in learning. Thus, it will lead us to explore the learners' attitude towards applying metacognitive strategies in the writing process. Additionally, the relationship between students' attitudes on the learning process has a significant impact on the achievement of learners.

#### **2.2 Attitude and language learning strategies**

Basically, learning strategy is an action that students use to overcome their problems in the learning process. In considering the importance of language learning

strategies for students, this study will evaluate students' opinions on language learning strategies, namely metacognitive strategies. It is said as the attitude of students towards the strategies they use in the learning process. Oxford [4] claimed that a learning strategy consists of steps that students take to improve the quality of their own learning. In contrast, Richard and Platt [12] stated that learning strategies are thoughts and behaviours that learners use intentionally during the learning process and can assist them in understanding and remembering the new information they receive. In addition, Stern [13] said that learning strategies have different concepts depending on the learners' assumptions. It can be concluded that language learning strategies are actions that students use for understanding new information they receive and use when having problems in doing assignments in language classes, whether consciously or unconsciously to achieve goals in the learning process.

Of the many types of learning strategies, this study focused on metacognitive strategies. The intended meaning of metacognitive itself by Oxford [4] is beyond, beside or with cognitive. Therefore, metacognitive strategies are an action that gives learners a way to coordinate their learning process because it has gone beyond cognitive devices. It is also an action that students take in using cognitive devices and proving to them how to conform to the learning process.

O'Malley and Chamot [5] pointed out that metacognitive strategies are 'higher order executive skills'. Accordingly, metacognitive strategies are the strategies that students usually use when they are doing an independent study. So, metacognitive strategies are also called 'Thinking about thinking'. Some researchers claimed this strategy consists of two elements: knowledge of cognition, also called awareness of how the individual can acquire knowledge, and know about themselves. The second one is regulation of understanding, which contributes to control the process of writing containing aspects such as planning and self-preparation, selfmonitoring, self-evaluation and revision [14]. In addition, O'Malley and Chamot [5] stated metacognitive strategies in writing involve thinking about the writing process consisting of planning, monitoring and self-evaluating of what has been written.

In summary, metacognitive is a set process for revealing how a cognition must be controlled and monitored. These strategies play an important role in learning because metacognitive learning strategies are strategies developed and build upon cognitive devices or sets of skills. These skills will then provide awareness or create awareness of the importance of a control in conditions to plan, monitor and evaluate the learning process. The use of metacognitive strategies not only improves the quality and ability of students, but also makes the results of the writing become more structured.

In this research, the researcher uses the metacognitive classification proposed by O'Malley and Chamot [5] to plan, monitor and evaluate. Thus, metacognitive writing strategies are as follows:

#### **Planning**

Planning is a good beginning process in conducting the learning process. Before students start to write, it is important for them to plan an outline about what they would be writing. The planning allows students to focus on the goals and ideas they will write about. This process is done when the students have not started writing because they must have some of their writing compositions. However, in some cases, there are also students who are just planning their goals in the middle of their writing. Thus, by making a good plan, it will be easier for the students to determine the direction of their writing and make their writing more structured.

*The Use of Metacognitive Strategies in EFL Academic Writing DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109374*

#### **Monitoring**

Monitoring could be described as the process of controlling and taking appropriate steps in order to achieve a good piece of writing. It is also a response to the challenges of understanding ambiguity in the new language that serves. Then, another important part of monitoring the writing process is controlling every part we are writing. Students also should check to see if what they write matches the topic being discussed.

#### **Evaluating**

Another critical factor to consider in metacognitive strategies is evaluation. This happens when the writing process has been completed. Evaluation will be more successful when it is done in pairs or called peer assessment. Peer assessment conducted by two students exchanges the results of their writing. After looking carefully, they can then discuss the improvements that will be made. The students need to develop the strategy and consider what to check, such as the content of the writing and the structure of the language that is used. Evaluation can allow the learners to realise their strengths and shortcomings in their process of writing. By understanding both, learners can develop their learning strategies to make their writing better in the future.

#### **2.3 Attitude towards metacognitive strategies**

After discussing the concepts above, this section will discuss the attitude of students towards metacognitive strategies. Attitude towards metacognitive strategies is how students view the use of such strategy strategies in academic writing. Kulprasit [15] said learning strategies play a crucial role in processing and organising new knowledge related to the knowledge they already have in cognitive devices. Cognitive aspects cannot work alone because they need to be controlled and regulated by metacognitive strategies. Therefore, the learners should be aware of their own thinking abilities and capable of organising them.

Metacognitive strategies related to the knowledge they have are about how they think in the process of learning. It is a sequential process that individuals use to control his/her cognitive activity and ensure that cognitive goals have been achieved. This process helps students in regulating and supervising the learning process. Metacognitive strategies usually follow cognitive activities. They often occur when cognition is experiencing an obstacle in learning. In conclusion, cognitive strategies are the strategies that students used to resolve the shortcomings, while metacognitive are used in order to control the sets of planning, monitoring and evaluating their learning activity.

Moreover, Langan [16] stated that the attitude towards writing is an important factor in writing well. This attitude should be built based on the idea that writing is a skill that can be learned. Every student may have a different opinion towards the strategy they take in the writing process. It means that it is necessary to further see one's response towards the application of metacognitive strategies in academic writing in terms of cognitive, affective and behavioural. It is also important to use metacognitive strategies in the writing process because it is related to what students know about themselves as learners and how they control their behaviour.

In the general concept of attitude mentioned above, three components measure students' attitude towards an object. Then, the student's attitude towards metacognitive is measured from the three components in terms of cognitive, affective and behaviour. Cognitive attitude in metacognitive strategies is students' beliefs, thoughts or knowledge about those strategies in academic writing. For example, I believe that metacognitive strategies make my writing product more structured. While affective attitudes are students' emotions or feeling towards metacognitive strategies. For

example, I feel more confident in using metacognitive strategies. And the last one, behavioural component towards metacognitive strategies is the students' tendency to behave towards the metacognitive itself. For example, metacognitive strategies help me to enhance my learning experience.

#### **3. Methods**

This research conducts the descriptive qualitative approach. The qualitative approach focuses on analysis and interpretation. This research aims to explore the students' attitudes towards the use of metacognitive strategies in their academic writing and how students implement the metacognitive strategies. The data were collected by distributing the questionnaire to all students in the IV-B academic writing class consisting of 26 students. There are two kinds of questionnaires in this study. The first questionnaire is about students' attitude towards metacognitive strategies in terms of cognitive, affective and behavioural. The second questionnaire is the Metacognitive Strategies Questionnaire. The researcher also took 6 students to be interviewed to support the questionnaire results. The researcher then analysed the data through the following steps: identification, classification, description and explanation.

#### **4. Findings and discussion**

#### **4.1 Students' attitude towards metacognitive strategies**

In the first questionnaire, to determine the attitude and answer the first question based on the theory in this research, researchers first counted the mean value of each respondent to find out whether they have a positive attitude, neutral attitude or negative attitude towards the use of metacognitive strategies in academic writing. To find out the mean value of each respondent, researchers use the formula:

$$\mathcal{X} = \frac{\Sigma \mathbf{X} i}{n}$$

where.

X = average (mean)

Σχi = number of values per item

n = number of items

After each respondent's mean score is obtained, the results of the questionnaire are then interpreted using criteria for interpretation of the rating scale adapted from Kulprasit [15] as in the following **Table 1**.

The results of the Attitude Questionnaire are given in **Figure 1**.

Based on the bar chart in **Figure 1**, most students have a positive attitude towards using metacognitive strategies in academic writing in terms of three components of attitude. Of the three components, one component is most dominant produced by participants, namely cognitive components. Cognitive components of attitude are students' knowledge or belief towards the use of such strategies because they realised the importance of using metacognitive strategies. According to Eagly and Chaiken [17], the cognitive component measures how people think and believe in certain things. Most of the students believe that well-organised writing will produce good writing and improve the quality of writing results.


#### **Table 1.**

*Criteria for self-rating scale for attitude.*

#### **Figure 1.**

*Attitude questionnaire results.*

The findings in this study are similar to the findings made by Al-Jarrah et al. [18] and Talafhah et al. [19] in which they also showed that the majority of students at Ibrid Jordan secondary school recognise the usefulness of metacognitive strategies in improving their writing performance. According to Wenden [10], cognitive component is an individual's evaluation consisting of beliefs, thoughts or knowledge that affect the learning process.

From the results found in this study, it can be concluded that students' attitude towards the use of metacognitive strategies has a strong cognitive attitude but affective and behavioural attitudes are not much different from cognitive results. In conclusion, most students have a positive attitude towards metacognitive strategies in terms of cognitive, affective and behavioural because all of the three components have good scores on the results of students' evaluation towards the strategy used when writing. Although there are seven students who still cannot determine their attitude as they have a neutral result but no one student has negative attitude. Since affective and behavioural components have not been able to balance the results of cognitive component, the collaboration between teachers and students is required to create students' confidence in writing using such strategy equally.

#### **4.2 Metacognitive strategies**

Based on **Table 2** below, there are two ways that have the same score that students do in the planning stage. There are 19 students or about 73% of the sample visualising what they are going to write, and when they do not have any idea, they just write


**Table 2.** *Planning.*

whatever they have in their mind. This is a statement contained in the question number 2 that says 'Before I start to write, I find myself visualizing what I am going to write'. It means that most of the students in this research visualise their planning according to the topic to be written before starting to write. They imagine and think about what their writing will look like from the beginning to the end of writing.

In the monitoring stage, the results found that most of the students use their background knowledge to create the content of their writing (**Table 3**). The background knowledge they bring in writing activities comes from the experience and learning they go through during the teaching and learning process or from the previous writing process. The results in this stage are in line with the planning stage where they only utilise their knowledge to produce a writing according to the topic they have created by themselves or determined by their lecturers. In the results of the interview, there are some of the students who say that monitoring is the hardest thing to do because there are some things that really need to be considered. Students also confirmed that when facing problems or having limited knowledge, they looked for more resources to get better understanding about the ideas.

In the final evaluation process, most of the students usually look and think back on how they are writing to see the structure of their writing and what they might need to do more to improve their writing (**Table 4**). After taking a look of their writing


#### **Table 3.** *Monitoring.*

*The Use of Metacognitive Strategies in EFL Academic Writing DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109374*


#### **Table 4.**

*Evaluating.*

results, the students also edit both the content and language of their writing. The students need to develop the strategy and consider what to check, such as the content of the writing and the structure of the language that is used. They usually correct such errors as spelling, keywords, and sentence construction, to make sure that the sentences are connected to each other and use appropriate language to make the readers easily understand. By following these ways, the students think that it helps to improve the quality of their writing. As supported by Cer (2015), the students developed the strategies based on their skills and knew when and why they should use the information they needed to help them in writing.

In conclusion, those are the most common ways that students in the English Education Department at the University of Mataram use metacognitive strategies in academic writing classes. Although they do not know yet about the strategies they use in writing, and almost all students reveal that they have used the strategy and are aware of the stages they do, such as planning, monitoring and evaluating.

Additionally, when using metacognitive strategies, students can make planning first and then decide which approaches can be used in writing and compiling their work, monitoring the writing process in order to make the writing more effective and easy to understand, and evaluating the writing results in order to check some errors and avoid the same errors in the future, Richard and Schmidt (2002). So, the more the students practice writing and evaluate themselves as autonomy learners, the more the students improve their writing skills.

#### **5. Conclusion**

This study aimed to identify the most dominant attitude of learners towards the use of metacognitive strategies in academic writing. The most dominant way is that the students use metacognitive strategies in planning, monitoring and evaluating. Based on the findings and discussion related to the first research question, most students have a positive attitude towards the use of metacognitive strategies in academic writing in terms of cognitive because they realised the importance of using metacognitive strategies in their educational academic writing process.

Then, the most dominant metacognitive strategy that students do in the planning stage is to visualise their planning according to the topic to be written. The students also only write whatever they have in their minds. In the monitoring stage, most students preferred to use their background knowledge to create the content of their writing. Meanwhile, in evaluation process, students usually look and think back on

how they are writing to see the structure of their writing and what they might need to do more to improve their writing. The students also edit both the content and language of their writing.

### **A. Appendices**

### **Appendix 1. Attitude Questionnaire**


Adapted from: Attitude/Motivation Test Battery by R. C. Gardner (2004) & Eshghinejad (2016).

### **Appendix 2. Metacognitive Strategies Questionnaire**


### **Author details**

Putri Handayani, Kamaluddin Yusra and Baharuddin\* University of Mataram, Lombok, Indonesia

\*Address all correspondence to: bahar@unram.ac.id

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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## Section 3
