Embracing the Future in a Global World

#### **Chapter 18**

## Perspective Chapter: Academia as a Culture – The 'Academy' for Women Academics

*Matthew James Phillips*

#### **Abstract**

This review explores what is known about women's experiences and identities within Australian public higher education to assist readers in contextualising the issue. In doing this, the chapter summarises what is known thus far about the key tensions that are experienced by women in academia, underpinned by the influence of the gender binary, heteronormativity, and intersectionality. Then, what is known about the academic identity thus far within the extant literature base is presented, as well as how the identity formation process can be complex and difficult to engage in for women academics. To conclude the chapter, the tensions are extended on to explore how academic ways of being were introduced and influenced by coloniality, as well as acknowledging how the neoliberal episteme has become embedded within the academic system to influence women and their academic experience over time. The aim of this chapter is to liberate thinking surrounding the experiences of women academics through the reviewing and discussion of the literature base and encourage further conversations and connections between academics worldwide surrounding this topic.

**Keywords:** women, academia, experience, identity, higher education

#### **1. Introduction**

Academia is a highly institutionalised environment, characterised by a hierarchical, traditional, and selective culture [1]. Within this environment, individuals are differentiated at multiple levels, for example, students, academics, support, and administrative staff, that all have differing responsibilities, access to opportunities, and positionings which can both exacerbate and reproduce social and institutional inequities [2]. The traditional culture of academia (which is based on hierarchical, bureaucratic systems) was founded on patriarchal, imperial, and colonial values that worked to define and maintain a specific maintenance of gendered roles and regulations, which have been proposed to disadvantage women [3, 4]. The operation of academia is similar to other organisational contexts world-wide, whereby the available discourses on organisational logic, as well as how organisational ways of being are defined, is embedded within the relations and worldviews of men [5, 6]. Based on the organisational logic being geared towards men, it can be difficult to both initiate

and sustain social change relating to gendered equity within academia. This is based on the persistence and maintenance of gendered processes and structures which can be influenced by heteronormative, gendered practices, that are partly ascribed to the construction and operation of the academic institution that works to attribute and legitimise neutrality to these processes [3, 7]. These institutional, gendered processes (which can be based on masculinities) can be invisible to most members of academia as they are based on systems of knowledge and belief systems that work to explain and justify current patriarchal and heteronormative practices [4, 8]. The justification of current practices can maintain how the academic system operates, to inform the academics' view of the way that things exist [1].

#### **2. The gender binary: maintaining how things exist**

Underpinning the justification of current gendered practices and the way that things exist for women in academia is the view of gender, sex, and how it is theorised to exist in a binary manner. The gender/sex binary refers to the perspective that sex is binary in nature and can directly determine gender [9, 10]. Within this context, 'sex' is considered as the biological composition of an individual (e.g., anatomy, chromosomes), while 'gender' refers to the roles associated or how one identifies (e.g., what it means to be a woman or man in a specific context, self-categorisation as a 'woman' and 'man') [9]. The gender binary is socially consequential, considered as not only descriptive (e.g., outlining what sexes and genders exist, and how the concepts are related), but also, pro- and pre-scriptive (e.g., dictating how gender and sex should or should not exist, and how they can be related) [9, 10]. In this manner of thinking surrounding gender and sex, a social system is enforced where individuals with two X chromosomes are expected to develop as biologically female, identify as women, and act in accordance with feminine stereotypes, whereas those with a X and Y chromosome develop male bodies, identify as men, and act in accordance with masculine stereotypes [11]. Additionally, the gender binary constructs expectations surrounding gender that work to construct men and women as possessing both complementary and oppositional identities, each with its own specific attributes (e.g., 'men are assertive', 'women are caring') [9, 10, 12, 13]. This way of thinking, doing, and being demands a compulsory conformity to individual gendered performances as either female or male (terms which are considered within the binary as mutually exclusive) [9, 11, 13]. Additionally, the binary dictates how the gendered performance must be congruent with the sex of the individual [11].

The identification of gender can also be associated with ideologies that work to support the gender/sex binary, such as gender essentialism, and the endorsement of stereotypes surrounding gender and sex [14]. Gender essentialism is the perspective that women and men are two informative, natural, and distinct categories [15]. Increased prejudice against those who violate assumptions of gender (e.g., women in leadership positions in academia) has been suggested as related to gender essentialism [14, 15]. Stereotypes that are endorsed surrounding gender often pose men as the socially advantaged group, aligned with patriarchal discourse, particularly when distinctiveness of sex is threatened [9, 10]. These stereotypes are implicated in the devaluation of women and men who behave in ways that are counter stereotypical [9, 10, 12, 13]. In combination, these ideologies can affect attitudes towards challenging the gender/ sex binary and constructs the assumptions surrounding gender in a hierarchical manner [11–13]. For example, while patriarchal theory is evident, the suppression of

women and their identities has also illuminated the suppression of different identities and sexualities, where the social organisation of sex relies upon gender, compulsory heterosexuality, and the restriction of female sexuality [11–13]. The restrictions and organisation here further perpetuate the embeddedness of the gender binary, as well as normative values surrounding heterosexuality as the valued identity.

#### **2.1 Heteronormativity: the gender binary in practice**

The collection of norms, as well as how individuals reproduce complementary and distinct genders (male and female) is considered as the practice of heteronormativity [16, 17]. Heteronormativity allows for an illumination of the mundane and everyday ways in which heterosexuality and gender more broadly are normalised, naturalised, and taken for granted [18]. Compulsory heterosexuality is not only tied into the acts, ideas, and conceptions of gender and sexuality, but additionally, it can be viewed as a foundational structure of society and culture [12, 13, 16, 17]. Here, gender and sexuality are embedded in societal structures which are connected to socialised institutions, such as family, marriage, life, waged and domestic labour, economic support, and dependency [12, 13, 17]. As such, the awareness of heteronormativity can work as a tool which allows for the analysis of systems of oppression and contributes to the understanding of how gendered structures and hierarchies can be constructed in society [12, 13, 17]. When using this tool, we can explore how sexualities are performed and expressed, and how the societal system is structured, organised, and maintained [18].

Academia, at times, has been posed as gender neutral, when in reality, organisational logic originates in the abstract, intellectual domain of being 'male' [5]. Available discourses, reality, worldviews, and perspectives are seen from this particular standpoint, and as such, gender is difficult to observe when the masculine discourses are present [5, 6]. Men have, over time, adopted their behaviours and perspectives, to reflect all individuals, and as such, this has led to organisational processes and structures being conceptualised as gender neutral [5, 6]. While women and men academics can be treated differently by their academic institutions, it can be argued that specific gendered behaviours and attitudes are disseminated into gender-neutral structures, which works to separate the organisational structures and hierarchies, from the people within them [16–18]. Stating than an organisation is gendered means that exploitation and control, action and emotion, advantage, and disadvantage, and meaning and identity, can be constructed through, and in relation to, a distinction between what it means to be male, and female, or masculine, and feminine [4, 5]. Gender is not additive, rather, it forms an integral component of these processes, and as such, exploring women in academia cannot be properly understood without analysing gender [4, 5].

#### **2.2 The 'doing' of gender**

Gender has been conceptualised as operating within organisational institutions in at least five interacting processes, which, while posed as distinct, are components of the same experience [4–6]. They are as follows:

1.Constructing gendered divisions of labour, accepted behaviours, positionings and locations in space, of power, including how the institution governs these aspects. While there may be variations in the extent of the division of gender, men almost always occupy the highest positions of power. Further, organisational decisions initiate divisions of gender, and the practices of the organisation maintain them.


Gendered differences within organisations have been suggested as due to the overarching structure, rather than characteristics related to 'being a woman' or 'being a man' [5]. The societal hierarchical system that has privileged some, and sanctioned others, is based on these presumed binaries of gender and sexuality, where beliefs and practices about what is 'normal' in everyday life is defined and enforced by the patriarchy [12, 13, 16, 18]. The issues that women face within large organisations, such as academia, are posed because of their placement within the overarching organisational structure, where they can be overpopulated in 'dead-end' jobs at the bottom and viewed as tokens at the top [5]. Gender becomes an issue where organisational roles reflect characteristics and images of the sorts of individuals that should populate them [5]. As such, women in academia are viewed as a part of a system where they are sanctioned and condemned for not fitting in and behaving according to the system that is constructed as a given, and acceptable [16–18]. Where the impact of the gender binary, heteronormativity, gendered processes, broader institutional logic, and ways of being is identifiable, is when these systems become visible, for example, when disadvantages are experienced and people speak out, as well as problematising the system and identifying how prejudices, discrimination, inequities, and contradictory workplace practices and policies are executed and operated [19]. These discriminatory, prejudicial practices and policies have been shown to negatively impact the experiences of women within Australian public higher education, and even more so for women who adopt multiple identities and ways of being.

#### **3. Intersectionality: a multiplicity of identities**

What can assist in maintaining the status quo for women in academia is the homogenisation of their identities. In the current research context, homogenisation

#### *Perspective Chapter: Academia as a Culture – The 'Academy' for Women Academics DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.108503*

illustrates how women academics have been constructed as one-dimensional, with the gender binary further perpetuating the presence of 'one type of woman' within academia [20]. Constructing women in a manner that infers they share a singular, similar understanding and experience of academia fails to integrate the multiplicity of identities and intersectional perspectives that are not privileged in academia [21]. Intersectionality refers to the numerous ways that social identifiers are mutually shaped, and can be interrelated through epistemes such as neoliberalism, colonialism, geopolitics, and cultural configurations, which can shift relations of oppression and power [22]. The interactivity of these social structures can foster life experiences in relation to forms of privilege and oppression [22]. The term was formed originally within African American feminist and critical race studies, where it has now been extended to explore the many relationships in research amongst multiple modalities and dimensions of social relations and subject formations [23, 24] Intersectionality is useful in exploring the interaction amongst categories of difference within the individual lives, practices of society, institutional structures, and cultural ideologies, as well as the outcomes when these interact, in relation to power processes [24, 25].

Social identifiers that can be acknowledged when exploring intersectionality include, but are not limited to, gender, race, class, age, body type, attractiveness, caste, citizenship, ethnicity, height and weight, education, income, immigration status, mental health status, physical ability, marital status, nationality, occupation, sex, religion, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic status [22]. These are considered as naturalised, but not necessarily natural, ways of categorising individuals [22]. By considering the plethora of social identity structures here, it allows for an expansion of the definitional scope of intersectionality to allow everyone's unique social advantages and disadvantages, to be subject to critique [22, 24, 25]. Everyone can entail the multiplicatively oppressed, but additionally, the multiplicatively privileged, where it is acknowledged that individuals can be subject to both social advantages and disadvantages [22, 24, 25]. It is important to acknowledge intersectionality within higher education, as the analyses that stem from this acknowledgement call for social justice and equity in education, as well as having the power to transform knowledge, higher education, and society [22, 24, 25].

#### **4. The operation of academia**

Within academia, it has been argued that "the structure of the labour market, relations in the workplace, the control of the work process, and the underlying wage relation are always affected by symbols of gender, processes of gender identity, and material inequalities between women and men" [5, 26]. Historically, white men have had more opportunities, and have been afforded more privilege within academia than individuals with different identities [27, 28]. Academia has been acknowledged as generally overrepresented in relation to the male gender, white students, and those of Asian ethnicities [29], and described as cold and unwelcoming to women [28]. Reasons for this have been proposed, for example, within academia, bureaucratic and patriarchal discourse is said to be embedded within the actions of all academics, with a clear focus on innovation, success, and productivity that work to value white men, rather than women and other minority groups [30]. Further, attitudes, beliefs, and solutions that are valued in academia thus far are limited in attending to the underlying economic, social, and political complexities that shape and construct the experiences of minoritised groups [12, 13, 31]. Finally, solutions have been proposed

and implemented so far that rely on a problem definition (i.e., problematising the individual, rather than the system), which is widely contested, and embedded within a discourse of male-normative competition that resolves the academic crisis as something to win, while marginalised others are left behind [1, 32].

#### **4.1 The disembodied worker**

Engaging in work within academia has been constructed as an abstract job most suited for a disembodied worker, who exists only for their work, and nothing else [5, 6]. The hypothetical 'ideal' disembodied worker is assumed to have no other responsibilities outside of their job that may impinge on said job [5, 6]. For workers who have obligations outside the boundaries of the job, this can make them unsuited for the position [5]. For example, in academia, the disembodied worker is privileged as a male worker whose life centres on his full-time, life-long, academic job, while he has a partner (presumably female) who can assist with other responsibilities and the familial obligations [5]. Further, working in a 'job' is implicitly considered to be gendered, even if the institution presents it as gender neutral [6]. The 'job' contains the division of labour and the separation of the personal and professional domains based on gender [6]. This assumes that the 'job' is particularly gendered, based around domestic life and the social production of norms relevant to familial and caring responsibilities [6]. Hierarchies in the institution are then further gendered based on the assumption that an individual who focuses all their time on their work is responsible, compared to an individual who divides their commitments is seen as uncommitted [5, 6]. As such, the concept of the disembodied worker excludes and marginalises women who, by definition, cannot achieve these expectations and standards, as doing so would require them to become 'like a man' [5, 33, 34].

#### **5. Tensions in Women's academic experiences**

The experience of working in academia, and conceptualising identity, are more complicated for women academics [35]. Barriers to women's participation in academia can impact how they identify within the setting, with many barriers suggested in the literature base that are either structurally, or individually oriented [36, 37]. There are varying explanations that have been proposed, for example, in comparison to men, women are subjected to higher expectations from other individuals in their lives, academic or otherwise [38]. Others have suggested that women may experience identity conflicts between academia and other settings, leading to invalidation and conflict in their academic identities [35, 39]. There also appear to be conflicts for women in academia between conducting 'good research', and what it means to be a 'good researcher' [40]. 'Good research' relates to the process of the work, fostering motivation, achievement, self-expression, creativity, and self-interest, whereas being a 'good researcher' relates to the outputs and conforming to ideals that meet the goals and needs of the university, such as applying for, and receiving grants, publications in high impact journals, and citations [40]. Finally, a broader neoliberal higher education research context has been proposed to contribute to the challenges experienced by women in higher education, with a focus on the increasing pressure to be productive compounding with the tensions surrounding the amount of time available to balance with one's other commitments (e.g., teaching, service tasks, mentoring, familial and/or caring responsibilities) [41].

#### *Perspective Chapter: Academia as a Culture – The 'Academy' for Women Academics DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.108503*

Women academics have also been suggested to experience the proverbial trinity of faculty roles to varying degrees, for example, their teaching, service, and research responsibilities [39]. The varying degrees of responsibility within these roles depend on the positioning of the woman within the institution. Where the discrepancy lies is how women academics are expected to engage in teaching and service roles to a greater extent than male academics, who are presumed to be afforded more time to focus on their research responsibilities [35]. Faculty positions are bound to specific university contexts, as well as specific duties, but the individuals who hold these positions are not [39].

Women in senior academic roles have reported on the impact of gendered stereotypes, such as the expectation of women performing caring roles. This stereotype assumes that women are natural teachers [42], however this may not be the role that women want to adopt or are necessarily best at. Comparatively, leadership roles are stereotyped as being masculine; this aligns with the statistic that most senior leadership positions in academia are held by males [35]. Additionally, men are often evaluated according to competency, whereas women are evaluated according to their likeability [43, 44]. Women are encouraged to take on administrative roles, which may offer limited opportunities for career progression [44, 45]. These stereotypes restrict the types of roles that academics are expected to perform [46]. When women are viewed as acting inconsistently with feminine stereotypes (e.g., not wanting to adopt nurturing, pastoral care roles), and consistent with masculine stereotypes (e.g., being assertive, or self-promoting), they may experience negative consequences such as limits to their career progression for not adhering to the traditional, expected academic way of being [21].

When women engage with roles and identities outside of academia, there is a perception that their competency and commitment to the academic setting will be reduced or threatened [21, 47]. Further, women who balance work with other commitments, roles, and competing identities (for example, but not exclusive to, motherhood and/or caring roles) are perceived by their colleagues as stretching themselves too thin [47, 48]. Comparatively, men are celebrated for their attempts at balancing the work and home life and are viewed by other academics as more responsible and accountable than their women counterparts [49]. It appears that men do not face the same bind or negative consequences from occupying multiple roles in the academic setting [50]. Comparatively, it has been suggested that women must work harder to have their contributions and achievements recognised both inside, and outside of, academia [48].

Difficulties with accessing mentoring networks and role models [36, 51], experiencing the impact of implicit biases, harassment, and discrimination [52], experiencing gender stereotyping [53], underrepresentation [54], navigating masculinist organisational cultures [37], gendered divisions of faculty labour [55], and difficulties with balancing caring and academic responsibilities [56] have all been suggested as barriers to women's academic experience and conceptualisation of identity. Further, these barriers can accumulate in their effects over time, reflecting an experience known as the glass ceiling, whereby women academics are hindered by the deeply routine, embedded organisational practices and policies of academia [57]. These practices are influenced by patriarchal, gendered discourses that view male academics as the majority in academia, and how to work and identify within these fields is bound within men and masculinity [58]. The barriers for women in academia perpetuate a chilly, unwelcoming climate, which can be characterised by a lack of encouragement and recognition for women, a subtle process of devaluation, and resultant lower levels of confidence [59]. This climate presents difficulties in identifying as an academic for women, who struggle to feel as if they belong, which can be emphasised by the routine, everyday practices that act as significant normalising and invisible barriers for them [57]. These tensions appear to be further enhanced by the complexities of navigating the ongoing structural changes within the Australian public higher education setting [60]. As such, it is clear there is a need to understand how 'traditional' Australian tertiary education systems have changed in recent times, as this is crucial to contextualising women's academic experiences and identity formation.

#### **5.1 Women's academic experiences over time**

While the literature details some of the tensions in women's academic experiences, where it is limited is in exploring how the academic and professional identities can change over time, as well as the impact of these transitions on the conceptualisation and transformation of such identities. It is important to recognise that the becoming of, and being, a faculty member is a dynamic journey which is marked by movement of some form, whether that be through promotion and/or receiving tenure, moving to other roles and/or institutions, moving beyond academia after retirement, and/or leaving due to disillusionment with the academy [61]. There is an interplay of individual and institutional dynamics that can change over time, which can influence women's home and work identities, with a multitude of differing experiences, successes, setbacks, and choices [3, 62]. The patriarchal setting, or the powerful social structures of society where women's interests are subordinated to the interests of men, appears pervasive not only in academia, but within all facets of society:

*"Yet women's inclusion in education, the franchise, public life, and the labour market have been on terms designed to meet the needs of individual men, unfettered by ties of motherhood, childcare, and [unpaid] domestic labour. Women seeking inclusion have had to negotiate the conflicting demands made upon them by their dual role as best they could on an individual basis" [62].*

Scholars criticise the operation of contemporary society based on its failure to acknowledge that gender can be a barrier to social well-being, as well as its role in maintaining patriarchal assumptions about the roles of women and men over different time periods [61]. This is one reason proposed within the literature to support the marginalisation of women within their work and family roles:

*"The prevailing conception of gender is understood as an ideological structure that divides people into two classes, men, and women, based on a hierarchical relation of domination and subordination, respectively" [63].*

As such, the positioning of women academics within the academic context is embedded within tensions and paradoxes between the commitment to the institution, the organisational structure, as well as broader systemic gendered roles and norms that manifest over time [17]. These tensions can form the basis for the conflicts within conceptualising identities, whereby women may desire to change the current state of being within the institution, while experiencing conflicts in their commitment to the same institution [7].

*Perspective Chapter: Academia as a Culture – The 'Academy' for Women Academics DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.108503*

#### **6. The academic identity within the higher education context**

The academic identity refers to an individual's understanding of who they are, within their academic institution [64]. One's academic identity can influence their self-perception, as well as their perspective of how others see them [65]. How an academic identifies in relation to both the personal and professional domains has been suggested to have a significant impact (for better or worse) on an academic's work productivity and performance [48, 65, 66]. The conceptualisation of academic identities can be influenced by many elements, including working roles and responsibilities, the success, and achievements of the academic, the perceived power and voice that an academic possesses, and the pressure to be the ideal worker within the academic setting [67, 68]. Previous literature has reported on the struggles of conceptualising an academic identity (particularly by those within minority groups, such as women) [40, 48, 69], as well as the complexities surrounding the conceptualisation of identity [64], but does not consider how the notions of self, identity, and institutional governance for women in higher education interact. Additionally, there is a lack of appreciation that knowledge can be socially constructed, which can influence how different perspectives can shape institutional practices and ways of being for women academics at different career stages.

The identities of academics, and the forming of them, can be complex, and consist of various components and elements that stem from various sources [70]. One understanding of identity as a construct is that it can continually shift and change over time and is fluid [71]. For example, it has been stated that,

*"Identity is understood not as a fixed property, but as a part of the lived complexity of a person's project and their ways of being in those sites which are constituted as being a part of the academic… having an identity as an academic, this multiple and shifting term exists alongside other aspects of how people understand their personhood and ways of being in the world. As such, it is important that personal detailed attention is paid, especially to how changes are being experienced in higher education, and how this can influence an academic's identity" [61].*

The shift acknowledged here is important to consider in combination with an understanding of identity being viewed as most influenced by the identification and interaction that an individual has with significant others (e.g., peers, family, friends) [72]. As such, the forming of the academic identity can be viewed as complex and may comprise of multiple competing influences that change and shift over time [71]. Some authors view the academic identity in line with the overall conceptualisation of identity as a fluid, shifting concept, which can differ for each individual academic [61]. Through this definition, the academic identity is considered as the understandings and expressions of one's beliefs, values, dispositions, and actions, within the higher education context [64]. The explanation here also includes the academics' perspectives on the ways of being and doing within their many roles and responsibilities [48, 65, 66].

In contrast, other authors have conceptualised an academic identity as a concrete, fixed entity [70, 73, 74]. Supporting this view is the notion that within institutions, individuals tend to be viewed as more homogenous, rather than heterogeneous, and are viewed in terms of their particular social group [73]. As such, the identity in this depiction is generally defined as a concrete, distinctive characteristic that belongs to

either an individual, or one that is shared by all members of a social category [48]. This view essentially constructs identity as comparative in nature, emphasising a degree of homogeneity within a group (i.e., a degree of sameness, or oneness with other individuals) in a particular context at a particular point in time [74].

Whether identity is viewed as fluid, or concrete, there is still an acknowledgement of a shift, with identities adapting to societal and consequential institutional changes over time that have resulted in different responses from academics [61], As such, I align with the perspective that identities have the capacity to both generate change through a continual process of deconstruction, construction, and reconstruction [75]. Identities change during periods of shifting and institutional change, which can reflect changes in the overall climate of society [72]. It is important to acknowledge and pay close attention to how these changes can influence an academic's way of being and knowing, both important aspects of the academic identity.

#### **6.1 Pressures surrounding the conceptualisation of the academic identity**

Despite the contrasting definitions on what an academic identity is, there are some similarities between these understandings. The academic identity appears to be constructed under several dimensions that are multi-faceted, as well as being influenced by social movements (e.g., neoliberalism) that can occur in different ways, degrees, and contexts [60]. Authors express that "…academic work is not what it used to be. Not because the impulse to engage in this work has diminished, but because academics now have to deal with further pressures qualitatively different to ever before" [76]. These pressures can present several challenges in how academic identities are constructed and conceptualised. Shifts between a liberal to neoliberal episteme in higher education appear to have created a more governed environment, which prompts me to question (as well as being questioned by other academics):

*Have the changes in higher education, augmented by the neoliberal episteme, made the institution more important than the disciplines, and as such, are the disciplines now being perceived as more important than the academics themselves?*

A paradox in academia is evident, where the desire to implement change and be forward-thinking in perspective, conflicts with the institution governing individuals to follow set standards in a manner that makes these embedded practices difficult to question [44]. Claims support this notion and explores the consequences to questioning these ways of being, stating that "it is extraordinary how easily one can become a pariah in an academic community for questioning the state of being, when in reality, everyone is supposed to be so broad-minded" [77].

#### **6.2 How do dominant academic identities manifest in higher education?**

Higher education institutions govern individuals to engage in particular practices and identify in certain ways. The prominence of the neoliberal episteme has a significant influence on the normative practices within academia [78–82]. Further to this, some identities are more frequently represented (statistically) and viewed as normative within higher education (e.g., the white, cis-gender, able-bodied, heterosexual male academic) [34]. Theories and ideologies elucidate how certain identities and knowledge systems can function and be valued in higher education; these include hegemonic masculinity, and the influence of colonisation, and Eurocentrism [83–85].

#### *Perspective Chapter: Academia as a Culture – The 'Academy' for Women Academics DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.108503*

Hegemonic masculinity is a theory that explains the legitimisation of the male dominant position and the subordination of women and other minority groups and identities (i.e., where hegemonic refers to dominance) [83]. The neoliberal academic context supports dominant, traditional values relating to hegemonic masculinity, and academic identities that challenge the status quo (i.e., white, cis-gendered, ablebodied, male dominance) are at a disadvantage [86]. Hegemonic masculinity operates under the assumption that the gender binary is the dominant and accepted way to categorise gendered identities [83]. Within the academic context, women are not necessarily free to forge academic identities that are authentic to their experiences, rather, they experience pressure to pursue a prescribed gendered academic identity [44]. As such, within academia, the distinct categorisation of masculine and feminine identities prescribes gendered expectations regarding academic role performance [21]. While an academic may be able to form an identity, the conditions under which they do so are inherently limited and restricted for all, and particularly so for women. These conditions have been proposed to manifest through the privileging of particular identities and ways of being, underpinned by coloniality, Eurocentrism, and the neoliberal episteme.

#### **7. Academic ways of being, coloniality, and Eurocentrism**

Particular ideologies can elucidate how specific identities, knowledge systems, and ways of being have manifested and are privileged in today's academic context. Underpinning the privileging of these elements is the process of coloniality, which is understood in critical terms to articulate human agency and choice, traditional, dominant values, and how power can be used in an exploitative sense [84]. Coloniality refers to structures and practices which are derived from settler colonialism and governance that continue to influence social relations and institutions in the present day, while deriving originally from historical practices and long-standing patterns of power [84, 85]. Coloniality is propagated through imperialism, which works to facilitate economic and cultural expansion, power, and control over societies [85]. This form of large-scale domination is successful based on the large disparity in power, as well as the securing and subjugating of the minority populations [87]. The historical role of coloniality in Australia has served three prominent functions: a reduction of the power of Indigenous nations, forcing the adoption and assimilation of a westernised way of thinking, and the perpetuation of narratives which serve to erase the identities of those not privileged within the way of knowing [88, 89].

Practices and policies from the motherland (i.e., the United Kingdom [UK]) prevented the traditional landowners and other minority groups from accessing power and resources [90, 91]. This power was held with the individuals from the UK who had taken the land from the traditional custodians (i.e., Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, those from the First Nation), illustrating Aboriginal dispossession and colonial takeover, with the assumption that European culture and knowledge was superior to all others, and that the Europeans could define the world in their own terms [90, 91]. While some forms of colonialism aim to take resources to place the colonising country at an advantage, the objective of the coloniser upon possession of Australian land extended on this to include the acquisition of land to permanently settle [92]. Through this process of settling, the most destructive impacts to Indigenous communities were noted, where the exploitation of human and natural resources, as well as the acquisition, control,

and definition of these resources and the land, was identified [93]. The process outlined here was accomplished through the genocide, forced removal, and assimilation of Indigenous peoples within colonised land. The colonial defining of land and knowledge devalued the position of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people; as such, the majority were killed through genocide (random killings, punitive expeditions, and organised massacres) [90, 91]. The colonisers forcibly removed any traces of Australian Indigenous peoples from their homes, placing them in schools with westernised education to remove all traces of their Indigenous identity [90, 91]. Punishment was implemented when Indigenous peoples spoke their language, and the working conditions were inhumane with no payment, or ability to communicate with others [93].

The superiority of the majority was validated through beliefs, ideas, and values embedded in social representations [90, 91]. This led to the European colonists ensuring that they, and their higher education institutions, benefitted from forms of colonial capitalism, as well as having their ideas and beliefs validated as the norm [92]. This was considered as a means of cultural violence, an aspect of the culture that legitimises violence through direct and structural forms, to privilege the Eurocentric value of a single knowledge and form of education [94]. Coloniality is also underpinned by institutionalised, and cultural racism. Institutionalised racism is where organisational practices and policies prevent members of oppressed groups from accessing power and resources, whereas cultural racism is where particular beliefs, ideas, and values embedded in social representations validate the superiority of one group over the other [90, 91]. The colonisers developed theories of popularised discourses through structural and cultural racism that reinforced support for their colonial endeavours [88, 89]. Through the colonisers' perspective, this legitimised the oppression, dispossession, and domination of the colonised subjects on the basis of intellectual and ethical grounds [88, 89]. European colonists, through their actions, combined these forms of racism to ensure their ethnic group was the primary beneficiary of colonial capitalism, which lead to a dominant culture in Australia titled 'western' [85, 95].

#### **7.1 Constructing the Western, Eurocentric University**

Coloniality is based on European origins and worldviews which are upheld and work to intentionally replace other knowledge systems, which then dominate society [85]. In academia, knowledge and science have been influenced by cultural racism to assume universality over particular worldviews, with the European scientific paradigm introduced during colonisation as the only valid system of academic knowledge [90]. The university context was the site in which the colonial matrix of knowledge was developed, which were categories of thought, and epistemic ways of knowing and being, that were developed by the coloniser, within their subsequent privileged languages [88, 89]. The colonial matrix of knowledge attacked and marginalised any form of knowledge that did not fit into the colonised ontological and epistemic framework [88, 89]. Foundational knowledge within the westernised higher education context is based on epistemic racism, with the genocide of people and knowledge underpinned by not only material aspects of colonialism, but how the Eurocentric ways of knowing, and being in the world replaced other forms of knowledge [96]. Through the validation of the European scientific paradigm, it is argued that a mono-cultural, universal western tradition of Eurocentrism is promoted, whereby the Eurocentric universal truth is accepted, and other forms of knowledge

#### *Perspective Chapter: Academia as a Culture – The 'Academy' for Women Academics DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.108503*

and dissemination are invalidated [95]. Eurocentrism reflects the societal values and beliefs which were validated and constructed a dominant culture of western to disseminate the only valid system of knowledge at the time [90, 97]. The universality of the western worldview was based on European origins, which were upheld and worked to intentionally replace other knowledge systems, which then dominated society [85]. The Eurocentric, western worldview privileged white males as the majority, which impacted how white women, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, women with caring responsibilities, and other minorities were constructed and positioned in society [98]. The western tradition of Eurocentrism was promoted, whereby the Eurocentric universal truth was accepted, and other forms of knowledge and dissemination were invalidated [95]. Knowledge that is gained from the First World (the United States, and later, the UK) was disseminated in a one-way stream that privileges and promotes European and American academic cultural, and patriarchal imperialism [90].

#### **7.2 The influence of coloniality on higher education**

Higher education institutions have been influenced by particular ways of being and doing which reflect and preserve the dominant European colonial systems and practices [72]. The institutions were established upon the epistemic and material histories of coloniality, with universities across Australia, influenced by the British, providing education to the colonisers with the knowledge of those they would rule over [99]. This was achieved in such a manner that the expanding of colonial knowledge was viewed as dominating in nature, where the university was viewed as a context which was built and financed by dispossession, enslavement, coloniality, genocide, and constructed as a setting where colonial knowledge could be developed and extended outward [88, 89]. The knowledge privileged by coloniality built upon the subjectivities of a specific social agent (i.e., white, Christian, British men), which served to privilege other identities who did not meet these dimensions of identity [98]. It has been summarised that:

*Education, like the institutions and societies it derives from, is neither culturally neutral nor fair. Education has its roots in a patriarchal, Eurocentric society, complicit with multiple forms of oppression of women, sometimes men, children, minorities, and Indigenous peoples [88].*

As such, the Australian public higher education institutions within the colonised society represented a crucial site for negotiating between the domination of coloniality, and Indigenous sovereignty [100]. Concerns surrounding the relationship between colonial control and power have been suggested, with it argued that:

*Colonial includes all forms of dominating and oppressive relationships that emerge from structures of power and privilege inherent and embedded in our contemporary social relations…colonial is not defined simply as foreign or alien, but more importantly, as dominating and opposing [101].*

Through colonisation, the control of political, economic, and symbolic systems become institutionalised and obscured by ideologies that work to justify exploitative uses of power [72, 84]. This allows for the superiority of the coloniser, and the inferiority of the colonised, to manifest [84]. The continuing form of coloniality and imperialism works to perpetuate privileged ways of being in academia, for example, academia operates as a patriarchal, exclusionary, elitist, imperial setting that privileges white, heterosexual men and their ways of being and doing as superior [87]. Members of the dominant group (i.e., white men) are privileged over others, such as women in academia, who then find themselves in a devalued position and treated in a less favourable way [85]. As such, other identities who differ from the dominant patriarchal practices and ways of being, such as women and minoritised groups, are constructed in this colonised, imperialist setting as inferior [87]. Further, the ways in which academic knowledge is structured, as well as the governing organisational structures of higher education are fundamentally imperialist and colonial [85]. The culture of academia and the systems of management and governance all work in ways which protect the privileges that are already set-in place, which then disadvantage women academics [102].

Education has been viewed as the perfect vehicle in the domination of coloniality [88]. Colonialism within Australia was only considered the beginning, and given the enormity of the process, it was expected to live on as an unconscious aspect of daily life, specifically, through education [88]. Given this, it is important to make conscious how entrenched and ongoing the colonial process is within the education context. As such, a key component of this consciousness raising is for all individuals to recognise how we are implicated in colonial practices [89]. Most are unaware of this because of how normalised colonial ideologies are in both educational, and everyday contexts [89]. The normalisation exists based on the education of individuals through pedagogical and research practices [89].

The culture of academia can be suggested as never having engendered a sense of security for women. Historically, the setting has illustrated its inegalitarian and hierarchical structure, to facilitate a setting that fosters exclusion, elitism, and inequalities [85, 102]. As a setting, it acts to marginalise many from the security of the centre, or ivory tower, where many wider social inequities (based on gender, social class, race, and ethnicity) are reflected and reinforced through traditional practices [85, 102]. Considering these inequalities, as well as the social and psychological mechanisms of colonisation and imperialism, the relationship of domination and control becomes more pervasive over generations [103]. As such, higher education to this day continues in playing its part in perpetuating colonising, imperialist, and globalising practices, alongside the mass media and other westernised institutions [102]. Definitions of reality can be made to prevail over others, for example, using power underpinning a psychological imperialism through laws, rituals, instructions, and other forces [87]. The neoliberal episteme is one such example of particular guidelines that govern the academics in terms of their ways of being and doing in academia [60]. As such, academic institutions appear to focus less on how individuals can challenge Eurocentric norms and practices, and more on how they can assimilate and adjust to these forms of capitalist modernisation and culture [87, 90]. Discussion of the capitalist modernisation in the academic culture relies on exploring how the neoliberal episteme privileges particular academic identities and ways of being.

#### **8. Neoliberalism**

Neoliberalism is an ideology that reflects an increased level of productivity through the marketisation of institutions, as well as exhibiting a set of economic policies that have, over time, become embedded within western culture [104].

#### *Perspective Chapter: Academia as a Culture – The 'Academy' for Women Academics DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.108503*

Neoliberalism, as an episteme, reflects a way of knowing that can be present within the academic way of being [82]. Berry [75] describes neoliberalism as knowledge structures of rationalist scientism, empiricism, and productivity, quantified in a hard-and-fast manner that values efficiency and standardisation, as well as arguing that the dominant knowledge system can be indistinguishable from the neoliberal agenda that facilitates it. Further, neoliberalism has been associated with a positivist epistemology, and that the way of knowing, reflective in the episteme, values "externally defined rules and evaluative criteria, utility, and value for money, as well as scientific excellence" [105]. Institutions, under the neoliberal episteme, are governed to produce employable and local workers, or subjects, to supply services that are managed through neoliberal economic strategies [61].

The nature of work, and the workplace, within higher education has changed dramatically over the past two decades as a result of those in a position of power, as well as through the processes of globalisation and neoliberalism [106, 107]. Changes in the dominant socio-economic ideology within Australian tertiary education systems have transformed 'traditional' academic settings [108]. These changes have included a shift from a liberal setting that was characterised by a negotiated, flat, collegial governance structure, with professional autonomy valued, and the freedom for academics to define their role, to a more competitive, dominated, and hierarchical neoliberal structure, where the rights of academics are dependent on the market [108]. The shift has been strongly influenced by the manifestation of the neoliberal episteme. Many definitions of neoliberalism have been offered in the extant literature base, particularly in the social sciences literature, but most have commonalities that can be drawn upon [72].

The first evidence of neoliberalism was identified in the 1960s, although some argue that the episteme manifested and was evident in society earlier than this [106]. As an ideology, neoliberalism acknowledges the value of economic markets, both in their existence, and their operation [106]. The operation of the market-like structure within the institution acts as a guide for human action, capable of replacing any existing ideological beliefs that guide the individual's way of being and knowing, focusing on what is valued by the institution instead [109]. Institutions guided by the neoliberal episteme advocate for economic growth and view it as fundamental for the successful operation of society [109]. In combination, neoliberalism can encompass a range of economic, political, and social practices and ideas which functions at both an individual and institutional level [106].

#### **8.1 The impact of neoliberalism on Australian public higher education**

Within the higher education context, neoliberalism has changed ideas around teaching, research, and service. Neoliberalism is a change into the free market; a shift from educating students within professions to a focus on building marketable skills and knowledge within research [110]. The restructuring of universities has changed the expectations held for academics, for example, in how they provide services to the institution. Some suggest there is increasing pressure to be productive within the working environment [111] and these expectations are perceived by academics as near impossible to achieve [112]. Further, there appears an implicit expectation that the research interests of academics will benefit the interests of the schools, faculties, and institutions, with the importance of meeting targets that benefit the institution, rather than conducting research that the academic themselves enjoys, or finds pleasure in conducting [108]. In context of these pressures, higher education is a setting

where decision making capacity and personal autonomy may be limited [44]. In this new context, the focus is on generating capital and revenue [41], and measuring performance based on targets of research outputs and marketable skills [110].

Neoliberal ideas have changed the role of the academic in terms of the standards of how knowledge is gained, valued, and measured, for example, academics are viewed as now providing a service to their students, or 'clients' [113]. The impact of neoliberalism on higher education institutions has been summarised: "…neoliberalism brought various forms of external regulation, a new phenomenon for many institutions, and a greatly enhanced burden for others. Such large changes have had a strong influence on academics' beliefs and practices" [114]. The polarities, tensions, contrasts, and complementarities that are seen and felt by academics (and distinguished by neoliberalism) have impacted academia from both a local and global perspective [115]. Neoliberalism has reconceptualised the era that individuals live in, in that the knowledge that is produced is linked with economic outputs [107]. What this means is that advancements in knowledge are made within numerous institutional sites and research communities, simply, that knowledge does not come from one place, or from one person [104]. The individual or system who creates knowledge, or at least, has the ability to create knowledge, is situated within a position of power. Those with more power are constructed as experts within neoliberal systems, crafted with the responsibility to construct knowledge, subjectify certain individuals and ways of being and knowing, and allocate them hierarchical social positions [107]. As such, the individuals, the knowledge, and the systems are governed, both by the self and by external systems of control [106].

As institutions strive for competitive advantage in the marketplace, new features have been designed to be able to minimise costs and maximise profits. In relation to academic settings:


Further, with the influence of the neoliberal ideology, related ideals such as individual enterprise, maximised efficiency, responsiveness to user needs, and cost effectiveness have filtered into institutions globally [114]. Higher education institutions are not exempt from this, with evidence illustrating an increased emphasis on measured outputs, performance indicators, higher index scores (relating to academic productivity) and grant income [113]. Consequently, these new behaviours and ideals that are characteristic of the free market have exchanged the traditional culture of open intellectual enquiry with the new culture of performativity [44]. To have agency surrounding the choice of research and inquiry, has now been replaced with academics having to conduct research that meets performance targets for the institution, which may involve conducting research that does not fit with the research area of the academic [44, 113].

#### *Perspective Chapter: Academia as a Culture – The 'Academy' for Women Academics DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.108503*

These issues are of particular significance regarding the potential impact of the gendered academic environment on the experiences of women, and how they can create tensions for women academics. These tensions and inequalities are experienced more strongly by women, as the structure of academia embraces a patriarchal culture in combination to the neoliberal ideology. As such, academia now promotes the fully committed, visible, and self-promoting worker who is unaffected by familial responsibilities as the ideal worker [21, 47]. Additionally, the structure of higher education institutions simultaneously reinforces ideal worker standards that are masculinised in nature, as well as framing progression and advancement as merit-based and genderneutral, which act to both perpetuate and intensify existing gendered inequalities [61]. Consequently, the patriarchal and neoliberal system impacts women whereby their career progression is intermittent and slower, compared to their male counterparts, but accompanied with more physical and psychological exhaustion, based on their multiple roles and responsibilities [106].

#### **8.2 How did neoliberal ways of being become embedded in academia?**

The neoliberal practices that stem from the episteme work to allow particular ways of being to function. Additionally, they can illuminate how certain discourses and ideologies are enacted and perpetuated. In the context of neoliberal academia, the ways of being that are constructed can be viewed as practices that allow the normative conditions of academia to exist. For example, neoliberalism can produce in individuals: higher levels of flexibility, cooperation, and productivity with the constructing of economic objectives that allow for the economic benefit of the institution [116]. Further, neoliberalism allows for the review of academics and their performance, whether the individuals are meeting the requirements of the system, as well as conceptualising the value of the academic to the system [117]. These can be considered as simultaneously good for some, and bad for other academics. Neoliberal ways of being in academia include an oppressing of creativity in teaching practices and criticality in research, the generation and demand for competition, as well as marginalisation and suppression of critical thinking [82]. Further to this, the masculination of the academy perpetuates the technologies of competition, individualism, and appropriation being performed in the self, which at times may conflict with other ways of being constructed by the academic [72].

The neoliberal episteme is viewed as powerful and insidious in that it can shape the subjectivities for all academics, irrespective of gender, age, or career stage [118]. While the neoliberal discourse can be viewed as "monstrous and absurd", for example, through the valuing of intellectual work in dollar terms [116], the superficial set of governing practices outlined thus far are not directly intended to enter and change the identities of academic workers, or to undermine their passion for, and commitment to their work [119]. Rather, neoliberal ways of being are rationalised by working to improve and enhance the practices of individuals to make them more useful and relevant to the system [109]. Individuals are viewed as subjects and products of the neoliberal system, reconstructed to be part of a whole ensemble directed and focused to the pursuit and interests of the system [120]. As such, a subject's academic identities and sense of self is reconstructed over time to reflect the ethos and structure of the neoliberal episteme, and all aspects of social behaviour can now be reconceptualised from an economic lens [121]. It has been suggested that:

*rather than govern by dictating rights and responsibilities, neoliberalism proceeds by harnessing desires for independence and creativity to the interests of business,* 

*reconfiguring workers as entrepreneurs of their own skills and abilities and reconfiguring the social relations of capitalism to emphasise competition, not between workers and capitalists, but between workers themselves [122].*

Within western society, academics now work within a dramatically different educational system and context from what has existed years ago [106]. Neoliberalism has brought differing forms of external regulation, which has constructed a new phenomenon for institutions, but poses more of a burden for other academics [104]. These burdens and challenges have been suggested to influence the academics' identities, beliefs, and actions [117]. Academics, when reflecting on their identities, can be forced to review and work on themselves, in terms of self-surveillance, conduct, discipline, and self-restraint. The techniques of government and governmentality work to impose the social personality of the individual, whereby the academic's freedom is engaged to display desirable ways of behaving [120]. In the context of neoliberalism, the behaviour is to become tolerable and productive in relation to the labour market and capitalist ideals [105]. The real political task within society is when critiquing these practices, one must critique the workings of the institution and how they influence the conceptualisation of one's identities. The neoliberal workings of the institution can appear to be both independent and neutral; forms of discipline and conduct which have always obscurely exercised itself [120]. Individuals can work to fight fear and fight the insidiousness of the neoliberal episteme which have been legitimised by the ways of being of the institution. As such, research that explores the experiences of academics and aims to deconstruct these working practices, can assist in developing an understanding of the academic identity and overall understanding of the academic way of being. It is important to elucidate discourse surrounding the academic way of being, to be able to make sense of how neoliberalism, as a difficult and intangible ideology, works and manifests through the experiences of academics [104].

#### **9. Conclusions**

This chapter summarised the current state of women's positioning within higher education, setting the scene by providing an exploration of what is known thus far surrounding academic identities, the gender binary, heteronormativity, intersectionality, and how coloniality has influenced academia. The chapter concluded with an exploration of how neoliberalism has been conceptualised in the Australian public higher education setting.

#### **Conflict of interest**

The author declares no conflict of interest.

*Perspective Chapter: Academia as a Culture – The 'Academy' for Women Academics DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.108503*

#### **Author details**

Matthew James Phillips Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia

\*Address all correspondence to: matthew.phillips@curtin.edu.au

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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#### **Chapter 19**

## Perspective Chapter: Alumni Engagement in Higher Education Institutions – Perspectives from India

*Parimala Veluvali and Jayesh Surisetti*

#### **Abstract**

Engaging with alumni has become an institutional priority for many higher educational institutions. Alumni help in building the institutional brand and Universities are devising their own strategies for engagement with their alumni. In this pursuit, institutions also encounter certain challenges. Given the diversity in the institutional strategies toward alumni engagement, the challenges faced by them are also diverse. The purpose of this chapter is to study the key practices of higher education institutions in India in the area of alumni engagement and identify challenges faced by them in engaging with alumni, especially from a midto long-term perspective. The study has been done based on a purposive sample for institutions in India that have been graded high on quality assurance and sustenance by assessment and accreditation agencies such as NAAC and AACSB. The information available on the home pages of these institutions has been used for the purpose of the study. The study reveals certain key strategies and best practices that can be implemented by institutions for greater engagement. Involving the alumni in all aspects of the institutional functioning is the key to nurturing a healthy association.

**Keywords:** alumni engagement, institution building, brand building, alumni contribution, alumni engagement strategy, higher education

#### **1. Introduction**

Higher education institutions in India are exploring innovative and effective avenues for alumni engagement going much beyond the conventional routes. It is imperative to study these practices to enable public dissemination and knowledge sharing of best practices [1].

Alumni are an important factor in the success of higher education [2]. University alumni are key stakeholders and important contributors to the growth and development of their alma mater. How a higher education institution engages with its alumni is increasingly becoming important, as alumni engagement is one of the essential indicators of quality assurance in education. Educational quality and stakeholder engagement are closely linked. Quality assessment and accreditation parameters recognize alumni engagement as an important criterion in assessing the quality of the institution.

Extant literature affirms the connection between alumni engagement and institution building. The cooperation between the university and its alumni facilitates the connection between the academic and the industry and serves as a precursor for an inclusive environment, facilitating the exchange of experiences and knowledge sharing. This, in turn, ensures that the quality of education is in sync with the industry needs [3]. A steady engagement with alumni is important for the strategic growth of higher education institutions [4]. Studies have documented that alumni with a stronger sense of belonging to their alma mater are more likely to give back to their alma mater [5].

#### **2. Challenges**

Alumni engagement strategies vary from institution to institution and as such the challenges faced by institutions would also vary. For the purpose of understanding, the challenges can be clubbed into three buckets: strategic, interactive, and technological. Certain challenges emerge because of the strategic implementation of alumni engagement activities. *Prima facie*, the key challenge is that most institutions do not see alumni engagement as a strategic initiative. Due to this, institutions often miss out on leveraging alumni in the truest sense.

#### **2.1 Strategic**

In terms of the strategic challenges faced by alumni engagement, there are three broad issues that emerge.

#### *2.1.1 Defining alumni*

Typically, alumni are seen as participants of flagship or full-time courses, and the outreach is limited to them. Since alumni are defined in a narrow sense, the efforts tend to exclude participants in short-term exchange programs, certification courses, and development programs, etc. These participants are often professionals or other educators, who carry a wide variety of in-depth experience. Including them in a separate class of alumni engagement activities can broaden the scope of the alumni network and enrich the audience as well.

#### *2.1.2 Under-pressure budgets*

Institutional budgets are under pressure, especially in a post-lockdown scenario. As a consequence, alumni relations budgets also suffer. Despite the intent, institutions are not able to engage alumni to the extent and in the manner, they would like to. To an extent, this also creates a reverse dependence of institutions on alumni and their financial contributions. Under-pressure budgets tend to make alumni engagement a lot more transactional in nature.

#### *2.1.3 Lack of cohesiveness*

Activities that are undertaken under the ambit of alumni engagement are often organized independently. This often leads to alumni engagement spreading thinly across multiple initiatives without a cohesive sense of direction. This may lead to duplication of efforts or duplication of bodies and entities as well. Some activities might even be organized independently by alumni themselves without the institution in the picture. This might hold well for informal gatherings; however, formal alumni engagement activities might face the brunt.

#### **2.2 Interactive**

There are three key challenges that alumni engagement faces when it comes to the interactions between alumni and the institution.

#### *2.2.1 One-sided interactions*

Institutions in most of their interactions tend to remain one-sided. Despite all the communication happening, there is an absence of a feedback mechanism to listen to and act upon alumni suggestions. In addition to this, the primary focus of alumni interactions is the dissemination of information — most of the communication is about what the current students are doing. This tends to give alumni the impression that the institution does not pay heed to their perspective. One of the most prominent reasons for this phenomenon is the absence of a technology platform. Be it through snap polls for succinct feedback or through discussion boards for detailed interactions, a technology platform can provide greater depth and make interactions two-sided.

#### *2.2.2 Impersonal interactions*

Most alumni communication is addressed to a bulk audience (one-to-many). The space for customized interactions is still unutilized. The topics tend to be general issues rather than addressing specific points of concern. The communication is typically supplemented by engagement events such as alumni meets. The *modus operandi* of these events is that of large gatherings, where interactions are typically between alumni themselves. This does not give a lot of focus on the interactions between alumni and the institution itself. The reinforcement of the sense of belongingness through informational and emotional connect is possible only through interactions that happen with and within the institution.

#### *2.2.3 Non-value adding interactions*

The alumni community has the potential to provide significant benefits to its members through various features; however, the current approach taken by the institutions to interact with these members is mainly focused on theoretical aspects and lacks incentives to motivate alumni to invest their time and resources in developing a relationship. This should be addressed in order to encourage alumni to take advantage of the tangible and immediate benefits offered by the alumni community. Jobs, internships, industry events, and self-interest groups — all these initiatives make alumni interactions much more relevant.

#### **2.3 Technological**

There are two major facets of technology that pose challenges to alumni interactions.

#### *2.3.1 Legal and infrastructural challenges*

Data integrity and IT security have emerged as obstacles to collecting, storing, and utilizing alumni information. Organizations that do not have policies for data collection and storage find it, especially difficult to maintain consistent communication.

#### *2.3.2 Inefficient and outdated technology*

Alumni associations and universities are facing a major challenge in the form of outdated technology and data. With approximately 50% of the email addresses on the record being undeliverable, many institutions are unable to extract meaningful information from their alumni database beyond basic contact and graduating class details. As a result, universities are forced to invest their scarce marketing resources in generic mail and email campaigns that often fail to generate any returns. These generic campaigns typically lead to an increase in opt-outs and unsubscribed, with no benefit to the university.

#### **3. Recommendations**

#### **3.1 Define alumni personas**

Alumni relations experts understand that one single audience cannot encompass all alumni. People have diverse beliefs, so their interests vary as well. The best practice for alumni relations is to define alumni personas. This can be done by considering alumni demographics, behaviors, and common interests, or a combination of all three. By understanding personas, alumni relations teams can better identify, which motivators and communicators will be effective for different alumni groups, making it easier to determine the best practices for a large audience.

#### **3.2 Keep engagement "light touch" but relevant**

Begin your outreach to alumni by using soft and gentle communication that links them to your institution without asking for a major commitment. Additionally, provide sufficient opportunities for alumni to stay in touch with you, such as social media platforms, newsletters, and events, in order to keep them updated on the institution's successes.

Creating personalized content for each alumni persona is essential for building rock-solid alumni relations. Additionally, it is important to share content in a way that your alumni persona can relate to. For example, to your philanthropic alumni persona, you could share information about recent donations, charity events, and giveaways. After cultivating a connection with them, you can then ask for their support for your fundraising efforts.

#### **3.3 Recognize alumni**

The alumni network can be experts, future employees, future employers, and mentors — recognizing them in these capacities can go a long way in building institutional capacity. There are many ways to do this, such as inviting alumni to attend events and meet high-level visitors, asking alumni to represent the university at various expos, and including alumni in the selection process for admissions and scholarships (alumni are familiar with the culture of the institution or program and know what it takes to succeed). In addition, alumni can be invited or encouraged, formally or informally, to mentor prospective students. Alumni can be great role models and can offer practical guidance to students as they start their studies and careers. Lastly, celebrating alumni achievements reflects their experience in your university or country. All of these efforts establish a mutually beneficial relationship, acknowledging that past attendees and scholarship recipients participate in well-established networks, and connect with a wider community of potential and influential stakeholders.

#### **3.4 Start alumni engagement early**

Universities must create strong connections with alumni by providing an excellent student experience. Building this bond before students graduate is vital for establishing a positive relationship with them during and after their college years. If students feel supported, respected, and valued during their time at the university, they will develop a lasting affinity for the institution. It is much easier to foster these connections, while they are still students than after they have left and any negative experiences they had may have already caused them to lose their connection. Investing in the student experience is key to cultivating loyalty and maintaining strong relationships with alumni.

#### **3.5 Consistency is vital**

In order to achieve long-term success with alumni engagement, a comprehensive strategy must be designed and implemented. Short-term goals must be met while striving to maintain a consistent approach that will lead to the desired long-term outcomes. It is essential that the institution is committed to this sustained approach in order to ensure success.

If you want alumni to engage with your alumni relations program and form strong connections, you must continuously inspire them through your content, intent, and actions. Be consistent in sharing relevant information and invite them to events, contests, and campaigns to make them feel appreciated. With these practices, you can build a lasting bond with your alumni.

#### **3.6 Content is key**

In order to build lasting alumni relations, personalized content must be created for each alumni persona. For example, those alumni who are interested in entrepreneurship should be provided with content related to thought leadership, startup stories, and other relevant topics. Additionally, the content should not be solely focused on asking alumni to contribute funds to your fundraising efforts. Instead, it should foster a sentiment of connection and appreciation. For example, philanthropic alumni can be informed of the latest donations, charity events, and giveaways. Once a sense of loyalty has been established, alumni can then be asked to help support fundraising efforts.

To ensure successful alumni engagement, it is essential to make all content, such as information, landing pages, donation pages, websites, and forms, mobile-optimized and easily accessible on smartphones. This will create an esthetically pleasing and user-friendly experience for alumni regardless of the device they are using.

#### **3.7 Invest in your alumni**

The alma mater should strive for a two-way relationship with their alumni. To achieve this, alumni outreach should include professional and personal support such as professional networking events and career services, continuing education opportunities, and the use of campus facilities. Moreover, alumni should be connected through reunions, directories, and technology. Additionally, alumni should be offered continuing education in their career fields or general learning opportunities such as speaking events and seminars.

#### **3.8 Be open to feedback**

It is essential to maintain open lines of communication with alumni at all times. All feedback from alumni should be accepted and appreciated as it is a crucial part of the university's commitment to excellence. Alumni engagement programs should also actively seek alumni feedback and incorporate alumni suggestions into their development strategies. To measure the effectiveness of existing approaches, regular feedback from alumni should be sought and used to incrementally improve the program.

#### **3.9 Avoid only financial requests**

Outreach should not focus exclusively on donations. While universities are aiming for financial contributions, this should not be the only communication that alumni get. All content should be interesting and engaging, which is hard to do if alumni are all treated identically.

#### **3.10 Assign a reasonable budget**

If universities prioritize alumni, they must allocate a budget to do so. Though spending money upfront is necessary, the long-term benefits will be substantial if done right. Therefore, it is important to remember that you have to spend money to make money.

#### **3.11 Invest in technology**

Investing in a technology platform for maintaining an updated database, regular communication through emails and messages, hassle-free engagement and discussions, and seamless grievance handling. It can also act as an interface to share news and insights about the institution, furthering the cause of alumni connection and engagement.

#### **4. Conclusion**

The study has revealed some of areas that higher education institutions must work on to strengthen alumni engagement. These can serve as guiding principles for other institutions to emulate. The study has also revealed some common aspects that alumni *Perspective Chapter: Alumni Engagement in Higher Education Institutions – Perspectives... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111457*

respond positively to, contributing to alumni engagement. These include providing professional support through networking events and career services, continued use of campus resources, and higher education opportunities among others. It is also important to promote camaraderie through introductions between interested alumni at events, e-seminars, and virtual events, etc.

#### **Author details**

Parimala Veluvali1 \* and Jayesh Surisetti2

1 Symbiosis School for Online and Digital Learning, Symbiosis International (Deemed University), Pune, India

2 Happea, Raipur, India

\*Address all correspondence to: veluvaliparimala@gmail.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

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[2] Newman MD, Petrosko JM. Predictors of alumni association membership. Research in Higher Education. 2011;**52**:738-759. [Internet]. DOI: 10.1007/s11162-011-9213-8

[3] Snijders I, Wijnia L, Rikers RMJP, Loyens SMM. Alumni loyalty drivers in higher education. Social Psychology of Education. 2019;**22**:607-627

[4] Chase J. Relationship building: The key to alumni engagement. Educause Review. 2019. [Internet] Available from: https://er.educause.edu/articles/2021/5/ relationship-building-the-key-to-alumniengagement

[5] Drezner ND, Pizmony-Levy O. I belong, therefore, I give? The impact of sense of belonging on graduate student alumni engagement. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly. 2020;**50**:753-777

#### **Chapter 20**

## Perspective Chapter: Teacher Education in a Multicultural Globalizing World – Field-Based Reflections

*Mohammad Makram*

#### **Abstract**

International educational contexts are increasing rapidly, and many teachers find themselves working in contexts that they may not be fully aware of. The aim of the current study was to investigate how preservice English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers at an Egyptian higher education institution (HEI) conceptualize international mindedness in light of their teaching practices. To answer the current research question, a semi-structured interview was conducted using qualitative methodology where participants (n = 7) were interviewed online through Teams. These sample participants are in the course of their academic education as preservice English language teachers. The responses were afterward coded and analyzed using thematic analysis. The findings indicate that the participants showed some degree of internationalmindedness. The responses also highlight that these preservice teachers' perceptions of international mindedness are pedagogically-oriented, meaning that it is geared toward issues of teaching and curriculum content delivery rather than understanding the nature of international mindedness. The findings are discussed in light of the theoretical framework and the particular context of the current study. Implications for research and practice as well as research recommendations are presented.

**Keywords:** higher education, teacher education, global/international education, EFL teachers, mindedness

#### **1. Introduction**

This chapter introduces the conceptualizations of international mindedness by preservice teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL). In the context of current educational environments, teachers seem to find themselves in contexts where they need to be aware of the educational environment, equipped with the knowledge and skills they need to deploy in their teaching, and able to interact effectively with the school environment and the dynamics of the educational contexts. Overall, the study seeks to develop preservice English language teachers' international and multicultural educational

competencies, but this report focuses on understanding how they conceptualize inter international-mindedness starting point toward such a desired teacher development.

In the Egyptian higher education context, the teacher education system follows a nationwide government-led approach where teacher education follows a three-phase pattern. This educational pattern spans a period of four years (originally three and increased in the mid-twentieth) including teachers being educated in the subject area (major) of specialization, then pedagogical education is introduced either along with or after their subject area-related education, and afterward, some cultural education occurs. This cultural education includes some literacy subjects/courses such as basic computer literacy, environmental education, and human rights [1].

This way, I argue that it is likely that teacher education lacks the element of international awareness that is particularly important nowadays in rapid development and change. This is why there is a need for having a degree of international mindedness to engage effectively with the school and the wider international community that is characterized by differences and diversity in many aspects. I also argue that this mentality or mindedness seems to be graded or scaled and that we as human beings might have varying degrees of it. It can also be adapted, changed, and developed through suitable interventions such as teacher-led discussions, training workshops, and open dialog with teachers.

Specifically, preservice teachers may lack adequate preparation for a teaching career, particularly with reference to international dimensions. Increasing teachers' awareness of international and cultural issues may be one suitable intervention in this regard to increase their teaching competencies and competitiveness in the educational marketplace. This argument receives some credibility in light of the reform efforts undertaken through the past decades on the Egyptian educational system [2, 3]. This claim is also supported by the studies that confirm that current teacher education is falling short of providing effective teachers for the marketplace [1, 4]. This current state of teacher education brings about the need to address issues of the status quo ineffective teacher education such as international mindedness in the teacher education process.

Hence, teacher education in the Egyptian context may need more improvement to equip competitive/effective teachers both inland (at local national institutions) and for the global educational labor market. The issue is that such educational reform endeavors focus on the curriculum and the (in-service) teachers, whereas preservice teachers seem to receive less scholarly research interest. Hence, there seems to be a gap to investigate how these preservice teachers conceptualize international mindedness and if the preservice teachers have a limited understanding of international issues.

The Egyptian teacher education reform efforts can be viewed as qualifying teachers with the necessary knowledge, skills, attitudes, and necessary for effective functioning in international education contexts [5]. In the context of international education, the concept of international-mindedness seems to be recurrent and at the core of international education. International mindedness has recently grasped researchers' attention given the massive widespread of international education as embodied by the globally increasing numbers of international schools, branch campuses, and twinning programs/collaborations in the global higher education systems [6–8]. Back to the definition, international mindedness can be viewed as an attitude toward global engagement and international awareness of issues going on in the world. Hill [9] provides a comprehensive view of the term:

International mindedness embraces knowledge about global issues and their interdependence, cultural differences, and critical thinking skills to analyse and propose solutions … it is about putting the knowledge and skills to work in order to make the

#### *Perspective Chapter: Teacher Education in a Multicultural Globalizing World – Field-Based... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109715*

world a better place through empathy, compassion, and openness – to the variety of ways of thinking which enrich and complicate our planet' (p. 246).

In this study and in view of Hill's definition, I contend that international mindedness is a degree of knowledge and awareness of and a set of attitudes toward international issues. International mindedness is multifaceted in nature [4] and embraces a set of features and attitudes. These features are numerous but of more importance is the awareness of global issues and interest in the world's issues and problems, consideration for different perspectives, and awareness of international educational issues. International mindedness is a mindset, an attitude based on openness and understanding of the variety in the world. This brings about the pedagogical consideration that cultivation of such a mindset can be attained through teacher-related training workshops, open discussions, or dialogs on reflective practice. Pragmatically, though mindsets might be untrainable to some degree, exploring international mindedness can shed light on the concept for the preservice teachers who, I argue, might have limited to no understanding of it. This way, they can rethink their pedagogical conceptions, beliefs, ideas, and practices in light of this new paradigm of international mindedness.

International mindedness seems to be complex given the different dimensions that it embraces and it also seems challenging as well [10]. In Muller's terms ([11], p. 26), international mindedness is "an understanding that individuals can prove the state of the world through understanding of global realities, and the accompanying acceptance of the responsibility to take action to do so." To Elerian and Solomou, international mindedness has also to do with global engagement (GE) since both are closely related, referring to issues that cross beyond national borders, such as environment, conflict resolution, human rights, power and privilege, sustainability, world cultures, and awareness of the work of international organizations [12]. The current research is focused on this aspect of international mindedness that includes knowledge of the world and engagement with international issues. These global engagement indicators have to do with a learner's being internationally aware of world issues. Operationally, these features address the multidimensional conception of international mindedness viewed in this study as a degree of knowledge and awareness and a positive attitude toward global issues. In view of the above sections, it seems that a scale of international mindedness is a requirement in educational spheres where global awareness and understanding can help students reap the fruits of the educational process.

#### **2. Rationale**

Understanding preservice teachers' perceptions of international mindedness are important to identify the degree to which they possess some of the competencies required for international and multicultural education. Such competencies may be manifested in the teachers' effective practices exhibited in the successful delivery of content knowledge, respect for students, and awareness of extracurricular global issues beyond the course content. Therefore, such competence might include the teachers' beliefs, attitudes, skills, and attitudes that enable them to be effective teachers. This is further intensified given the role of globalization and internationalization of education in the arena of schooling [13], where classrooms are getting increasingly diverse, internationalized in nature, and intercultural/multicultural in principle. Teachers' beliefs, which in turn are largely affected by how they conceptualize things, have a role to play in the educational process as they help us understand how teachers

shape their work. This understanding is significant in understanding their teaching practices, such as the selection of particular methods and techniques, which in turn impacts students' learning and outcomes [14]. Understanding that the preservice teachers' conceptualization of international mindedness can help identify the differences between understanding and what is laid out in the literature.

Given the teacher's role in educational success as the professional agent and the most directly responsible in the learning process [15], proper preparation of the teacher is evidently significant. Well-prepared teachers are teachers who can bring about effective educational outcomes, such as effective delivery of course content and respect for individual learners as evidenced by such studies as in Ref. [16]. These researchers found that there is a significant correlation between teachers' training and student test results. One such positive outcome mentioned above is the requirement that teachers should be aware of how to respond to that complex globalized situation, which necessitates that teacher education curriculum should also prepare them for such a classroom, and for the whole world at large [17]. It seems like preservice teachers' perceptions of international mindedness received limited attention from researchers in the Egyptian higher education context with a focus on developing their pedagogical and linguistic skills (e.g., [18–21]).

This is the case of English teacher education that is the same across Egypt's HEIs since the educational system is centralized although course content can vary from one governorate (county) to another. Given the globalizing and internationalizing educational atmosphere, teacher education can be questioned if it is properly preparing preservice teachers for such an educational environment in which the local seems to be interacting with the global. In this Egyptian higher education context, the teaching and learning atmosphere is more exam-oriented rather than reflection-based, and efforts for reform have continued to be conducted over the past few decades [22–25]. The focus on passing exams and delivery of curriculum content seems to leave little space for teachers (preservice and in-service) to reflect and rethink their teaching this comes at the expense of international mindedness that exhibits a tendency toward being inquisitive and reflecting/thinker [26]. There seems to be less focus on international aspects/issues of teacher education since the previous studies (e.g., decades) [22–25] focus on the content at the expense of the teacher.

#### **3. Review of literature**

This review introduces international mindedness as the key concept in the current study, and a concept that might have received some scholarly interest and investigation in the context of international education. The current review of literature addresses the theme of international mindedness and subthemes related to it. One subtheme is the evolution and development of the concept of international mindedness. I also go through some features of international mindedness, indicating how international mindedness sits within international educational contexts. Another issue of interest is understanding why international mindedness is necessary for the educational process, and why having teachers with international mindedness is important too. Furthermore, the literature sheds some light on how international mindedness looks like in the teacher preparation curriculum and the state of the art of knowledge on international mindedness in the teacher preparation curriculum with particular reference to the Egyptian context. Therefore, a clear idea of the concept of

international-mindedness can be formulated so that further practical research can then be conducted.

#### **3.1 International mindedness: An introduction**

Recently, the necessity to make university courses more internationally and culturally relevant/sensitive springs from the recognition that higher education is in charge of preparing all students for life in such an ongoingly diverse, interconnected, and the interdependent world. International mindedness has features including interest in human beings, openness to different cultures, the interrelatedness of people, and respect for cultural differences/backgrounds [17]. This concept can be seen as bringing into mind a set of attitudes that an educational stakeholder has to adopt to be described as internationally minded [27].

#### **3.2 Definition of international mindedness**

This section sheds light on some literature addressing researchers and practitioners defining international mindedness. Such definitions can help clarify how it is viewed by scholars while disclosing some of its core features and dimensions. Before starting to define international mindedness, the notion of international is worth a quick look. The very linguistic (morphological) analysis of the word international features the prefix inter meaning between, and national is an adjective indicating that the term international has to do with between-nations issues, problems, solutions, and interactions.

Bailey and Harwood [28] contend that defining international mindedness is a challenging task. Being internationally minded sounds like an attitude in itself as described by Singh and Qi (2013, 13) who defined international mindedness in light of the international diploma programs (IDP) as "an attitude of openness to, and curiosity about, the world and different cultures" [7]. It is concerned with developing a deep understanding of the complexity, diversity, and motives that underpin human actions and interactions. The issue here is that the definitions available seem to be generic and not considering the different local contexts, which might bring about localized definitions of international mindedness. Such localized definitions can have some features of international mindedness as described in the literature (maybe to some degree), but not necessarily all of them. In this study, I agree with Singh and Qi's definition of international mindedness since it gives a clear clarification of the concept, and an operational definition of the concept can be derived from it.

#### **3.3 Origins of international mindedness**

The origins and evolution of the concept of international mindedness deserve some exploration in order to understand how it is contextualized in the context of international education. Knowing such origins can help inform the process of preservice teacher training simply by identifying which factors had an impact on the concept development and thus, such factors can be taken into consideration in future educational reforms. Originally, international mindedness is a call for peaceful coexistence, and this is indicated by Mead's (1929), as cited in Cause's [29] statement that international mindedness developed after the First World War (WWI) as a political concept where the history of the phrase goes back at least as far as 1929 [30].

At this stage of world turmoil, the need for international cross-bordering educational programs was much felt by educators and families at the time of world war [30]. International schools had sprung up in different spheres of the world to cater to educating the children of parents working outside their home countries (internationally), particularly for the United Nations (UN) agencies and outposts [31]. The longest surviving of these schools was the International School of Geneva founded in 1924, principally by UN employees. These forms of schools were meant to provide a curriculum that is described as being international. The international curriculum is the curriculum delivered at such international schools. One example of such an international curriculum is the international baccalaureate, which was an academic program thought to be able to promote peace and coexistence [29]. It was first founded in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1968 and provides an international curriculum for thousands of schools across the globe [32]. Based on the above account of the origins of international mindedness within international schools, it sounds like the view of international education as cross-bordering educational institutions is quite limiting and narrow since the curriculum itself might be national rather than international.

Tracing the concept of international mindedness, Hill (2012) indicates that it was not until the 1960s that a curriculum for international mindedness appeared in the form of the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme (IBDP), whose first examinations for official candidates took place only in 1971 [9]. The special aspect I could observe about the IBDP is the specification of the learner, as well as teacher profiles, and the emphasis on the international and multicultural environment of the teaching-learning process. But the concept has origins that date back much earlier than the twentieth century, as Hill argues that international mindedness is reflected within the philosophy of international education that first came into existence in the seventeenth century by the Czech pedagogue, philosopher, and humanist, John Comenius (1592–1670).

Comenius presumably places the beginning of international education that underpins the ethos of international mindedness. He argued for democratic education that incorporates both males and females at a time when girls rarely went to school. That education would serve to educate nations and aim to bring scholars from different countries to study together. Possibly, Comenius's democratic education entailed a kind of mindedness that can be described as international as it was more inclusive (of deprived category/population of females) and democratic (equitable opportunities available for all learners). In this study, I might consider different experiences with training and educating international education teachers with a special focus on the International Baccalaureate (IB) program as it has been established for decades.

The concept of international mindedness continues to evolve through the following centuries as well. Hill (2012) mentions that, in the eighteenth century, international mindedness was reflected in the educational philosophy of Jan Jack Rousseau (the European philosopher and educationalist) about international mindedness in that learning should be heuristic, stemming from natural curiosity and personal experience, rather than imparting facts—which is an important pedagogical process for facilitating international mindedness. This, in a way, seems to be related to global engagement since engagement requires reflection, thinking, and openness to different perspectives [9].

#### **3.4 Features of international mindedness**

There are a number of features peculiar to international mindedness, which support the opinion that it is a mental personal attitude that can be activated within a

#### *Perspective Chapter: Teacher Education in a Multicultural Globalizing World – Field-Based... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109715*

certain social context. International mindedness has many features, but for the purpose of the confirmation process, this report will focus on only the following features by which an operational definition of the concept can be identified. The following list illustrates that:


Operationally and in view of these features, international mindedness is an attitude of openness toward, interest in, curiosity about, and engagement with the world and its international issues and concerns. One concluding remark here is that international mindedness can be seen as a continuum as not all people (or teachers) are internationally minded similarly; some will adopt certain of the above features, while others will simply consider them based on parameters of personal background, experiences, and conceptions. Also, the same person can be said to be internationally minded partially or fully based on the degree to which he/she adheres to the above features.

#### **3.5 Significance of international mindedness**

International mindedness seems to feature a number of benefits that cumulatively provide a pedagogy that incorporates international mindedness in the curriculum. Educators need to nurture a degree of international mindedness in students to be world/global citizens. The fact that the world is being even more and globalized affords a space for the need for international mindedness to allow people to communicate globally based on a degree of respect based on an understanding of human nature. As illustrated by Metli and Lane [35], given that, the world is increasingly interconnected, globalized, and multicultural, there are more opportunities for people of today's world to communicate easily with those with different cultures. Hence, the role of international mindedness is to facilitate such global-scale communication between world nations. In the world of accelerating global changes, global engagement and intercultural understanding might indicate that one needs to have a form of awareness that can facilitate intercultural human dialog and communication, and this is potentially supported by international mindedness.

#### *3.5.1 Applications of international mindedness*

Literature is generally learner-centered when it comes to consideration of issues on international mindedness in educational contexts. That is why the focus of the current research has shifted from that toward more consideration and emphasis on the position of (preservice) teachers while attempting to envisage how they primarily conceptualize international-mindedness as a critical element in international education

contexts. By fostering an ethos of mutual respect and facilitating humans' international understanding, international mindedness can facilitate respect and equality. According to Habib [36], the rationale for adopting internationally minded practices in pedagogical practices is the need for opportunities where people of the world are interacting with one another through education, media, business, technology, or in multiple other ways. An exploration of international mindedness centers around the learner and focuses on bringing to the foreground the learners' understanding of how their teaching practice can be influenced by their own beliefs and cultures [37].

It seems that developing a globally competent teacher is justified in the context of international education. By adopting international mindedness, both the teacher and student can understand various cultures embodied in the school context, in such an atmosphere that promotes mutual understanding and respect. These applications did not go without its criticism. Belal [38] indicates that one such prominent application of international-mindedness in schools is the IB programs. In the International Baccalaureate Diploma four programs, international mindedness seems to be idealistic and implied in the IB school's mission statement but not directly addressed. Belal also continues to clarify that participation in the IBDP can help achieve international mindedness, but it is the school's diversity that contributes more toward achieving this attitude/mindedness. It might be the very nature of the educational process and curriculum that can help enrich or hamper the tendency toward international-mindedness.

This issue of school diversity highlighted by Belal [39] seems to have scholarly credibility among other researchers. For instance, as stressed by Hill [31], participation in an international community or activities like international fairs in itself is not sufficient for instilling an attitude of international mindedness, but the role of the school is to infuse that attitude *via* a formal curriculum, based on principles of international education. Hill further contends that international educational approaches can be adopted and integrated even into national educational contexts (e.g. schools) given they are open to the world, which further highlights the role a teacher and the school system can play to foster a culture of internationalism.

Additionally, challenges might arise when it comes to the application of international mindedness either at theoretical or practical levels. In the account of the deviations and challenges facing the concept, Savva and Stanfield [40] clarified that to provide any understanding of international mindedness in the IB context, the understanding needs first to fit within the broader IB mission statement. Practically, within the IB schools that feature the international student learner profile, some criticisms were raised as the profile has no theoretical justification and ignores the complexity of human nature while stressing the absoluteness of single characters [41–43]. It can be seen that one individual or student can have a feature of that profile in one aspect but not the other, and it might be so in one instance not in another. For example, being open-minded as a learner seems to be scaled since the learner may be open-minded to a degree that differs from the other. Also, a learner who is openminded might not necessarily be a good communicator.

These challenges should not be a hindrance toward achieving the ethos of international mindedness as exhibited in the features of the concept. As suggested by Savva and Stanfield [40], despite challenges, schools can use a variety of techniques to develop shared understanding, and this can be achieved in various ways. For example, new staff and student orientation sessions, homeroom or advisory groups, assemblies, and parent-teacher conferences can be organized and promoted. One remark is the need for aligning the features or dispositions embedded in international mindedness with the context where it is to be implemented, meaning that adaptation to the various national contexts has to be taken into consideration for achieving the optimum benefit.

#### **3.6 International mindedness in teacher education contexts**

Now the question is about the role of international mindedness in practice. In other words, how international mindedness looks like in the teacher education (TE) curriculum? In essence, catering to an internationally minded teacher education curriculum is an issue that has to consider some points about context, teacher personality, background and readiness, and more.

One educational requirement of the curriculum in the context of international mindedness is to be sensitive (i.e., respective) to other cultures. The TE curriculum has to prepare teachers for a teaching context that is basically, ethnically, and culturally diverse. International mindedness can be developed in different aspects of student's education continually through curricular, co-curricular, and extracurricular activities [6]. One way the curriculum can help boost teachers' international mindedness by fostering their self-reflection. It is critical also that teacher candidates understand the importance of knowing bout learners' backgrounds and experiences and understand that language, culture, and identity are deeply interconnected, and how cultural groups and individual cultural identities affect language learning and school achievement [44].

Practically, the emphasis on curriculum sensitivity toward cultural issues is a call for change, a need for rethinking teacher education in a world of ongoing rapid change. One starting point can be through adopting a teacher-centered approach toward teacher education (and training) development pursuits, and this can be facilitated through listening to (preservice) teachers' voices and understanding their viewpoints regarding curriculum development and reform. Such reform can start by first understanding teachers' basic conceptions about trending issues, such as international education and international mindedness, particularly if their teaching backgrounds did not consider nowadays educational trends.

#### **3.7 International mindedness and Egyptian teacher education**

Through the past decades, international mindedness was considered in different school contexts in different parts of the globe. For example, in the Latin context, a study by Castillo-Clark (2018) explored the development of international-mindedness in teacher candidates. Using interviews with preservice teachers, the study could investigate preservice teachers' perceptions of international mindedness with the purpose of developing it among this group. In a Western context, Budrow [45] examined international mindedness in a Canadian international school-based context with three in-service teachers (ISTs), who are Canadian of Anglo-European descent and beginning their formal careers in international schools international mindedness. Findings suggest that some elements of international mindedness are more readily appreciated and practiced by these novice teachers, such as curiosity and openness, to know and understand others and the world, while others require greater awareness and effort to attain, such as gender-related issues. The findings also suggest foregrounding the importance of critically reflecting upon one's "localness" in the world.

In another study within the Middle Eastern context, Habib [36] endeavored to examine higher education faculty members' understanding of international

mindedness. Participant faculty members also reflected a lack of professional development and understanding of local and international dynamics, where specialized educational programs were important factors. Finally, the study concluded with implications for professional growth platforms to foster international-mindedness in educators so that they can promote international-mindedness in students in return.

Similarly, the Arabic context seems to exhibit some interest in such global scholarly interest in these educational concepts as international mindedness. For instance, Alhuthaif [46] explored the conceptions and practices of international mindedness of four English as a foreign language (EFL) faculty members in higher education programs at a Saudi university. The study had the following four conclusions: (1) basic language skills, grammar, and intercultural understanding are intertwined in Saudi EFL programs; (2) education technology promotes intercultural communication through interactive learning experiences; (3) the participant Saudi EFL faculty were able to describe international mindedness and use it in the classroom through intercultural competence although they might have not heard about it previously; and (4) references to international perspectives in EFL curricula and practices seem to be minimal in the data collected and thus require further attention in the Saudi EFL curriculum in future research.

In the Egyptian context, very little is known about the concept of international mindedness by both teachers and students, whether at policy or practice levels. Surveying literature across some notable educational databases, I could not identify any pertinent literature or research that addresses the issue of international mindedness in the context of (preservice) teacher education whether at the policy level or the practice level. Despite international education increasing in the Egyptian context, given the notable increase of international schools and universities, such as the case of branch campuses, teacher education has encountered no change in response—hence the contribution of this study.

A study by Belal [39] addressed international-mindedness in international schools in Egypt. Belal clarifies that although the rapidly expanding International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme (IBDP) is a well-recognized program perceived to offer best practices in education, including developing international mindedness in students and engaging with the local communities, there is little empirical evidence to support these outcomes. This study concludes that engagement with the diverse local community was not perceived by participants as one of the main outcomes of offering the IBDP, whereas the diversity of the school student body was perceived as an integral factor in helping students develop a wider worldview and international mindedness. The study has a learner-centered approach, while teacher preparation received no attention.

Studies on international mindedness are a bit limited in the Egyptian context and the above instances are, to the best of my knowledge, the most pertinent ones. Therefore, the gap that this study attempts to fulfill is finding out how international mindedness is perceived by (English as a foreign language) preservice teachers, thus giving insights into prospective research endeavors aiming toward the development of teacher education curriculum.

#### **4. Concluding remarks**

This chapter was used to provide an understanding of international mindedness as an important educational concept that resonates in different international educational

#### *Perspective Chapter: Teacher Education in a Multicultural Globalizing World – Field-Based... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109715*

contexts. The review discussed issues on defining international mindedness, its origins, features, and how it is contextualized in the curriculum. A special emphasis and reference have been made in the context of the Egyptian teacher education curriculum as the context of this study. This further has led to the design of the current research methodology being quantitative, in nature, so that preservice teachers can be given the opportunity for reflecting on what it means to be an internationally minded teacher—which is the focus of the next chapter.

### **Author details**

Mohammad Makram Faculty of Education, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Assiut University, Egypt

\*Address all correspondence to: mohammadmakram@edu.aun.edu.eg

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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[29] Cause L. The Development of International Mindedness in an Australian Primary School [Thesis]. Australia: Deakin University; 2012

[30] Dewey NP. International Mindedness: Conceptualizations and Curriculum in an International School in Brazil [Thesis]. Minnesota, USA: The Faculty of University of Minnesota; 2017

[31] Hill I. In: Internationally-minded schools. International Schools Journal, X), 24-33- International Baccalaureate Organization, editor. The IB diploma programme statistical bulletin. Cardiff: International Baccalaureate Organization; 2000, 2008

[32] Whitmarsh D. Fields, habitus and the international Baccalaureate's interpretation of international mindedness. Journal of Research in International Education. 2022;**21**(2):123- 138. DOI: 10.1177/14752409221122048

[33] Haywood T. A simple typology of international-mindedness and its implications for education. In: A Simple Typology of International-Mindedness and its Implications for Education. NY, New York: SAGE Publications Ltd; 2007. pp. 79-89. DOI: 10.4135/9781848607866

[34] Syeda M. Fostering International Mindedness in International Baccalaureate Classrooms: A Case Study of Two Teachers. Vol. 10939. Montana: University of Montana: Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers; 2017

[35] Metli A, Lane JF. International mindedness: A revised conceptual framework. Journal of Research in International Education. 2020;**19**(3):202- 219. DOI: 10.1177/1475240920976229

[36] Habib Z. International mindedness and intercultural competence: Perceptions of Pakistani higher education faculty. Journal of Education and Educational Development. 2018;**5**(1):60-79

[37] Castillo-Clark KP. International Mindedness: Phenomenological Inquiry into Teacher Candidate Experiences. Chicago: Loyola University Chicago, Loyola Commons; 2018

[38] Belal SM. Identification of the Intended and Unintended Outcomes of Offering the International Baccalaureate Diploma Program in an International School in Egypt [Thesis]. Minnesota, USA: The Faculty of The University of Minnesota; 2015

[39] Belal S. Participating in the international baccalaureate diploma programme: Developing international mindedness and engagement with local communities. Journal of Research in International Education. 2017;**16**(1):18-35

[40] Savva M, Stanfield D. Internationalmindedness: Deviations, incongruities and other challenges facing the concept. Journal of Research in International Education. 2018;**17**(2):179-193. https:// doi.org/10.1177/1475240918793954

[41] Bunnell T. The Changing Landscape of International Schooling: Implications for Theory and Practice. Oxford: Routledge; 2014

[42] Wells J. International education, values and attitudes: A critical analysis of the international baccalaureate learner profile. Journal of Research in International Education. 2011;**10**(2):174-188

[43] Wells J. Learner reflections on the international baccalaureate learner profile and international mindedness at a bilingual School in Bogota, Colombia. Journal of Research in International Education. 2016;**15**(3):277-277

[44] Lucas T, Villegas AM. A framework for preparing linguistically responsive teachers. In: Lucas T, editor. Teacher Preparation for Linguistically Diverse Classrooms: A Resource for Teacher Educators. New York, NY: Routledge; 2011. pp. 55-72

[45] Budrow J. Being and becoming internationally minded: Snapshots of *Perspective Chapter: Teacher Education in a Multicultural Globalizing World – Field-Based... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109715*

novice Canadian teachers in international schools. Journal of Research in International Education. 2021;**20**(3):211- 225. DOI: 10.1177/14752409211060137

[46] Alhuthaif A. International Mindedness within Intercultural Competence: A Collective Case Study of Faculty's Conceptualizations and Practices of International Mindedness in One Saudi EFL Higher Education Institution in an Effort to Achieve Saudi Arabia's Vision 2030 (No. 13424243) [Thesis]. USA: The Graduate School of Education and Human Development, The George Washington University; 2019

### **Chapter 21**

## Perspective Chapter: Reflections on the Future of Higher Education in the United Kingdom

*Jonathan Blackledge*

#### **Abstract**

The problems being faced in the UK university sector are considered, how these problems have arisen, what needs to be done about them, and, how the future of the UK's knowledge economy will be influenced by the strategies currently being implemented by the UK government. This is done by revisiting some examples of problems from the past, and how they were solved. It is undertaken using a framework that is characterised by the following fundamental issues: (i) educational philosophies; (ii) ethics in educational provision; (iii) knowledge economies, and; (iv) the goals of education. In this context, the chapter discusses the evolving, and necessary connectivity, between government, education and industry - the so-called 'Triple Helix Concept'. This is coupled with a discussion on the future of Higher Education in terms of the underlying strategy of the UK government, which reflects the new age of the 'Technological College' that the UK is now entering.

**Keywords:** higher education, educational philosophies, apprenticeship Programmes, technological colleges, government strategy

#### **1. Introduction**

In this chapter, the current problems being faced in the UK university sector are considered, how these problems have arisen, what needs to be done about them, and how the future of the UK's knowledge economy will be influenced by the strategies now being implemented by the government. This is done by revisiting some examples of problems from the past and how they were solved, lest we fail to appreciate the words of the Spanish Philosopher, George Santayana [1]: 'Those who do not remember the past are condemned to repeat it'. In this context, the chapter considers the state of Higher Education (HE) in the United Kingdom. This is undertaken using a framework that is characterised by the following fundamental issues:


The chapter considers how and why the UK's apprenticeship centres were established in the 1880's as a direct consequence of social and economic issues that led to problems which are very familiar today. The chapter also briefly considers the background to a reformation in English education that occurred in the 1650's and the longer term effects it had on society in both the UK and beyond. In this respect, the chapter discusses the evolving and necessary connectivity between government, education and industry - the so-called 'Triple Helix Concept' [2]. This is followed by a discussion on the future of education in terms of the underlying strategy of the UK government. It is undertaken by considering two case studies that are reflective of the new age of the 'Technological College' that the UK is now embarking upon; colleges that are destined to replace many rank-and-file universities. The concluding remarks are coupled with some final thoughts in regard to a generic educational philosophy for the future.

#### **2. Educational philosophies**

In his book *Novum Organum* [3], Sir Francis Bacon introduces the four 'Idols of the Mind' and asserts that each of these 'Idols' prevents human beings from attaining a true understanding of things. His 'Idol of the Tribe', is the tendency to treat human observation and reason as infallible, forgetting that all humans tend to distort what they perceive. The 'Idol of the Marketplace' is the debasement of words and their misuse to generate propaganda as we refer to it today, twisting words to obscure the truth. His 'Idol of the Theatre' concerns the belief in dogmas or systems of philosophy that distort reality. Like a work of drama in a theatre, these systems are only approximations or models of the truth. In terms of education, Bacon's 'Idol of the Cave' is most appropriate. This is the idol that concerns the individual human tendency to treat our own ideas as objective and not to take into account that all individual human wisdom is subjective and coloured by one's own experiences. In this way, people tend to become blind to their passions and enthusiasm, their devotions and ideologies, which leads to a misunderstanding in the true nature of things [4]. And this is where education plays such a vital role, by providing resistance to Bacon's 'Idol of the Cave'.

For Francis Bacon, education was an indispensable aid to progress in society including moral progress. His view was that education would lead to a greater body of the population that could, 'read not to contradict and confute, nor to believe and take for granted, but to weigh and consider'. Such views were of course the antithesis of his times, in which the belief systems of a strictly monotheistic society were a source of authority and control and not to be weighed in the balance but adopted as an absolute truth. In this sense, many of Bacon's philosophical ideas were nothing new but part of the Renaissance and the age of enlightenment, based on the re-birth of Hellenism throughout Europe that was taking place in his time and continues to this day.

In the context of Bacon's 'Idol of Cave', there are two quotes that are motivational in terms of educational philosophies. The first of these is from the 'Lord of Reason' Bertrand Russell who was one of Britain's finest mathematicians and philosophers and had a profound influence on the developments in Artificial Intelligence and Analytical Philosophy, for example, winning the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1950. Russell was also an outspoken social critic and a vehement advocate of freedom of expression

#### *Perspective Chapter: Reflections on the Future of Higher Education in the United Kingdom DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109138*

stating that, 'We are faced with the paradoxical fact that education has become one of the chief obstacles to intelligence and freedom of thought' [5]. This is a statement that should appeal, to many academics having to deal with an army of administrators that frequent today's universities and fail to understand that their purpose is to support scholars for the sake of the students and not to control them and the curriculum that is exercised, especially, when it emanates from central government.

Russell's statement, that of education being an obstacle to intelligence and freedom of thought, is perhaps closely related to another observation, which is from a very different and earlier source. In 1766, James Boswell published a book on the 'Life of Dr Samual Johnson'. In regard to education, Johnson is said to have stated the following: 'Talking of education, people now days have got a strange opinion that everything should be taught by lectures. Now, I cannot see that lectures can do so much good as reading the books from which the lectures are taken. I know nothing that can be best taught by lectures, except where experiments are to be shown. You may teach chemistry through lectures; you might teach the making of shoes with Lectures' [6].

It is arguable that of many subjects that Johnson could have considered by way of examples in regard to being taught by lectures, chemistry and the making of shoes are not appropriate, as both are practical laboratory-based, and hands-on activities, respectively. Nevertheless, the point that Johnson makes is very relevant today, and is a reflection of the transition that is now taking place. Instead of school leavers going to a university so that they can be lectured to, they are now being encouraged to enter 'earn as you learn' apprenticeships, where they can obtain the hands-on training required to develop a career. To learn how to actually do things and make things, as opposed to attending lectures and then talking about them in the cloisters of a university. In this respect, the German-based apprenticeship scheme, for example, has been an ideal model to adopt for many years.

Bertrand Russell's observation that education is one of the chief obstacles to intelligence and freedom of thought is a reflection of the current problem. Johnson's observation, that nothing can be best taught by lectures is a reflection of the solution. That is, and, as will be discussed later, the development of new 'Technological Colleges' in which student apprentices are properly trained by industry-based experts in subjects that are relevant to the economic development of the state.

In respect of the educational philosophy considered in this chapter, a new approach to HE is in the process of being forged through the introduction of new apprenticeship programs which are set to replace conventional university activities. In the UK, the 2020 vision was set to address the imbalance that has occurred given that 'A nation flourishes when it realises the full potential of all of its people. As a one-nation Government, this is what we are committed to achieve. Around the world, apprenticeships have long been recognised as a crucial way to develop the skills wanted by employers. That is why the Government will increase the quality and quantity of apprenticeships in England, reaching three million starts in 2020' [7]. The reasons for introducing this vision, which has yet to be achieved in the UK, are embedded in a problem that lies at the heart of Ethics in Educational Provision as discussed in the following section.

#### **3. Ethics in educational provision**

There was a time when education focused on the "three R's"; Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic. Now we have a situation in which the "three D's" are prevalent; Degree, Dole, and Debt [8]. It is, a quite appalling realisation, that there is now a steady 'flow' of UK graduates, going from a graduation ceremony straight into

unemployment, after having been burdened with an average debt of the order of 50,000 GBP in student fees, accommodation and other living costs. And this is more often than not for the privilege of being able to receive nothing more than a so-called 'Micky Mouse Degree'. This phrase was first used in 2003 by Margaret Hodge as part of a discussion paper on the expansion of Higher Education, who was the UK Minister of State for Universities (11 June 2001–13 June 2003) [9]. Hodge referred to a Micky Mouse degree course as one 'where the content is not as rigorous as one would expect, and where the degree itself does not have huge relevance in the labour market, and that simply stacking up numbers on Mickey Mouse courses is not acceptable'.

In respect of this statement, there is a fundamental moral issue to be considered in association with ethics in educational provision. This is whether it is ethical to treat young and vulnerable people in this way and in effect, use their basic naivety to extract money out of them before they have had a chance of earning a living. Moreover, what value can such graduates have in the development of a knowledge-based economy.

It is quite literally a waste of a generation, prohibiting the contributions that they could make to society and thereby creating a future for themselves and their children. It would appear that the original drive in the 1990s to get more school leavers to pursue a university education in order to soak up youth unemployment has only made the situation worse. Instead of having a generation of unemployed school leavers, we now have a generation of unemployed university graduates burdened with debt. This is a situation that can no longer be tolerated and 'Britain's great university scam can't be allowed to destroy another generation' [10]. However, it s a situation that is not new, and has a synergy with the state that the UK found itself in during the 1870's due to the 'Bismarck effect' as shall now be explained in the following section.

#### **4. The Bismarck effect**

In the mid-Nineteenth Century, the British Empire was at its zenith, and it started to focus on consolidating its trading dominance. In addition to basic schooling, its educational provision was based on two principal categories: (i) 'Public Schools' which were then as now, very private and fee-paying institutions, and focused on educating an elite for the governance of a worldwide trading empire; (ii) technical institutes whose purpose was to maintain the industrial infrastructure of, what at the time was the 'workshop of the world'.

In the 1870's, two major industrial competitors of the UK came to fruition in the form of the United States of America and the new German state which was proclaimed on 18 January, 1871. The latter case was a direct consequence of the considerable political competence of Otto von Bismarck who was the first Chancellor of Germany until 1890, specifically Minister President of Prussia from 9 November 1873 to 20 March 1890 [11].

Both the USA and Germany introduced educational initiatives to promote the rapid development of science, engineering and technology in order to support industries aimed at driving the prosperity of the new nation states. However, there was a significant difference in the approach taken. Developments in the USA were primarily driven, then as now, by entrepreneurship and private enterprise. This led to a considerable stream of inventions and business innovations that have dominated the world ever since. Examples include the inventive genius of Thomas Edison and Nikola Tesla, for example. The development of early telecommunications by Alexander Bell, and

#### *Perspective Chapter: Reflections on the Future of Higher Education in the United Kingdom DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109138*

the creation of the automotive industry by business icons such as Henry Ford. However, in Germany, industrialisation was organised and controlled more fully by central government. This was primarily based, then as now, in Westphalia and Lower Saxony which are areas of Germany able to provide the natural resources for the production of steel, a material that at the time, was the mark of an industrial nation state.

The German unification strategy that Bismarck created and implemented, led to the new country flourishing in the arts and sciences, in engineering and technology, and especially, in chemical engineering. Consequently, Germany started to be transformed into a major industrial competitor and economic power. This transformation was served by a progressive written constitution and driven by a state education system with a broad curriculum, coupled with a social welfare provision that was decades ahead of the UK for the time. Bismarck was in fact the first to establish a welfare state in a modern industrial society with the social welfare legislation of 1883 [12].

All this German activity disturbed the status quo of the British establishment for similar reasons to those associated with the current emergence of China, which is disturbing the balance of an assumed normality dominated by the USA today. It led to the 'Great Depression' of the 1870's which severely compromised the dominance of the UK, and caused many British engineers to seek employment and adventure overseas. Something had to be done. What was done is discussed in the following section.

#### **5. British response to the German Tiger**

In a letter written on 12 June, 1899, from Queen Victoria to her eldest grandson, William the Second, Emperor of the German Empire - the Second Reich - she states the following: 'I never personally attacked or complained about prince Bismarck, though I knew well what a bitter enemy he was to England and all the harm he did' [13].

Why should, in a purely political sense, Victoria call Bismarck a 'bitter enemy of England'? After all, Bismarck was a great admirer of England, he spoke fluent English, and was a scholar of the works of Francis Bacon and William Shakespeare, for example. It is because Bismarck represented a disturbance to the British comfort zone of the time, which always occurs with the emergence of a new order, especially when that order is based on competence.

Victoria's letter was representative of the British establishment's attitude to Bismarck, one that was essentially predicated on a mixture of arrogance, Margaret Thatcher's definition of socialism, and above all, fear. In order to help compete with the emerging 'German Tiger', and indirectly control it, the British establishment encouraged Queen Victoria's eldest grandson to oust Bismarck. This he did successfully on 18 March, 1819, when Bismarck was forced to resign by the Kaiser. This was a very big mistake. Replacing a progressive social and political genius such as Bismarck with a traumatised Kaiser, just because he was a member of the European club of unelected heads of state, may have cost the lives of millions in the century to come. Think how much richer the curriculum of our educational establishments might be today, had this blatant interference in the affairs of others, not taken place.

There was, however, another thing that the British establishment did, which was an important and a very necessary initiative, and a direct reaction to the 'Bismarck

effect'. This involved the establishment of brand new centres for technical training which focused on apprenticeships and work-place based learning schemes to help in the reformation on industrial practices and manufacturing industries through Britain and its empire. This reaction to the 'Bismarck effect'started in the early 1870's, after the unification of Germany. One of the most iconic of these new training centres was the Central Institute of the City and Guilds of London [14]. Based in South Kensington, London, this institute is now known as Imperial College. It is one of the premier scientific, technical and research establishments in the world, equal, if not greater in stature, to more traditional UK universities such as the universities of Oxford or Cambridge, at least in terms of science and technology.

Imperial College has an interesting history, in that after developing its technical training services as a City and Guilds centre, it joined London University in 1908, only to leave the university in October 2006. One of the underlying reasons for leaving, was that it wanted to go back to its City and Guilds roots. And it is these roots, that many UK higher education institutes are now destined to grow from, lest they deprive themselves and their graduates of a future. This is because the Imperial College Model is the embodiment of a Knowledge-based Economy compounded in the 'Triple Helix Concept'.

#### **6. Knowledge economies - the triple helix concept**

The Triple Helix Concept 'considers the interaction between university, industry, and government to be the key to innovation and growth in a knowledge-based economy' [2]. While the phrase 'Triple Helix Concept' is relatively new, the basic idea that it proposes is not.

One of the current underlying problems with the concept, or at least its implementation, relates to the post 1945 legacy of UK based education. This is reflected in the continued debates undertaken by the executives of universities in regard to change management, and their failure to comprehend an underlying reality, which is that the majority of university academics are not fit for purpose in regard to appreciating, let alone endorsing the Triple Helix Concept, [15, 16]. But they could be, especially if they could learn to respect it rather than fear it, and, because of their fear, hold it in contempt. This problem would quite naturally become null and void if university academics had to have experience in industry for them to be appointed to an academic position in the first place. Such a realisation can make important impacts on society, above and beyond the cloisters of the 'Ivory Tower'.

For example, in the 1920's, and, working with his former PhD student, Leo Szilard, Albert Einstein became involved in a business venture; essentially a spin-off company from Berlin University where he was working at the time. The focus of the business was to design more efficient and safer refrigerators. The business venture actually failed because of the effects of the Wall Street crash of 1929. Nevertheless, in addition to numerous patents, the nature the business, at least in terms of some of the more abstract thinking required, led to a solution to the so-called 'Maxwell paradox' in thermodynamics.

This solution was published by Szilard in 1929 in the Zeitschrift fur Physik, with a seminal paper entitled, 'On the Decrease in Entropy of a Thermodynamic System by the Intervention of Intelligent Beings' [17]. The paper is one of the most important in the history of physics, and is absolutely fundamental to the digital communications

#### *Perspective Chapter: Reflections on the Future of Higher Education in the United Kingdom DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109138*

world we live and work in today. This is because it was the very first publication to introduce the idea of Information Entropy, which is usually, but incorrectly, attributed to the American Mathematician and Cryptographer, Claude Shannon, who rediscovered it in 1948 [18]. Information Entropy is the key for estimating the minimum number of bits needed to encode a string of symbols, and therefore represents a fundamental limit as to how much information is communicable digitally in terms of a sequence of bits.

Thus, an idea that is so fundamental to our society today, and possibly the physics of tomorrow, was originally conceived through the juxtaposition of an enquiry conducted by academics in regard to an industrial problem. It is an example that lies at the heart of the Triple Helix Concept.

In this respect, just as the British government was forced to change things and develop a new infrastructure for technical training in the 1880's (as discussed earlier), history is now repeating itself, in order for the UK to comply with trends taking place overseas such as in China, for example. China has a growing technical dominance which was arguably catalysed by Deng Xiaoping, when he stated that, 'it doesn't matter whether a cat is black or white, as long as it can catch a mouse' - preferably a mouse with more than a Micky Mouse degree! In this context, there is a close synergy between the development of China now and the development of England in the 17th Century. This is explored in the following section.

#### **7. The English reformation: a revolution in education**

'I beseech you, ...think it possible you may be mistaken'. So said Oliver Cromwell, one of England's most enigmatic but influential politicians. This is a statement that we should endeavour never to forget, because it provides an intrinsic resistance to the faults that pervade society, encapsulated in the 'Four Idols' of Francis Bacon, as briefly discussed earlier. Cromwell's influence and legacy is well known. However, given the remit of this material, there is an aspect of his contributions that is not as well appreciated as it should be. It is for this reason, that Cromwell's contributions to English education is now briefly addressed.

After the end of the English civil wars of the 1640's, there was continual debate on precisely how the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland should be governed and developed in line with values that reflected the Realpolitik of the new republic. To this end, a 'Rump' Parliament was established after the conclusion of the war in September 1651. Mismanagement and corruption led to this Parliament being forcibly dissolved by Oliver Cromwell in 1653 [19]. Cromwell was declared Lord Protector in December 1653, a position that he retained up until his death on 3 September, 1658, [20].

The changes that Cromwell made in the five years he exercised full power were radical in the extreme and included a focus on the educational traditions of the time. For this was a period of disruptive thinking which inspired the development of new ideas in regard to civil order, philosophy, science and the nature of society and its prosperity. And much of the scientific and philosophical thinking was predicated on the ideas and principles conceived by Francis Bacon in the early part of that century. It is in this respect, that the most important and long-lasting effect of these times was the renaissance in English education that occurred [21].

While there were many different reasons for this renaissance (which historians continue to debate), given the social conditions of the time, it is arguable that the most important reason was that for the very first time since the fall of the Roman empire some 1000 years earlier, education passed, in every way, from the church to the state. This is because calls for educational reform were being inspired by a desire to improve the lot of the poor, many of whom had suffered significant deprivation in the economic depressions of the 1630's. In fact, it was these economic circumstances that had contributed to the outbreak of the civil wars in the decade to follow, a fact that is a common theme throughout the history of armed conflict.

The Puritans called for a broad range of reforms including the provision of technological and agricultural education, a system of schools to educate all children, and more financial aid for deserving students. These reforms were of significant value as a means to better the status of the working classes.

This occurred at a time when England needed to find solutions to its critical financial situation; a very common theme that occurs when any society uses its treasury to finance an armed conflict. It is in this context that the Commonwealth of the 1650's embarked on the development of new wealth creation activities through international commerce. To do this, the Commonwealth needed to re-engineer its education system, focusing on a curriculum underpinned by the promotion of trade and industry. This is a situation that is not entirely dissimilar to the situation that the UK finds itself in now, following 'Brexit day' on 31 January 2020, when the UK ceased to be a member state of the European Union. In this context, Cromwell's government actively encouraged the immigration of well-educated and skilled foreign nationals, just as the UK is doing today. In the 1650's, this also included the 'readmission' of the Jews to England [22, 23].

Before the 1650's, the English education establishment was a very insular and parochial enterprise. Consequently, Cromwell introduced a comprehensive range of new Schools, Colleges and Academies in which the Sciences, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics took a precedent. This was perceived as a form of subversive criticism, causing offence to the academic establishment of the time [21].

The perceptions of the academic establishment were indeed quite correct. In respect to the economic position that England found itself in after the civil wars, Cromwell and his government were not at all satisfied with the education system that the new republic had inherited. As is the case today, English education was a reflection that was well encapsulated in one of Bacon's 'Four Idols', in particular, his 'Idola Specus' or 'Idol of the Cave' as discussed earlier. In this respect, the universities of today have become similar 'Idols' through their focus on political correctness, and the near complete irrelevance (with regard to the job market) of the curriculum that is being taught, coupled with their fear of open debate and those that dare to disturb the mediocrity of the norm.

Cromwell's educational philosophy was predicated on the philosophy of Francis Bacon. He wanted the education system in England and the Commonwealth to be transformed into one that promoted the drive for reason, literacy, science and industry. For school leavers and university graduates to be trained in agricultural practices, in ship building and the 'art' of navigation as it was then. To be proficient in mathematics and scientific philosophy, focusing on experimental verification, as well as being trained for entry into the New Model Army and Navy. In this respect, Cromwell promoted many of the Guilds to enhance training in practical skills and craftsmanship and provided improved levels of finance to help increase the number of apprenticeships.

While Cromwell and his government could not have imagined the effects of their educational reforms on the future prosperity of the land, one can observe a clear

#### *Perspective Chapter: Reflections on the Future of Higher Education in the United Kingdom DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109138*

correlation between the radical changes that were introduced in the 1650's and what later came to be known as the industrial revolution in England. Soon after Cromwell's death, his monarchist successor, Charles Stuart the Second, established many great scientific institutions such as the Royal Society which promoted an approach to education, science and literacy that Cromwell had inspired during his short role as King Oliver in all but name. Thus, the worlds first industrial revolution was in fact seeded by a vision for English education based on the scientific philosophy of Francis Bacon. It took a civil war and a new English republic to convert this philosophy into a practically realisable education system that went on to radically change Europe and the world beyond.

In a Nutshell, what Cromwell did was to drain the 'Whitehall swamp' of his time and oxygenated the pond. And the better part of this oxygenation was the education of the land; and in his time, and, for that period of history, that land was England. The most important and relevant thing to understand is Cromwell's strategy, which was not to confront but to by-pass the academic establishment. This is precisely what is going on now.

Before the English civil wars of the 1640's, England was still a relatively minor player in European affairs. It had nurtured a relatively small handful of scholars, philosophers and intellectuals that could rank with those littered throughout renaissance Europe at the time, most of whom had been educated in various European universities. However, after the civil wars, and within some 100 years of Cromwell's death, the number of English and later, Scottish born individuals, contributing to the revolutions in science, technology, and engineering grew rapidly, their contribution helping to forge the world in later centuries.

Examples of such individuals are too numerous to name, but Isaac Newton must surely rank as one of the most famous and influential who has a special place in the list of contributors to the scientific revolutions taking place at the time. Moreover, in the context of changes taking place throughout Europe in the 17th Century when new ideas were being actively encouraged to flourish in the north of Europe compared to the south, it is an irony that Isaac Newton was born on Christmas day, 1642. For this was the same day that the great Italian scientist, Galileo Galilei, died. And it was Galileo, who, after being treated so badly by his church, and placed under house arrest, that had predicted the transition that would take place in Europe after his death.

One of the reasons for this can be directly attributed to Cromwell's investiture in apprenticeships, work-place based learning and technical education [19]. It is therefore interesting to note, that this is precisely the policy that is now being pursued by the UK government. Thus, in the following section, two case studies are considered that are indicative of the future of higher education, compounded in the new age of the Technological College. They are examples of the current government's strategy, not to confront universities for what they have become, but to bypass them, and fund a new approach to Higher Education just as Oliver Cromwell did in his time.

#### **8. New age of the technological college: Some example case studies**

One of the principal goals for HE in the UK, at least in the short term, is to eradicate 'Micky Mouse Degrees'. The approach to doing this will usher in a new age of the Technological College. The emergence of such colleges is illustrative of the realisation that a university degree is not the only route to success. This is

compounded in the relatively recent announcements of plans to reform post-16 education in the UK. It is in order to give employers the skilled workforce that is now needed [24] and follows the UK government's 2019 landmark review of HE [25].

#### **8.1 The Ada National College for digital skills**

In 2014, Microsoft identified the order of 100,000 technical, programming and Information and Communications Technology (ICT) related jobs in the UK that could not be filled for lack of appropriate skills of UK graduates. This was a particular embarrassment to the UK government at that time, but it should not have come as a surprise, given the approach that has and continues to betaken by the UK university sector. As a result of Microsoft's identification, in December 2014, Prime Minister David Cameron announced the establishment of the first new college of its type since 1993. The Ada National College for Digital Skills [26] in London first opened its doors in September 2016 with the following mission statement: 'The mission of the College is to work with industry to design and deliver an institution that provides the education and support needed for all its students to progress into highly skilled, computing related roles'. The focus of this college is to provide its students with the hands-on skills required to enter the digital technologies job market.

The learning providers that work with the National College for Digital Skills are not 'academics' in the traditional university context of the word. Rather, they are industry-based experts with a wealth of practical experience in digital technologies. This ranges from basic computer programming skills to current advances in Artificial Intelligence. The College represents an example of an approach to post-16 education and training that provides an essential contribution to filling the job roles of the future associated with the so-called 'Big-data Society'.

The industries for which this approach to education has become necessary are those that are driving progress in communications infrastructure, for example, in data management and security, and financial management. Other examples, include new generation health care technologies and personalised medicine, renewable energy, and public health management. These are the subject areas that are expanding rapidly in UK. The problem is that there are currently not enough properly trained graduates to enter this job market. And yet, it is this job market that is going to be vital for developing a knowledge-based economy for which the goals of education are now being directed.

#### **8.2 The Institute of Digital Technology at Bletchley Park**

Another example of the new age of the technological college is the Institute of Digital Technology at Bletchley Park which opened its doors, as of September 2021 [27]. As with the Ada National College for Digital Skills discussed previously, the aim of this College is to focus on developing the hands-on programming and technical skills required by industry. This is achieved by the College working with the relevant industries and associated professional institutes. In this way, teaching modules and units are designed with a relevant workplace-based curriculum.

The materials are typically presented by industry based teaching consultants who are also responsible for tutoring students, i.e. learners that have typically gained apprenticeships through the earn as you learn schemes. In this way, the institute does not impose what it wants to teach as in a university. Instead, the institute enquires into want apprentices need to know to undertake their job and to develop their career. Consultants are then approached to provided the teaching and learning programmes

#### *Perspective Chapter: Reflections on the Future of Higher Education in the United Kingdom DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109138*

that are required, consultants that are experienced in the very same industries to which the apprentices are assigned and have typically been apprentices themselves.

The Institute of Digital Technology is another example that reflects the UK government's drive to by-pass the traditional university sector in terms of focus and funding. In this case, the aim of the College is to reflect the work undertaken at Bletchley Park during the Second World War. This is when mathematicians, scientists and engineers developed the bedrock of the ICT revolution. For it was at Bletchley Park that the world's very first partially programmable computer - the *Colossus* - was designed, built, and operated. This was achieved through the technical knowledge of a City and Guilds apprentice called Thomas Flowers, and not just the theoretical ideas of Cambridge graduate Alan Turing, who had previously helped to improve upon the Enigma decryption techniques developed in Poland during the 1930's. A fact that is illustrative of, and a testament to, a reality in which theoretical ideas are always strengthened by a respect of complementary technical skills.

The Institute of Digital Technology does not of course want to inhibit its customers from contributing the originality of Alan Turing. But its principal aim is to provide the technical excellence required by a society that has evolved to become reliant on the legacies of both Alan Turing and Thomas Flowers. The work undertaken at Bletchley Park during the Second World War is illustrative of the fact that both university and vocational qualifications are important and must be respected in equal measure, lest the distinctions between a university graduate and an apprentice become poisoned through a clash between fantasy and reality, respectively.

#### **9. Further examples of new initiatives in higher education**

In addition to the new age of the technological college that is emerging, there are many other industry-based and government initiatives that are now taking place. Some examples of these are now considered.

One of Prime Minister Tony Blair's greatest ambitions was for 50% of school leavers to study at university, a feat that he and his successors took some 20 years to achieve. That is now changing because of the entrepreneurial efforts of industry. This includes, rather ironically, Tony Blair's eldest son, Euan Blair, who recently announced that his education start-up company called Multiverse, established in 2016, is being designed to divert school leavers away from university into apprenticeships [28]. The company was recently capitalised with funds that are being diverted away from the university sector.

Another example is the recent pledge made by IBM to give '30 million people worldwide new technology-based skills by 2030 through local partnerships with education providers, government departments, and other organisations across 30 countries'. It is a bid to 'ensure that people of all ages have the skills needed for future roles. IBM will use both new and existing programmes alongside partner organisations to teach people a variety of technical and workplace-ready skills' [29].

This is just one of many examples, where industry is taking the lead to fill the gap between the stuff being taught at universities, and the skills needed for the workplace. With technology advancing and becoming increasingly embedded into so many parts of life, it is important that everyone is given the skills they need to navigate the digital world. This is a case of history repeating itself as IBM introduced a large-scale UK graduate re-training program established in the 1980's in order to feed the City of London with the IT expertise that it was so badly lacking at the time. The emphasis was to fast-track graduates in the 'art' of computer programming and software

engineering using a number or IBM associated trainers and an even larger complement of staff whose sole aim was to secure employment for the re-trainees.

It is in this context that the UK government is finally acting through their current 'Skills and Post-16 Education Bill' [30]. Sponsored by the Department of Education and originating from the House of Lords, the Bill is now progressing through the House of Commons. It is a Bill to make provision about local skills improvement plans relating to further education; to make provision about functions of the Institute for Apprenticeships and technical education qualifications; to consider student finance and fees and assessments by the Office for Students, and to make provision about the funding of certain post-16 education training providers. In short, it is about making provisions to counteract the effects brought about by the irresponsibility of the university sector.

#### **10. The cause of the problem**

How did UK education ever get into the state that it now is? Blaming governments, teachers and academics for the current state of education is all too easy. The material presented in this chapter is not about blame but understanding. So how can we understand what has happened? It has much to do with the changes that have taken place over the past thirty years - and very positive changes at that. These include the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 which was the icon for the collapse of the communist systems in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. The reasons for why this occurred are numerous. However, a very important reason, is a consequence of the educational provision that the communist system developed. For it produced a most remarkable transformation of society in terms of the literacy and numeracy of countless millions. Perhaps it is because of this, that the system imploded as it did. In other words, the focus on high-quality technical education that the communists coveted was perhaps the very thing that brought it all down upon their totalitarian heads.

As always, there is a price to pay even in victory. The price that the UK is now paying is a result of dismantling much of the scientific civil service and industries that were designed to maintain the status quo during the cold war. The direction of our education system has followed this understandable response to the end of that war. And besides, if high quality technical education was a reason, or even the reason, for the collapse of the system that had introduced it, would it not be sensible to compensate for such a causal incident and accommodate accordingly.

This is not of course to suggest that there is some secret think tank in Whitehall whose advice to governments has been to keep young people dumb and in debt so that they can be controlled, thereby staving off the embarrassment the Kremlin suffered in 1989. This has occurred quite organically. But in response to this occurrence, it may be that certain nation states who see fit to educate their children properly in STEM, and are consequently experiencing considerable economic growth, may have come to understand that it is in their best interests that certain other nation states are encouraged to carry on just the way they have been.

#### **11. Concluding remarks**

The current and growing problems associated with the UK Higher Education system is reflected in the numerous and detrimental statements being made by government and industry. This is compounded in what employers are constantly saying in regard to UK university graduates, namely, that 'while the cost of education to both

#### *Perspective Chapter: Reflections on the Future of Higher Education in the United Kingdom DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109138*

the state and students alike is growing, graduates are increasingly unprepared for the workplace' [30]. In this context, parents and schools alike are starting to encourage school leavers to enter the 'University of Life' through earn as you learn apprenticeships. This is an approach that should be nurtured on the basis of the following points:


In terms of point (ii), the recent Covid-19 pandemic has forced the issue, and shown that this mode of teaching is not only possible but desirable, at least in terms of cost benefits. However, it is the third point that is the more difficult issue to resolve as it represents a deeply embedded social reality in the UK. As a result, the middle classes continue to do their children the disservice of limiting their future prosperity by being sucker to educational values that have passed their sell-by date.

Perhaps they should be encouraged to do so? This is because it will provide a new window of opportunity for the coming technically competent proletariat to influence the future prosperity of the state. It will be predicated on training provided by industry experts rather than tenured academic staff, whose mentality was moulded by a society of excess that no longer exists. And this is why more and more state funding will continue to be channelled into the development of the new technological colleges, just as it was in the 1650s, and again, in the 1880's (as discussed earlier); a case of history repeating itself in order to provide similar solutions to very similar problems.

This is reflected in the numerous, publications, reports and commentaries throughout the education sector and from professional bodies, especially in engineering. It is now clear, that while education, training, and continuous professional development are the answers to many problems facing engineering, new ways of learning are required that transcend the traditional university sector. It is accepted that while this transition will not be easy, it is absolutely necessary [31].

#### **12. Some final thoughts: an educational philosophy for the future**

In 1609, Francis Bacon wrote a book on the 'Wisdom of the Ancients' a Wisdom for which he had great respect. In this regard, and that of educational provision in its broadest spectrum, it is of interest to contemplate the following: If education based on the wisdom of the ancients, had not been interrupted for the best part of 1000 years between the fall of the Roman empire in 5th Century and its re-birth in the 15th Century, then how much more advanced might humanity be today? And if this educational provision had occurred, would humanity now be in the position that it

now is; where, for the first time in its history, it is having to contemplate the clear and present danger that exists due to the damage being done to our planet, for which humanity has only itself to blame.

In his book 'The Greek View of Life' [32], Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson writes the following: 'With Greek civilisation beauty perished from the world. Never again has it been possible for us to believe that harmony is the truth of all existence'. It is in this context that Dickinson, dismayed by the First World War, evolved the idea of a League of Nations, his subsequent writings helping to shape public opinion towards the creation of a League of Nations, the ancestor of today's United Nations.

An icon of the Greek view of life is Athena, illuminating humanity through her quest for reason, understanding, compassion, and tolerance. This icon symbolises the primary transformation of society that is taking place in our time and will be judged as such in the future; where humanity is reaching out to the Greek view of life.

Since the Fifteen Century, Hellenism has been steadily re-emerging from the dark ages. Examples include the English Civil War discussed earlier, and the French, American and Russian revolutions. And in our times, the fall of the Berlin wall, the abolition of Apartheid, and the ongoing civil rights movements, for example. But the most important movement of all, is reflected in the recent United Nations Climate Change Conference. This is because the effects of climate change are not going to care about our trivial differences and petty disputes or our parochial identity politics. And there will be no compensation culture available to rectify the damage handed down to future generations if we do not reduce the Carbon emissions of today for the sake of tomorrow.

Some 2000 years ago, in his book 'Meditations' [33], the Hellenist Roman emperor and philosopher, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, wrote the following: 'When you arise in the morning, think of what a precious privilege it is to be alive - to breathe, to think, to enjoy, to love'. In this context, it should be understood, that our current behaviour is digging the graves of those yet to be given the privilege of being alive. If we want to provide future generations with this privilege, then we must go back to the wisdom of ancients, embrace the Greek view of life and educate our children accordingly, lest they fail to understand the words of the great Athenian philosopher, Socrates [34]: 'There is only one good, knowledge, and only one evil, ignorance'. In this way, those who might weigh us in the balance, many years from now, may be grateful to us for providing them with a wisdom that flows from the Greek view of life, a life that forged the greatest empire of all, an empire of the mind [35].

### **Author details**

Jonathan Blackledge1,2,3,4,5,6,7

1 The Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, London, UK

2 Faculty of Arts, Science and Technology, Wrexham Glyndŵr University of Wales, Wrexham, UK

3 School of Mathematics, Statistics and Computer Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa

4 Department of Computer Science, University of Western Cape, Cape Town, South Africa

5 Science Foundation Ireland, Three Park Place, Dublin, Ireland

6 School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Technological University Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

7 Centre for Advanced Studies, Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland

\*Address all correspondence to: jonathan.blackledge@tudublin.ie

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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#### **Chapter 22**

## Perspective Chapter: A Systematic Study for Model Management Education toward Problem Based Learning in West Africa

*Kalyan Kumar Sahoo, Raja Mannar Badur and Vaibhav Patil*

#### **Abstract**

Globalization complicates West African higher education. Problem-based learning (PBL) works in many developed nations. Scholars comprehend determination difficulties better than content or thinking. Scholars work together to find the solution. Problem-based learning describes how unprofessional management students achieve these goals. West African samples were surveyed. Students, teachers, founders, and others were interviewed, read, and given questionnaires to assess their awareness, challenges, and future of PBL in higher education, particularly business schools. PBL implementation is hindered by colonized curriculum, no access limit, insufficient research funds and infrastructure investments, resource shortages, inexperienced faculty, and curricular concerns, according to data analysis. West African management education is still developing, requiring a diverse, cutting-edge approach. PBL requires community members and dedicated, trained staff. Global competitiveness seems unavoidable. West Africa will lag if it does not. Thus, the study begins the process of understanding and resolving challenges.

**Keywords:** problem based learning, teaching pedagogy, management education, business school, West Africa

#### **1. Introduction**

Back in the 1960s, at McMaster University in Hamilton, Barrows and Tamblyn developed the problem-based learning (PBL) technique to engage students in future ramifications. PBL is presently employed in subjects like education, mathematics, law, social studies, economics, management, engineering, and related fields [1]. The century's biggest shift in higher education is problem-solving skills [2]. Previously, evaluating PBL progress was difficult. Several African colleges and universities have recently implemented PBL into their curricula with good results [3]. Its benefits and the ever-changing higher education landscape attract many schools, particularly those with low resources [4]. Using problem-based learning encourages students to be more reflective and cooperative [5]. Most institutions and faculties have implemented Problem-Based Learning (PBL) to make their programmes more student-centered, diverse, and professional [6].

West African countries include Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo [7]. University of Cape Coast and University of Development Studies are two African universities that have implemented PBL [8]. No West African business schools or management colleges have published PBL literature, save Ghana.

A PBL in West African business schools requires some key features.

#### **2. Problem-based learning (PBL)**

Theory understands by reversing techniques [9]. They develop top-level skills including identifying and reflecting on de facto practises while mastering self-study [3]. This type of learning focuses on significant topics and investigates them [10, 11]. PBL supports immersion, scholar-focused learning, independence and navel-gazing [12]. Study environment, learner personality, and education are possible difficulties [13]. Flexible, reflective, and evaluative. Achieving these goals will help instil attributes like collaboration and sellability [4].

Problem Based Learning courses have eight components:


A combination of the following variants is used by Barrows in his taxonomy [9]:


Based on this definition, Savin-Baden [13] distinguishes problem-based learning from other techniques in three ways:


#### **3. West African PBL: challenges**

The biggest issue facing West African universities and institutions is funding. For many years, West African colleges and business schools have neglected management education. Despite faculty, teaching, and resource shortages, accreditation committees have accepted new schools and colleges. Free Senior High Schools are now available in Ghana and Nigeria, increasing post-secondary enrolment. Conversations in Africa's business schools/management departments have begun on open education, the British syllabi. Encountering adversity, Higher Education in West Africa is suffering [14]. Most West African countries grew rapidly in the last decade. Senegal's primary school enrolment is 79%. (WB) Across Africa, girls outnumber boys in school [15]. Several West African Universities/Colleges have only partially recovered from their crisis due to shrinking funds and rising enrollments. In West African institutions, donor-funded courses and foreign professors have plummeted. Less strain is on management education than science and technology [16].

Increasing enrolments have resulted in no entry limits. The outcome is a lack of equality and low entry qualifications in West African institutions. In West African business/management schools, the curriculum matters. West African universities prioritize profit over values. The result is a lack of creativity and joblessness. Now they need work. West Africa has a service economy. Few industries need capital. Due to a lack of government jobs, students must be self-employed so unemployment rose.

Decolonization and curriculum re-defining and re-adjusting for an African context were important difficulties that West African colleges faced early on (with mixed results). Positive responses to African social issues were required. Moving away from Eurocentric and US centric perspectives of education, knowledge, and curriculum designed by and for Africans is required [17].

West African countries have a severe dilemma as they move from passive data collection to active data use.

Traditional academic fields' analytical practices are replaced with answers to complicated problems in the new paradigm of knowledge generation [18]. Inability to tackle the challenge may also cause a shift in knowledge production methods. Developing and transition nations risk increased marginalization due to inadequate post-secondary education systems [18].

Poor research funding and infrastructure investments have plagued several universities. Former intellectual and research powerhouses are suffering. Many governments believe their tax base is too small to fund a free higher education system, while detractors argue that money earned should be used to fight corruption and excessive public

sector pay. Education is becoming more elitist rather than more accessible [19]. Lessons may be difficult. Surpasses the median family income. When it comes to financial aid, "there is a group trapped in the middle" that neither qualifies nor can afford it.

West African students may struggle to juggle schoolwork. Education is hampered by budget cuts. Employee strikes are prevalent in West Africa, delaying graduation by years. West African graduates are leaving for better paying opportunities elsewhere [20]. Workforce education has become an affluent club. Costs are outpacing salaries. They lacked suitable wage guidelines for college members.

Education is regularly straining to meet excessive teaching demands, including extensive undergraduate classrooms with administrative pressure, according to former Association of African Universities (AAU) Secretary-General Goolam Mohamedbhai [21]. West African universities are facing increased workloads and less research funding. Across the country, public universities are opening remote learning centres for business programmes. This affects enrolment and sustainability. Boko Haram terrorizes Nigerian higher education [22]. Graduation is a major issue for most colleges The key difficulties in West Africa today are finance, resources, and colonial curricula. Employers need graduates and understudies who can use data to make decisions. Competent guidance is perceived as sharp. This may be thought of it. Milgrom advocates utilizing a socio-constructivist method to define goals, prerequisites, and needs for new educational modules [23]. "Learning by doing in small groups" is part of his dynamic self-guided self-evaluated task and issue-based picking up paradigm. The basic concept of this methodology is to teach pupils new abilities. The aim is to show PBL pieces in the places below.

#### **3.1 Defeating PBL approach obstacles in west**

It was previously reported that establishing problem-based learning at West African Management Schools is tough. We will also look at solutions.

An examination of typical management college teaching approaches revealed deficiencies. Increasingly, university teachers are accused of harassing pupils, reports BBC-Africa [24]. There is a sex or money issue in several West African universities. Inequalities, sexism, and even rape are important concerns that female students face globally [19]. Fear mongering, backlogs, and harassment were overused. Aiming to prevent slow learners and repeat offenders [25], Creating terrified, passive students. These people memorized concepts and beliefs they could not challenge. In West Africa, modern education pedagogy tended to eliminate initiative, innovation, and enterprise. One approach is to use PBL to teach African real-life problems rather than textbook problems. Students in a PBL curriculum use local, contextualized indigenous business and management expertise to better their learning processes (Information and communications technology).

i.Mass education and Free Senior High School policy: Most West African countries are service-oriented. Manufacturing firms are rare. So it's a service economy. Students prefer business schools. Sadly, there are many universities that now offer business and management degrees. Due to high enrolment and the free Senior High School programme, quality instructors and support staff are rare due to high demand. Only peer learning will do here. Mass education in West Africa necessitates efficient learning. Students help other students transform by teaching them. The only option is to teach pupils problem-solving skills through problem-based learning.

*Perspective Chapter: A Systematic Study for Model Management Education toward Problem... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.108910*


#### **4. Summary**

When teaching with PBL, students may work on problems derived from faculty members' own problem-based research. It introduces students to research at a young age. PBL in the first years of university education will thus improve student research skills sooner rather than later. Researchers may become new university employees [17]. The University for Development Studies (UDS) in Ghana uses a PBL curriculum, but the challenges are unknown [8]. PBL is rare in Africa.

Management schools must improve undergraduate and graduate business education to better engage students. Medical and health science education has never been more innovative [27]. Enhancement of higher-order thinking and problem-solving is most important [28, 29]. Active and student-centered teaching strategies help students apply their knowledge and skills in new situations [30]. PBL usually occurs after a problem is resolved. Throughout the learning cycle, teachers assist students.

#### **5. Recommendations**

The PBL is recognized as a professional curriculum that prepares graduates for the job market in these nations. Some of the PBL aspects mentioned here include learning context and learning relationships. Personal, pedagogical, and interactional perspectives are included as well. An independent thinker/learner who can draw on previous experience, interaction with one or more people, and nature to build knowledge. I'm a student for the rest of my life. Given the system's inherent difficulties, these countries must be globally competitive and implement effective strategies with limited resources. The fundamental issue with private colleges is a scarcity of qualified staff, as well as a lack of adequate salaries and technological resources.

#### **6. A futuristic strategy**

Higher education in West Africa has become more complicated as a result of globalization. Finance and infrastructure are both in short supply. Using PBL tactics necessitates the involvement of community members as well as dedicated, committed, and qualified personnel. For global competitiveness, there appears to be no other feasible option. Unless West Africa follows suit, it will be left behind. Here are some ideas to help you get out of this funk:


*Perspective Chapter: A Systematic Study for Model Management Education toward Problem... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.108910*

#### **Author details**

Kalyan Kumar Sahoo1 , Raja Mannar Badur2 and Vaibhav Patil3 \*

1 School of Management, DRIEMS, Odisha, India

2 Faculty of Management Studies, Global Humanist University, Curacao

3 IIMS, Pune, India

\*Address all correspondence to: vaibhav0222@gmail.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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[2] Savin-Baden M, Major CH. Foundations of Problem-Based Learning. UK: McGraw-Hill Education; 2004

[3] Botha M. A project-based learning approach as a method of teaching entrepreneurship to a large group of undergraduate students in South Africa. Education as Change. 2010;**14**(2):213- 232. DOI: 10.1080/16823206.2010.522059

[4] Boud D, Feletti G. Changing problembased learning. In: Boud D, Feletti G, editors. The Challenge of Problem-Based Learning. 2nd ed. London: Kogan; 1997. pp. 1-14

[5] Yew EH, Goh K. Problem-based learning: An overview of its process and impact on learning. Health Professions Education. 2016;**2**(2):75-79. DOI: 10.1016/j.hpe.2016.01.004

[6] Hmelo-Silver CE. Problem-based learning: What and how do students learn? Educational Psychology Review. 2004;**16**(3):235-266. DOI: 10.1023/b:edpr.0000034022.16470.f3

[7] Masson PR, Pattillo CA. Monetary Union in West Africa (ECOWAS): Is it Desirable and How Could it be Achieved? (Introduction). International Monetary Fund; 2001. Available from: https:// www.imf.org/external/pubs/nft/op/204/

[8] Amoako-Sakyi D, Amonoo-Kuofi H. Problem-based learning in resourcepoor settings: Lessons from a medical school in Ghana. BMC Medical Education. 2015;**15**(1):1-8. DOI: 10.1186/ s12909-015-0501-4

[9] Barrows HS, Tamblyn RM. Problem-Based Learning: An Approach to Medical Education. Vol. 1. New York: Springer Publishing Company; 1980. pp. 1-18

[10] Barrows HS. Authentic problembased learning. In: Teaching and Learning in Medical and Surgical Education: Lessons Learned for the 21st Century. UK: Taylor & Francis; 2000. pp. 257-267

[11] Torp L, Sage S. Problems as Possibilities: Problem-Based Learning for k-16 Education. 2ed ed. Alexandria, WA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development; 2002

[12] Mergendoller JR, Maxwell NL, Bellisimo Y. The effectiveness of problem-based instruction: A comparative study of instructional methods and student characteristics. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning. 2006;**1**(2):49-62. DOI: 10.7771/1541-5015.1026

[13] Savin-Baden M. Problem-Based Learning in Higher Education: Untold Stories. UK: McGraw-Hill Education; 2000

[14] Teferra D, Altbachl PG. African higher education: Challenges for the 21st century. Higher Education. 2004;**47**(1):21-50. DOI: 10.1023/b:h igh.0000009822.49980.30

[15] The World Bank. Investing in Higher Education across West Africa. The World Bank; 2013. Available from: https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/ feature/2013/07/29/investing-in-scienceand-technology-across-west-africa

[16] Sawyerr A. Challenges facing African universities: Selected issues. *Perspective Chapter: A Systematic Study for Model Management Education toward Problem... DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.108910*

African Studies Review. 2004;**47**(1):1-59. DOI: 10.1017/s0002020600026986

[17] Dahms M-L, Stentoft D. Does Africa need problem based learning? Educational change in engineering education. In: Paper Presented at American Society of Engineering Education (ASEE). Cape Town, South Africa: Global Colloquium; 2008

[18] The World Bank. Constructing Knowledge Societies: New Challenges for Tertiary Education. Washington DC, USA: The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, The World Bank; 2002

[19] Mathers I. Who Is Going to Pay for Higher Education in Africa. The Trust Project, Sci Dev Net, 2016; 2016. Available from: https:// www.scidev.net/global/features/ higher-education-africa-who-pays/

[20] The Unesco courier. African Brain Drain: Is there an Alternative? The Unesco courier; 2018. Available from: https://en.unesco.org/ courier/january-march-2018/ african-brain-drain-there-alternative

[21] Mac Gregor K. AFRICA: New Generation of Scholars Needed. University World News; 2008. Available from: https://www. universityworldnews.com/post. php?story=20081214092057738

[22] Eme OI, Ibietan J. The cost of Boko haram activities in Nigeria. Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review. 2012;**2**(2):10-32. DOI: 10.12816/0002238

[23] Milgrom E. The New Engineering Curriculum at the University Catholic of Louvain. Vol. 2002. SEFI News Winter; 2001. pp. 9-11. Available from: https:// deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/han

dle/2027.42/94791/j.2168-9830.2001. tb00624.x.pdf?sequence=1

[24] BBC-Africa. Sex for Grades: Undercover in West African Universities. BBC Africa; 2019. Available from: https://www.bbc.com/news/av/ world-africa-49907376

[25] Sandgren D, Tiberondwa AK. Missionary teachers as agents of colonialism: A study of their activities in Uganda, 1877-1925. The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 2000;**33**(2):491-493. DOI: 10.2307/220741

[26] Kristiansen M, Bloch-Poulsen J. Employee driven innovation in team (EDIT)–innovative potential, dialogue, and dissensus. International Journal of Action Research. 2010;**6**(2-3):155-195

[27] Ertmer PA. Commentary for the special issue: PBL scholarship: Building on the educational vision of Howard Barrows. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning. 2013;**7**(1): 157-168. DOI: 10.7771/1541-5015.1393

[28] Norhaini Mansor A, Ooi Abdullah N, Abd Wahab J, Sattar Rasul M, Nor YM, M., & Amnah Raof, R. Managing problem-based learning: Challenges and solutions for educational practice. Asian Social Science. 2015;**11**(4):259-268. DOI: 10.5539/ass.v11n4p259

[29] Yang JH, Yang B. Nursing students experiences with facilitator in problembased. Asian Nursing Research. 2013;**7**:198-204. DOI: 10.1016/j. anr.2013.10.002

[30] Niemer L, Pfendt K, Gers M. Problem-based learning in nursing education. Nurse Educator. 2010;**35**(2):69-73. DOI: 10.1097/ nne.0b013e3181ced891

#### **Chapter 23**

## Perspective Chapter: Toxic Leadership in Higher Education – What We Know, How It Is Handled

*Blanca Klahn*

#### **Abstract**

The concept of toxic leadership has been widely addressed in management, with demonstrated effects over the performance and climate of an organization. Although in recent years work has been done to identify the main aspects of this type of harmful leadership in various areas, such as financial, military, and health environments, not much has been concluded in relation to its influence and impact in the educational area, especially in higher education. However, there are several authors who have worked to identify the main aspects that compromise those who are affected by it, concluding that toxic leadership does indeed exist in tertiary education, and due to its often hierarchical structure, it sometimes becomes difficult to make it visible enough to be able to implement enough measures to contain it. The main objective of this chapter was to review the main features literature offers about toxic leadership, focusing it on the higher education scenario. Likewise, it was also developed its impact on those who suffer from it and its incidence on motivation of teachers and students within the learning environment. Finally, it was delved into how university structure works in relation to management of human resources, investigating its impact on leadership.

**Keywords:** toxic leadership, higher education, academic impact, hierarchical management, behavior

#### **1. Introduction**

"Nearly all men can stand adversity, but if you want to test a man's character, give him power."—Abraham Lincoln.

Leadership in social systems has the dual responsibilities of complying to system requirements and at the same time satisfying what is needed at a local level [1]. However, toxic leadership remains as a shallow edge within leadership concept, despite the evidence indicating its effects and repercussions on people, in the both short and long terms [2–4].

One of the reasons that perhaps makes this topic remain even less explored than others in the area is because it is difficult to dismantle; affected people often find it difficult to talk about the issue, mainly due to fear of reprisals and greater stress caused by the leadership itself. However, it has been possible to verify its effects on a larger scale on the health and well-being of those affected, as well as on the organization in the long term. Although making a construct based on the various definitions of destructive leadership that exist in the literature is not easy, it has been possible to determine common characteristics and traits, which focus on the leader's own attributes and their impact on their environment. In this way, toxic leadership can be defined as summation of characteristics and behaviors within leadership that can adversely affect the outcomes of an organization or the well-being of their employees, where exists a volitional nature in the decision of harm-doing. Many authors have tried to define what makes a leader toxic, appearing multiple features that characterize it. Within these, there are mentioned traits related to abusive compliance, with a consequent decline in followers' morale, self-esteem, and performance, but, overall, toxic leadership has been openly related in the diminishment of aspects related to personal and collective well-being, having negative repercussions mainly in areas related to job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and mental health. There are other psychological aspects that may also relate to this kind of leadership, like work engagement, but there is still not enough evidence to reaffirm there is a clear impact in this aspect.

Considering all the aforementioned and in relation to the repercussions that leadership styles have on the followers, especially in the educational area, the concern is raised in this chapter to delve into how the toxic leader affects higher education management and academic results, specifically focusing on academics and their impact in their engagement and motivation. As we will see, the relationship between both can be very complex and not necessarily can be so easily related. However, determining the presence of toxic leadership may become a useful tool to develop strategies that can foster a culture of ethical leadership and early detection of potentially disruptive leaders.

#### **2. Toxic leadership and its implications in higher education: impact and influences**

#### **2.1 Toxic leadership: searching for the proper definition**

In order to understand the emergence and consolidation of a destructive leadership style in a certain environment, especially educational settings, it is first necessary to understand some basic notions regarding how leadership works. Regarding this, Ryan et al. (2021) define leadership in an exceptional way, understanding it not only as a phenomenon, but more as a process of influence, which requires a dynamic interplay between leaders and followers, within a given context, in order to achieve a certain purpose.

In this way, it is important to emphasize that leadership is developed and defined mainly by the interaction of three fundamental components: the leader him/herself, the follower, and, as Padilla et al. (2007) call it, a conductive environment. Thus, leadership becomes a co-constructed, relational and mutually influential process [5], where misleading or destructive behaviors or actions can have harmful consequences in the process and/or for those who compose it.

#### *Perspective Chapter: Toxic Leadership in Higher Education – What We Know, How It Is Handled DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110159*

Having said this, the concept of the "dark side of leadership" [6], or toxic or destructive leadership, "can be defined as the summation of characteristics and behaviours within leadership that can adversely affect the outcomes of an organization or the well-being of their employees" [7]. Consequently, a relationship of leaderfollower abuse is generated, in which an organizational sacrifice is visualized in the long term, despite, at first, being able to appreciate favorable operational results [8].

This harmful type of leadership is described by different terms, being recognizable mainly as toxic or destructive [2–4, 9, 10]. However, it is possible to find some common denominations and dimensions to clarify what should be understood as a toxic leader. A destructive leader must necessarily count with a "harmful behavior imbedded in the process of leading" ([9], p. 1310), in which it can be recognized into two different methods of action: or the leader invigorates the group to go after harmful goals or targets, and/or uses methods of influence. Nevertheless, it is necessary to emphasize that, regardless of the observed behavior, there must be a volitional intention in the decisions where harm-doing is involved; this aspect differentiates it from merely ineffective leadership. "Thus, destructive leadership must be intentional, as in the way the leader chooses to adopt these types of conducts, despite other valid and ethical choices" ([7], p. 3).

In an effort to understand how toxic leadership emerges and develops, various authors have delved in its traits and impact [2, 3, 9–11], but overall it can be considered as a leadership style based on the physical and emotional impairment of people, with harmful consequences for their followers at a personal and organizational level.

Toxic or destructive leaders engage in negative behaviors with volitional intention [9], covering "several distinct but related dimensions of negative leadership" ([12], p. 2), such as abusive behavior, bullying, narcissism, self-promotion, and authoritarian practices.

Several authors note the common attributes and specific behaviors that toxic leaders display [2–4, 8, 9, 13–15], which mainly implies abusive conducts, resulting in a decrease on the employer's performance, as well as in their physical and mental well-being. In relation to this, some have dedicated themselves to typifying the most common or frequent attributes to recognize within toxic leadership, finding characteristics that focus on aggressive behaviors that negatively affect a third party, directly or indirectly. Within them, we identify Pelletier (2010), who suggests eight main characteristics: attack on followers' self-esteem, lack of integrity, abusiveness, social exclusion, divisiveness, inequity, threats to security, and *laissez-faire*. According to what she describes, any of these dimensions have repercussions at a self-esteem level, resulting in a lack of integrity. On the other hand, Schmidt (2008) defines and operationalizes toxic leadership within five main dimensions, which include abusive supervision, authoritarian leadership, narcissism, unpredictability, and self-promotion.

Regarding these traits, several authors agree in categorizing narcissism as a critical part of the toxic leadership paradigm. Dominated by self-centered, dominant features, a narcissistic leader can demonstrate a "grandiose sense of entitlement, self-focus, inflated self-esteem and intense competitiveness" ([16], p. 1323), with actions triggered mainly by egotistical needs [17]. This type of leader also demands abusive obedience and is highly capable of disregarding other's needs when setting a goal, driven by a selfish need for power [2, 3, 9]. From an educational point of view, Oplatka (2017) adds that narcissistic educational leaders "might be intolerant of criticism from teachers and stakeholders" and "enjoy manipulation of others and adopt a distorted stance of reality that is reinforced by their position" (p. 5).

Although to date there are no studies that categorically conclude that this aspect is the most dangerous and determining factor in the emergence of destructive leadership, it is important to emphasize its importance in the development of a destructive leader, since it enhances an environment of dysergy in an organization.

Comprehensively, Smith & Fredericks-Lowman (2019) impeccably summarize three key elements in toxic leadership: lack of concern for the well-being of their followers, a personality that can negatively affect organizational climate, and actions motivated primarily by self-interest. Also, this leadership must be deemed as a systematic practice, as its negative outcomes extend to long periods of time [13].

The results of these behaviors are reflected not only in the organization, but also in their subordinates. Repercussions fall mainly on aspects of mental and physical health, with a direct effect on work effectiveness and commitment [15]. Both of these concepts are closely related to motivation, which plays a key role in maintaining and perpetuating a good work environment. This is an important point to consider when measuring the impact of good leadership, since the level of motivation tends to influence job performance; therefore, and as many authors reckon, job satisfaction and organizational commitment are indeed two of the aspects more affected and diminished by leader toxicity [15, 18–21]. Until recently, however, there was little evidence showing how the effects of toxic leadership could relate with other motivational traits in higher education, such as work engagement. In this way, novel investigations show that the impact over work engagement may not always relate directly to a toxic environment, especially in educational settings [7].

Within existing literature, research regarding toxic leadership has been mainly focused in areas such as military, business, and health care-related settings; nonetheless, attention toward educational organizations is not widely mentioned. Despite this, there are some important inputs such of those of Blasé & Blasé (2002), who noted that school teachers are indeed exposed to emotional abuse from their heads; furthermore, effects of such mistreatment can be extremely harmful to teachers' professional and personal lives. Aravena (2019) also records the presence of toxic leadership in Chilean primary education, introducing behaviors reported by teachers that circulate between autocratic leadership, poor communication, inconsistent behavior, and poor strategic skills. Regarding this, he adds another interesting fact to the understanding of this leadership mechanism, since, when carrying out his study, he was able to observe that the personal perception of people affected by toxic leadership does not necessarily coincide with the perception of job experience. In this way, it concludes that the most mentioned behaviors, when consulting personal impressions of destructive leadership, were autocratic leadership and poor communication; however, when they are asked to recognize what do school principals do to be perceived as destructive leaders, inconsistent or erratic behavior, and poor strategic skills are the most frequent characteristics reported, showing that perceptions of toxic leadership and real experiences do not necessarily coincide. At the same time, he reports that although personal values are more profoundly impacted on the perception of a destructive leader, when it comes to identify their perceptions over job experience, managerial aspects are the actions that most influence teachers' perceptions.

The collection of these conclusions is sometimes difficult to achieve, considering that many times these kinds of leaders become increasingly hard to unmask, due to the obstacles that exist in achieving the victim's report of this type of abusive leadership.

If the leader faces no repercussions for their behavior or manages to achieve desired outcomes without being sanctioned, it is more likely to prolong this model over time [8]. Thus, "a toxic culture is sometimes difficult to detect from outside the organization, and for that reason often more difficult to deal with" ([8], p. 184), as once established, can be very difficult to overcome [22].

As Thoroughgood et al. (2017) explain, sometimes destructive leadership traits can become "highly functional in in situations requiring speed and decisiveness" ([23], p. 898), being associated with positive effects in the short term. In this way, there is little knowledge in explaining why, despite the clear negative impact, destructive leader behaviors are permitted not only by followers, but also by superiors or other figures in an organization.

#### **2.2 Toxic leadership in higher education**

Although there is not a large amount of evidence in the existing literature displaying the effect of toxic leadership in higher education, it is possible to say that there is knowledge of the existence of this type of leadership in this educational setting. Despite it has not yet been possible to explain with accuracy why this occurs, it is possible to elucidate it through its structure and management, which could lead to the enduring of these leaders in high positions defined by performance and efficiency.

In higher education, leadership relationships are influenced by many factors, not only related to leaders´ traits, but also by the cultural environment, such as organizational structures and hierarchies, which can enable competitive cultures [24]. In this way, Fahie (2020) highlights universities as institutions particularly susceptible to bullying, "given their decentralized organizational structures and explicit hierarchical power structures" (p. 346). Moreover, Klahn & Male (2022) attribute to quality management approaches "the emergence of policies centered on quality monitoring and market driven strategies, which can affect the worker's perception of the type of leadership under which they are directed, as 'increased attention to quality management yields opportunity costs and can meet reluctance of academics who feel these procedures are externally constructed, managed and imposed'" ([7], p. 7). This agrees with other appreciations, in which it is recognized that public institutions have adopted a shift in the way of understanding and managing higher education, with changes to hierarchical forms that determine a vertical and delimited leadership [25, 26]. With respect to this, there is also an important focus on corporate models of management and training, in which "emphasis is placed on accomplishing the mission more than how the mission is accomplished" ([12], p. 7), relating to the "lack of diverse thought when it comes to problem solving departmental or institutional financial challenges, engaging/supporting students as part of retention efforts, and innovating curriculum or student services" ([12], p. 8).

Concerning how it is possible to explain and apply these assertions to tertiary education reality, specifically in Latin America, the development of university policies and leadership styles are highly related to several changes in its structure, which have been taking place in the last three decades. This appears to have led institutions to adopt, as it has been said previously mentioned, managerial approaches, subjecting them to focus on competitiveness, increasing their internal efficiency and productivity [27]. In this way, the approach higher education had adopted has allowed an important diversification of the academic offer [28]; however, the current framework of governance is considered rigid in its structure, and "managerialism promoted by this model is strongly linked to the promotion of authoritarianism as a management mode" [24]. Understanding that this approach can normally be associated with authoritarian forms of leadership, it is possible to assume that a rigid environment

could be more likely to be considered toxic and therefore be considered as a conductive environment.

Having said this, the structure of universities in different countries of America focuses on a market scheme, concerned with developing functions of analysis and strategic planning for its positioning in higher education. In turn, its policies focus strongly on quality assurance, obliging universities to establish units with specific functions for the analysis of institutional information and the continuous evaluation of their performance, in order to ensure quality of their teaching and learning and therefore their presence in the market [28]. In such manner, this system based on obtaining determined results could facilitate a competitive and highly demanding environment, which can lead to toxic behavior on the part of those who lead teams. Many times, and due to this, not meeting the objectives can lead to situations of pressure and stress, affecting the leader, and through him, if he/she does not know how to handle it, his employees.

In addition to this, the organizational framework of universities, functioning with three main levels—strategic level, middle line, and operational level—reveals the hierarchical nature of higher education, which although it focuses on rigid structures with defined functions, is in turn diversified into a set of units that may allow the decentralization of leadership and management.

Due to these institutional diversification strategies, higher education institutions have had to adapt and professionalize their administrative structure, incorporating to universities management professionals designated to hold academic-administrative positions [29]; however, the academic area, at the middle line and operational level, faces a different scheme, since leaders who guide units in the academic area do not always have formal leadership training, insomuch as selection criteria are based mainly on experience within the area and track record. Aravena (2019) offers an explanation of this, indicating that leaders are often elected due to personal aspects, rather than their effective aptitudes in leadership practices. This evidences a gap in educational leadership, as "leadership is viewed as inspirational models with examples of *how to be* rather than *what to do*" ([13], p. 85-86).

A work environment that enables a toxic leadership style has proved to have an effect on employees, who have their goals and well-being affected. Just as in other areas in which toxic leadership has been widely studied, higher education also experiences the consequences of this kind of leadership, including increases in absenteeism and turnover [12]. Blasé & Blasé (2002) highlight this problem as a direct result of the victim's inability to have viable opportunities for recourse, as normally organizational cultures of this nature tend to turn a blind eye on these kind of destructive management practices. In turn, the victims´ complaints can result in no action from the upper-level authorities, including protection actions toward the toxic boss, or furthermore, reprisals against the victim for registering complaints (p. 679).

There are many researchers who can support these actions, in which it is explained that higher education academics often do not trust the educational system in terms of reporting harmful actions. This is mainly due to the absence of protection measures for those affected, despite the fact that institutions normally offer formal complaint channels [22].

Along with this, inefficiency in promotional systems is also reported, since they can focus on the productive result rather than on the assessment of leadership execution. In this regard, Fahie (2020) mentions how academics in Ireland report how, despite existing protocols to initiate a formal complaint against individuals, they still remain reluctant to do so due to the absence of protection measures if the identity

*Perspective Chapter: Toxic Leadership in Higher Education – What We Know, How It Is Handled DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110159*

of the plaintiff does not remain anonymous. Moreover, Aravena (2019) adds that an important number of destructive leaders can be frequently promoted or rewarded by their organizations, so this is an aspect that needs to be further investigated.

The implications of all the above make us reflect on the counterpart of toxic leadership: ethical leadership, and how this could improve a destructive environment. "Ethical leadership, in its true sense, promotes ethical conduct by practising as well as consciously managing ethics and holding everyone with the organization accountable for it" [30]. Although some authors agree that ethical leadership has not yet been sufficiently discussed and developed in the area [30], it could be considered as a valid mechanism that could detect a toxic leader in an early stage and thus contemplate the necessary measures to prevent its emergence.

However, understanding that ethics links to morality, it is important to point out that morality is socially derived, and as Male (2012) explains, "what is sometimes acceptable to one society is not always universally acceptable."

Keeping this in mind, "the ethical issue is to determine whether the subsequent chosen courses of action are morally and philosophically acceptable" ([1], p. 200).

Hence, an ethical leader should demonstrate an appropriate ethical behavior, influencing followers through the promotion of adequate interpersonal relationships, communication, and ethical decision making, for being able in effect to predict positive outcomes in a working environment, such as job satisfaction, willingness to extra effort in the work, report problems to management, and increased perceived effectiveness of leaders [30]. Along with this, it is also recognized that a leader's behavior not only impacts the follower's well-being, but their own behavior *via* modeling, which contemplates practices that include imitation, observational learning, and identification [31]. "Therefore, credibility, legitimacy, and attractiveness of ethical supervisors as role models can stimulate individuals to model their behaviour" ([31], p. 78). Taking this into account, it becomes important not only to investigate the effects of character attributes, but also "to construct an understanding of how negative effects of traits can emerge and be prevented" ([13], p. 85).

Brown et al. (2005) refer to the importance of organizations expressing and reflecting development and monitoring policies of ethical leadership, giving some recommendations such as emphasizing care in the selection of qualified personnel. However, throughout literature there is no evidence or proposals of how this can be properly monitored, and given the implications that this can generate, it becomes necessary to suggest or consider the need for a formal framework of supervision, which may prevent the emergence of toxic leaders and therefore ensure an ethical leadership practice.

In conclusion, as Ryan et al. (2021) summarize in their study, there exists several factors by which a destructive leadership environment could be enabled in an educational environment. In this regard, the most important to consider would be the hierarchical structure and organization of schools or universities and the prevailing power relations in favor of those in authority, the nature of the specific leader–follower relationship and the sociological and psychological susceptibility of some subordinates to the behaviors and actions of the leader, or the deficiency of moral parameters or little applicability of social norms that determine the leader's behavior and actions (p. 70).

#### **2.3 Toxic leadership's impact in academic performance and motivation**

Available literature supports the negative impact of toxic leadership on people, specifically at work and personal levels. The consequences of its endurance over

time have been extensively analyzed [4, 6, 9, 10, 15, 17, 21, 32], and some studies have noted the different strategies that victims apply to cope with and overcome the oppressive and debilitating style of this leadership model [10, 20]. The most frequent and undesirable repercussion relies mainly on evading rather than confronting the leader, with determinant consequences such as leaving the organization, taking leave, and/or bypassing the leader [20]. However, other aspects such as work commitment have not yet been extensively explored, nor how toxic leadership could have any real influence on academic motivation, which in turn can have direct consequences on students learning. In relation to this, Hargreaves & Fullan (2012) affirm that educational work is firmly linked to a strong vocation and therefore motivation for teaching, so destructive leadership could sometimes not be enough to abandon this adverse environment. In the case of academics in higher education, this aspect becomes particularly relevant, since the majority do not have formal education in the pedagogical area; however, they choose to engage in education and possibly endure in it because of the same reason [33].

Conclusions reached in literature are, however, contradictory: For example, in the study, we carried out jointly with Male (2022), it was observed that "a relationship between the degree of toxicity of the leader and the level of engagement was not identified. Contrary to the expected result, despite the existence of average to high perceptions of toxicity in the work environment, none of the lecturers surveyed reported a decrease in their commitment" (p. 13). On the other hand, authors such as Hadadian & Sayadpour (2018) disprove this result, by identifying in their study a direct relationship between toxic leadership and job stress, which results in conflicts at individual and collective level [34]. In addition to this, Schmidt (2014) also reports an inversely proportional relationship between toxic leadership and other job outcomes, such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Finally, Fahie (2020) also complements these assertions, indicating how could productivity be negatively affected by destructive leadership.

Although these last results contrast with the first study mentioned, it is still important to establish that, although engagement is not an aspect that has been further investigated, it is still considered related to the concepts of well-being and mental health.

Explanations for this result may be difficult to elucidate, but there can be interpretations to understand the behavior of the findings. Firstly, it is important to consider the significance of callings or vocation on work-related outcomes, as "experiencing a calling to a particular career is likely to lead to one to become committed to that line of work" ([35], p. 216). Contrary to what happens in the pedagogical career, academics in higher education are not professionals trained entirely for teaching, but are also dedicated to working in their discipline; due to this, many decide to engage in the area essentially for vocational purposes. At the same time, it is important to emphasize that academic professionals do not necessarily tend to have an exclusive bond with the institution they work for, so this could be added as another justification for why they could labor more toward the objective than for the leader who directs them [7]. Considering this, they could be more willing to withstand and perpetuate in adverse environments.

Also, it must be acknowledged that perceptions and real experiences of this harmful leadership style may not always coincide; or, in other words, toxic leadership behaviors are not necessarily attributable to work experience (including work engagement) directly, since, as it has been said before, in the perception of destructive leaders, the personal and emotional component has bigger impact than management aspects [13].

#### *Perspective Chapter: Toxic Leadership in Higher Education – What We Know, How It Is Handled DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110159*

Work satisfaction is a complex perception that includes many aspects, among others, the leader's performance. As Schmidt (2014) recognizes, although many times the intentions of deserting a job are associated with the relationship between the leader and the affected, some other times it is totally unrelated. This reaffirms the importance of individual perception, which can vary from one individual to another in a very relevant way.

Finally, it cannot be left aside the importance of the rigid administrative structure that commands universities, which can also influence the degree of motivation of an academic, even in the face of a toxic or destructive environment. As indicated above, higher education institutions often work within a hierarchical framework, where leadership tends to be rigid in environments where there is not necessarily a horizontal and direct interaction between high leaders and the academic staff. Due to this, it is possible that, despite a bad leadership, professors tend to remain in their positions, since they do not directly channel their concerns with those who are responsible for creating a harmful work environment.

Taking all this into account, it is possible to say that interactionism turns out to be a key aspect to define the relevance of a relationship, both personal and work. According to Blasé and Blasé (2012), any interpersonal relationship is generated and modified through a subjective interpretive process, pushed by personal meanings according to the person, their context, and the environment in which they unravel. "Therefore, if the interaction with the leader is poor, negative appreciations may not necessarily have implications for academics' performance in the classroom" ([7], p. 14).

As with other aspects, such as the impact of toxic leadership according to the victim's susceptibility, the available evidence does not allow us to generate further conclusions in this regard, since although the traits that are diminished with this kind of leadership are clearly consensual, they are little associated with the context of those consulted. In other words, it is known that toxic leadership significantly decreases job satisfaction or organizational commitment, but it is not contextualized in terms of who is most likely to suffer these dismays. This is very relevant to consider, when defining intervention strategies and good practice policies, since if the profile of the most frequently affected academics is not fully known, it becomes more complicated to study the development of the toxic leader in their setting.

#### **3. Conclusions**

There is a widespread consensus on the importance of good leadership in work groups, especially in the educational area. In this regard, different studies have investigated the different aspects that characterize good management, focused on both managerial and personal aspects. Considering this, it can be concluded that these last traits are the ones that have the greatest impact on followers, since they define not only their quality of life, but also their performance and commitment, and with it, the results in the organization.

As has been reviewed, leadership is understood as a dynamic and interactional process, where performance results depend not only on the leader, but also on the people that compose the team, and the context in which the group is inserted.

It is well known and agreed the repercussions that toxic leadership has in a person's well-being, which usually relate to aspects compromising their mental health and work commitment [4, 9, 20]. However, other aspects that can also have an impact,

especially in the educational environment, must not be neglected. In this regard, the effects of toxic leadership on work engagement have been investigated, but there are no conclusive aspects that indicate there is a direct relationship.

Higher education is not an area of vast knowledge and evidence regarding toxic leadership. Nonetheless, it is possible to recognize some studies that validate it in the environment, but there is not enough proof to indicate the reasons why it emerges, nor how it is managed when it is detected.

In this regard, it is possible to conclude that there is a consensus in establishing that the hierarchical structure and top-down management styles can, as a context, facilitate the emergence of a toxic leader. In relation to the permanence over time, no objective reasons are acknowledged as to why it happens, but the scarce protection measures for victims who report abusive or destructive situations, and the lack of monitoring in the leadership within the area, are the most mentioned causes of maintenance over time.

Taking into account that not all people deal in the same way with harmful or traumatic events, having a clear idea of how the leader affects the performance of a worker at the moment is essential to establish adequate intervention strategies.

There are still many aspects to be developed within toxic leadership in education, especially in that related to university settings. As a conclusion, it can be affirmed that toxic leaders do have an impact on academics, although it is not necessarily related to their degree of dedication to work. Therefore, more background and future research is needed in which the implications of leadership styles on academics' motivation, engagement, and well-being can be developed more deeply, through long-term studies, which may contemplate not only the victim's appreciation. Finally, it becomes necessary to implement new policies that can ensure control of the appropriate performance of the leader, beyond the achievement of results of the institution's goals, such as monitoring mechanisms or permanent evaluations from both superiors and subordinates to the performance of an assigned leader.

#### **Conflict of interest**

The author declares no conflict of interest.

#### **Author details**

Blanca Klahn Andrés Bello University, Concepción, Chile

\*Address all correspondence to: blanca.klahn@unab.cl

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Perspective Chapter: Toxic Leadership in Higher Education – What We Know, How It Is Handled DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110159*

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## *Edited by Lee Waller and Sharon Kay Waller*

COVID wrought havoc on the world's economic systems. Higher education did not escape the ravages brought on by the pandemic as institutions of higher education around the world faced major upheavals in their educational delivery systems. Some institutions were prepared for the required transition to online learning. Most were not. Whether prepared or not, educators rose to the challenge. The innovativeness of educators met the challenges as digital learning replaced the face-to-face environment. In fact, some of the distance models proved so engaging that many students no longer desire a return to the face-to-face model. As with all transitions, some things were lost while others were gained. This book examines practice in the field as institutions struggled to face the worst global pandemic in the last century. The book is organized into four sections on "Changing Education", "Education in the Pandemic", "Sustaining University Education", and "Embracing the Future in a Global World". It presents various perspectives from educators around the world to illustrate the struggles and triumphs of those facing new challenges and implementing new ideas to empower the educational process. These discussions shed light on the impact of the pandemic and the future of higher education post-COVID. Higher education has been forever changed, and higher education as it once was may never return. While many questions arise, the achievements in meeting and overcoming the pandemic illustrate the creativity and innovativeness of educators around the world who inspired future generations of learners to reach new heights of accomplishment even in the face of the pandemic.

## *Katherine K.M. Stavropoulos, Education and Human Development Series Editor*

Published in London, UK © 2023 IntechOpen

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Higher Education - Reflections From the Field - Volume 3

IntechOpen Series

Education and Human Development, Volume 5

Higher Education

Reflections From the Field - Volume 3

*Edited by Lee Waller and Sharon Kay Waller*