**5. Literature review**

#### **5.1 Educational innovations**

Globally universities implemented numerous digital innovations to migrate from face-to-face to online teaching [11]. Technologies that were commonly utilized were these among others: Moodle, Blackboard, Zoom, Google Classroom, Google Meet, Skype, Google Forms, Calendars, G-drive, Google Hangouts, Google Jam Boards, Drawings, YouTube Live, WhatsApp, Instagram, Twitter, Facebook Live and WebEx [12, 13].

One of the universities in Zimbabwe reiterated that google classroom was most common used virtual platform; however, it was abandoned because of service overload and interruption which led to WhatsApp as an alternative learning platform [4]. The author also revealed that Zoom gained prominence regardless of high costs associated with conducting lectures on the virtual platform. In South Africa students who are categorized as rural contingent used email and university websites as a medium of communication during the pandemic and implementation of virtual classroom became very impossible [5]. Despite the challenges of network disruptions some of the institution in rural set up implemented WhatsApp, blackboard and YouTube to conduct lectures [5]. Similarly, Moodle platforms, social media (WhatsApp, Facebook, YouTube) and zoom were asserted as potential innovations that universities could possibly implemented during the pandemic regardless of digital divide criticality [9]. Use of webinars, video conferencing and WhatsApp platforms were innovative measures taken by one of the South African universities to deliver psychometric lectures [10].

Challenges of face to face lessons were totally disrupted because of the lockdown measures announced by the government for students to vacate the university premises except for the foreign students who could not travel during the pandemic period [14]. In South Africa, universities introduced zero based data facility to help both the lecturers and students to use online resources [14]. The author also revealed that educational innovations such as the virtual and augmented reality, flipped classrooms, social media-based platforms (Facebook), teleconferencing (Skype, Zoom, GoToMeeting and WebEx) were common educational innovation implemented during the pandemic. Despite the fact that many universities in Africa have Moodle as e-learning management systems, the inadequacy of the platforms to students needs were the song of the day [15].

In the Zimbabwean context, pre-COVID utilization of learning management systems such as SAKAI, Blackboard and Moodle was at a slow rate compared during the pandemic where e-learning utilization gained traction [16]. The same authors claimed that universities resorted to digital technologies such as electronic mail (e-mail), WhatsApp, telephone, video-conferencing techniques to communicate and conduct learning sessions. WhatsApp integration into pedagogical tool was found to be useful and convenient for both the lecturers and students in Zimbabwe higher institution of learning [17, 18]. WhatsApp was familiar for social connection tool where users share societal issues rather formal business information. The costs associated with WhatsApp usage (data bundle) was the major reason universities used it for teaching

and learning purposes [19]. Despite slight differences in technological innovations used in South Africa and Zimbabwean universities respectively, the study continued with probing the challenges that led to selected technological choices.

### **5.2 E-learning challenges faced by South African and Zimbabwean universities**

In Zimbabwe most of challenges that universities faced to conduct e-learning were poor ICT infrastructure, incapacitated users, lack of top management support to implement digital technologies, unstable and unreliable data bandwidth [11]. Similarly, In south Africa, university rural students were faced with erratic internet connectivity, short supply of electronic devices, Lack of internet accessibility infrastructure, user computer skills and expensive data bundles [8]. Echoing the same sentiments, digital skills, internet speed, cost of internet data and non-availability of appropriate hardware were found to be major challenges failed to implement google class e-learning in Zimbabwe [20]. Demographic factor of gender favored male lecturers compared to female counterparts, in terms of ability to teach online which attributable to years of experience in the teaching field [11]. Students pointed out that home was never conducive for e-learning because of lack of space in addition to non-possession of electronic gadgets such laptops, iPad etc. [4, 21]. Using the Capability approach, in investigating disabled students during COVID-19, certain challenges were revealed. The challenges include lack of social interactions and low levels of concentration [22]. Furthermore, students with physical impairment in South Africa higher institution of learning faced accessibility of software and internet infrastructure at home [23]. Therefore, University grappled to find quick solutions that ensure total inclusiveness of students' categories across faculties in terms of setting up e-learning remotely. Human being social animals meeting online was made difficult for numerous reasons; lack of skills operating the online resources, undesirable home facilities and space as well as poor ICT infrastructure in homes [24]. Load shedding was also implicated in online teaching failure [25]. Overhauling these challenges, it is interesting how universities managed examination to access students' application of knowledge before graduating them. The ensuing paragraphs focus on that perspective.
