**5. Conclusion**

310 Neuroimaging – Cognitive and Clinical Neuroscience

exercises, no studies have yet determined if a critical level of cerebral deoxygenation impairs whole body exercise. Shibuya and colleagues Shibuya et al. (2004a) reported a progressive cerebral deoxygenation during intermittent exercises. Specifically, these authors observed a reduction in Δ[O2Hb] and Δ[Hbtot], while Δ[HHb] increased, over the course of seven, 30s

with 15s of rest. It was concluded that fatigue, resulting from such intermittent

supramaximal exercises, was related to a decrease in the cerebral oxygenation level.

Fig. 6. Example of a NIRS setting while the subject is walking on a treadmill.

O2max and interspersed

cycling exercises performed at an intensity corresponding to 150% V�

NIRS utilises light to measure cortical haemoglobin concentration changes associated with neural activity. This technique is more tolerant compared with other comparable techniques, regarding the subjects' movements, thus allowing a wider range of experimental tasks in the range of dynamic exercises. However, it has some shortcomings that need to be addressed. In this chapter, we showed how technical obstacles could be overcome, how NIRS contributes to the mapping of exercise-related brain functions, and further promotes the understanding of human movement and motor performance. In this context, we propose NIRS as a potential mediator between physiology and neuroscience. Beside these advances in technique and analysis of the data, we believe that users should consider the methodology's strengths and weakness when designing a NIRS study.

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**16** 

 *France* 

**Intermanual and Intermodal Transfer in** 

**Human Newborns: Neonatal Behavioral** 

**Evidence and Neurocognitive Approach** 

*2Pierre Mendès-France University/LPNC UMR 5105 CNRS, Grenoble* 

Until recently, newborns had typically been described as displaying mainly involuntary reactions and clumsy arm movements. However, in recent years investigation of exploratory perception of objects has emerged as key area research. Newborns' hands have often been described as closed or exhibiting either grasping or avoidance reactions which are inappropriate behaviors for holding an object and gathering and processing information (Katz, 1925; Roland and Mortensen 1987; Twitchell, 1965). However, besides possessing manual brief reactions (reflex), newborns are also able to handle small objects and to perceive their properties. To reveal this tactile ability, researchers have applied a habituation-dishabituation procedure to the tactile modality, just as in the visual modality (Streri & Pêcheux, 1986a). This procedure, which is controlled by the infant, is effective in revealing the early perceptual capacities of young babies (cf. Streri, 1993). It unfolds in two phases. The first phase, habituation, includes a series of trials in which the infants receive a small object in one hand. A trial begins when the infant holds the object and ends when the infant drops it or after a maximum duration defined by the experimenter. This process is repeated several times. As a consequence, the habituation process entails several grasps of determined duration (usually between 1 sec to 60 sec of holding). Trials continue until the habituation criterion is met. The newborn is judged to have been habituated when the duration of holding on any two consecutive trials, from the third onwards, totals a third (or a quarter, depending on age) or less of the total duration of the first two trials. Total holding time is taken as an indicator of the duration of familiarization. The mean number of trials taken to reach habituation ranges from four to twelve, and often varies with shape complexity. The decrease in holding times is considered to reveal the infants' ability to perceive and form a memory of the shape and subsequently recognize it. Then, in the dishabituation phase, a novel object is put in the infant's hand. If an increase in holding time of the novel object is observed, it is inferred that the baby is reacting to novelty, having noticed the difference between novel and familiar objects. That these processes reveal a form of mental representation of stimuli is now well established (cf. Pascalis & De Haan, 2003;

Using this experimental procedure, Streri, Lhote, and Dutilleul (2000) showed that full-term newborns (the youngest was 16 hours old) were able to detect differences in the contours of

**1. Introduction** 

Rovee-Collier & Barr, 2001).

Arlette Streri1 and Edouard Gentaz2

*1Paris Descartes University/LPP UMR 8158 CNRS, Paris* 

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