**7. Acknowledgement**

We thank Dr. Wayne Chan and Dr. May Baydoun for their helpful comments. This research was supported in part by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Institute on Aging, USA.

#### **8. References**

36 Neuroimaging – Cognitive and Clinical Neuroscience

Prior to conducting these studies, the authors examined functional imaging data with a visual and motor task from four participants who were repeatedly imaged in both machines in Singapore and the United States (Sutton et al., 2008). They found that there was minimal variance in BOLD as a function of site, between-subject differences accounted for 10 times more variance than site of data collection, and task differences (motor versus visual) also accounted for a significant proportion of the variance (Figure 9). Phantom scans were also routinely acquired before testing participants in order to evaluate signal noise and stability of the two scanners as further checks that the two magnets were similarly calibrated. Given the careful evaluation of BOLD signal properties of the two different magnets, the results suggest that obtaining neuroimaging data from two geographically different sites with the

In this review, we have covered imaging findings related to neurocognitive changes associated with aging and culture, and some findings pertaining to their interaction. Studies on neurocognitive aging show a general reduction in the distinctiveness of neural responses to different stimuli in the posterior brain regions that may be related to neurobiological declines. In the midst of such neurobiological declines, there is also consistent evidence showing increases in frontal responses that may be part of a compensatory response, in particular for the declines associated with posterior brain regions. In contrast to the more global effect of aging, studies on cultural differences in values, perception and attention have also shown specific and more localized differences in neural function that are consistently associated with the analytic-holistic dichotomy in Westerners and East Asians respectively. Specifically, Westerners show functional brain responses that reflect their bias for analytic processing styles that is associated with increased responses in object-processing regions probably related to greater attention to object features. In contrast, East Asians show brain responses that reflect a more holistic processing style associated with attention to contextual information in regions like the lingual landmark area. Some differences in brain structure have also been observed in these cultural groups, although a clear mechanism between cultural experience and brain structure has yet to be established. A few studies have shown that the impact of culture-related experiences on neural structure and function may be acquired at a very young age, and importantly, endures through to advanced aging

In sum, the findings covered in this review suggest that there is a reliable and consistent effect of cultural experiences on neural structure and function. While more studies are required to strengthen the findings, initial studies have shown also that at least some of these culture-related effects present in young adults are maintained even in the face of neurobiological changes associated with aging. Importantly, these findings also suggest that neurobiological aging does not always lead to neurocognitive decline in a uniform manner, and that external experiences can modulate and perhaps alleviate some of the neural effects

We thank Dr. Wayne Chan and Dr. May Baydoun for their helpful comments. This research was supported in part by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Institute on

identical systems used in those studies was feasible and had sufficient reliability.

**6. Conclusion** 

with even some cases of accentuation.

of aging in the brain.

Aging, USA.

**7. Acknowledgement** 


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**3** 

*Canada* 

**Neuroimaging of Single Cases:** 

*2Depts of CNS, Med Biophys, Med Imaging, & Psychology,* 

Single case studies of neurological patients has a long and storied history (Zillmer & Spiers, 2001). First used as a teaching tool (Haas, 2001), the method of thoroughly exploring the cognitive and motor functions of a unique individual patient has led to extraordinary advances in our understanding of structure-function relationships in the human brain. Single cases have led to important advances in many fields, including pioneering work on language (Broca, 1861; see also Ryalls & Lecours, 1996) and visual perception (Poppelreuter, 1917/1990; see also Humphreys & Riddoch, 1996) to more recent work on memory systems (Scoville & Milner, 1957; Milner & Penfield, 1955-1956; see Milner, 2005 for a recent review) where one patient (HM) has arguably done more to advance that field than any other single case study in history. Prior to the advent of x-rays and eventually computerised axial tomography (CT scans), the method of studying single cases was the only way to determine the location of a patient's pathology. The advent of CT scans in the 1970's obviated, to some degree, the need for detailed neuropsychological testing, at least as it was needed to determine the *location* of pathology (Banich, 2004; Lezak, et al., 2004; Kolb & Wishaw, 2009). A few decades later and the advent of functional MRI (fMRI) provides an even more powerful tool for examining the nature of structure-function relationships in humans and in non-human primates (Ogawa et al., 1992; Ford et al., 2009). Indeed, the rapid rise of fMRI studies (Fox, 1997; Raichle, 1994) has outstripped the pace of single case studies in the past

By 2005 the proportion of neuroimaging abstracts accepted for presentation at the Cognitive Neuroscience Society meeting was around 35% compared to only 15% for patient studies

There are a range of reasons behind the rise of functional neuroimaging studies including the ease and relatively low cost with which these studies can be carried out (Chatterjee, 2005). Although per hour imaging costs seem high to most, the cost of patient research is undoubtedly far higher both in time committed and real costs related to screening and following patients over longer periods of time (Chatterjee, 2005). In addition, each method

1 A search of the 2011 CNS program using "fMRI", "neuroimaging" and "patients" separately showed

(which included group and single case methods; Chatterjee, 20051).

that neuroimaging references were almost double those of references to patients.

**1. Introduction** 

few decades (Figure 1).

James Danckert1 and Seyed M. Mirsattarri2

*1Dept of Psychology, University of Waterloo* 

**Benefits and Pitfalls** 

 *University of Western Ontario* 

