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**2** 

 *USA* 

**Images of the Cognitive Brain** 

While structural and functional characteristics of the brain are largely similar across individuals, there is also evidence that much neural heterogeneity, both structural and functional, is present between different groups of people. For example, some individuals have greater regional brain volumes and thicknesses than others, and neural activity in response to the same stimuli varies across different individuals as well. Moreover, neural structure and function are temporally dynamic, showing changes across the human lifespan. Understanding how such neural heterogeneity arises between different individuals over the human lifespan is important for uncovering factors that influence developmental trajectories from adulthood to advanced age. In this article, we consider two general sources that contribute to neural heterogeneity over the adult lifespan – age-related biological changes

Over the human lifespan, biological processes related to brain structural integrity and neurobiological function change from adulthood to advanced aging (Goh, 2011; Goh & Park, 2009a; Park & Goh, 2009; Park & Reuter-Lorenz, 2009). In brief, aging has been associated with shrinkage of gray matter volume and thickness, reductions in white matter integrity, reductions in neurogenesis, and dysregulation of neuromodulatory mechanisms such as neurotransmitter action and synaptic communication. These age-related neurobiological changes have been associated with age-related changes in cognitive processing that is generally characterized by lower performance in tests of cognitive flexibility, fidelity, and speed in older adults compared to younger adults. Functionally, aging is associated with a decrease in the selectivity of brain responses to different types of stimuli as well as an increase in engagement of frontal regions. Importantly, it has been suggested that because age-related neurobiological changes tend to level off individual differences, neural differences between older adult individuals may be reduced compared to younger adult individuals (Baltes & Lindenberger, 1997; Park & Gutchess, 2002; Park et al., 1999; Park et al., 2004; Park & Gutchess, 2006). Thus, along with lower cognitive behavioral performance, aging may also be associated with greater, albeit compromised, similarity in brain structure

Over the lifespan as well, individuals undergo different life experiences such as culturally different social and cognitive environments that emphasize dissociable ways of processing information (Nisbett, 2003; Nisbett & Masuda, 2003; Nisbett et al., 2001). For example,

**1. Introduction** 

and culture-related differences in external experience.

and function across individuals.

**Across Age and Culture** 

Joshua Goh1 and Chih-Mao Huang2 *1National Institute on Aging, Baltimore, MD 2University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL* 

