**8. References**


In this chapter, we highlighted the role of ERP research in the field of cognitive and social neuroscience. We introduced the ERP methodology and then a selective description of main components was developed. Subsequently, some representative fields of ERP research on the neural basis of language, emotion, empathy and decision-making cognition were presented. Finally, complementary methodological approaches (sleep research, intracranial recordings, source location in dense arrays and fMRI-ERP co-recordings) were introduced, highlighting the broad horizons of ERP research. By providing the fine, temporal brain dynamics of social and cognitive processes in normal, psychiatric and neurological

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**21** 

*Australia* 

**Neuroimaging Outcomes of** 

*Regenerative Neuroscience Group, School of Psychiatry & Brain and* 

The brain remains plastic throughout the human lifespan. This unique property holds great promise for the better treatment of cognitive disorders, and forms the basis for behavioural interventions aimed at promoting mental function that may help delay and prevent the onset of dementia. Brain training (BT) is a direct method for targeting brain plasticity that employs repetitive cognitive exercises. Over the past decade increasing evidence has accumulated that BT can lead to clinical and cognitive benefits in psychiatric samples (McGurk et al., 2005, 2007), as well as in healthy older individuals (Valenzuela & Sachdev, 2009). However, the neurobiological mechanisms underlying these clinical benefits are not well understood. Advances in neuroimaging therefore has potential for revealing the complex *in vivo* structural, functional and metabolic brain changes that accompany BT. The aim of this systematic review was to compare and integrate results of several recent clinical trials of BT that have employed Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), with a particular emphasis on design and technical issues. These studies are beginning to provide fascinating

The wider cognitive intervention field abounds with multiple ill-defined terms that have hampered their development and validation, and can also explain mixed findings to date (Gates & Valenzuela, 2010). Clare and Woods divide this general area into 'cognitive rehabilitation', 'cognitive stimulation', or 'cognitive training' (CT) (Clare & Woods, 2004). We have proposed a specific operational definition for cognitive training (CT) to include cognitive interventions that meet the following four criteria: 1) involves repeated practice, 2) on tasks with an inherent problem, 3) using standardized exercises, and 4) that specifically target a cognitive domain (Gates & Valenzuela, 2010) . Here, the terms BT and CT are

The Medline (1996 – 04/2011) database was searched for original research articles in English that met the following criteria. (a) 'brain training', 'cognitive training', 'cognitive

insights into the nature of BT effects on the human brain.

**2. Definition of brain training** 

identical and are used interchangeably.

**3. Method** 

**3.1 Search strategy** 

**1. Introduction** 

*Ageing Research Program, University of New South Wales* 

**Brain Training Trials** 

Chao Suo and Michael J. Valenzuela

