**5.2 Intracraneal recordings**

The use of local field potentials (LFP) and electrocorticography (ECoG) in patients with surgically implanted electrodes (Figure 6) have provided a recent, new pathway to study the spatiotemporal brain dynamics of cognition. Intracraneal recordings help to diagnose and treat neurological conditions, such as epilepsy, Parkinson's disease and tumors. LFP and ECoG are measures of direct brain activity that have better (combined) temporo-spatial resolution than any other human neuroscience method. The ERP assessment, together with evoked oscillatory activity, has provided important insights on working memory, episodic memory, language, face processing, consciousness and spatial cognition (Jacobs and Kahana, 2010; Lachaux et al., 2003).

Event-Related Potential Studies of Cognitive and Social Neuroscience 409

Fig. 7. ERP source estimation using distributed dipole modeling (N170 and fERN). A) N170 source imaging estimation of fusiform gyrus for faces, words and face-word simultaneous stimuli in controls (above) and patients (below) with ADHD. Average values of estimated, standardized current density power at maximum peaks of activation. B) Cortical current density mapping of valence and reward magnitude. The source estimation of distributed valence dipoles (fERN, left) and magnitude effects (P3, right) for controls, patients with ADHD and those with bipolar disorders (BD). Color-map values represent the t-values of comparisons between signal and noise. Modified from Ibanez et

have been developed, facilitating the combined use of both methods. For instance, ERP/fMRI co-recording allows an enhanced study of origins and locations of ERP neural generators. For example, the spatial (face-processing brain areas) and temporal brain dynamics (N170) of face processing in the human brain have been reported with this

al., Accepted, Submitted a.

methodology (Sadeh et al., 2008)

Fig. 6. Intracranial recordings. A) Grid of 63 electrodes for electrocorticography in a patient with refractory epilepsy. B) X-ray computed tomography (CT ) and C) MRI showing the electrode grid and deep electrodes for local field potentials. D) Intracranial EEG. E) iERP recordings of deviant (DEV, Blue) and standard (STA, Red) stimuli during a global-local oddball task. Selected electrodes demonstrated an N2 and P3 modulation at the frontal (above) and parieto-temporal sites (below).

### **5.3 Source location in dense arrays**

The current use of dense arrays of electrodes (from 64 to 256 channels) allows a better characterization of field potentials and improves the estimation of cortical brain sources, which generates the ERPs. The source estimation reduces the spatial imprecision of ERPs and links the temporal information with low-resolution anatomical measures. Important advances on parametric and non-parametric methods have been developed recently (Grech et al., 2008). Several engineering solutions of an inverse problem to find ERP sources using parametric and non-parametric approaches are available (e.g., LORETA, sLORETA, VARETA, S-MAP, ST-MAP, Backus-Gilbert, LAURA, SLF, SSLOFO and ALF; BESA, MUSIC and FINES). Methods of distributed sources (Figure 7), including biophysical and psychological constraints (e.g., LAURA), can produce more relevant results. Finally, principal-component analysis (PCA) and independent-component analysis (ICA) are now accessible for ERP source localization. The development of distributed EEG/MEG source analysis using statistical parametric mapping of MRI promises further advances in socialaffective neuroscience (e.g., Junghofer, Peyk, Flaisch and Schupp, 2006).

#### **5.4 FMRI-ERP simultaneous recordings**

FMRI provides a fine spatial resolution but measures indirect brain signatures (hemodynamic response) and has poor temporal resolution. ERPs are a direct measure of cortical activity but have poor spatial resolution. Combining fMRI and ERPs provides a spatial and temporal fine-ground resolution of cognitive brain activity (Gore, Horovitz, Cannistraci and Skudlarski, 2006). Recently, removal algorithms of fMRI artifacts on ERPs

Fig. 6. Intracranial recordings. A) Grid of 63 electrodes for electrocorticography in a patient with refractory epilepsy. B) X-ray computed tomography (CT ) and C) MRI showing the electrode grid and deep electrodes for local field potentials. D) Intracranial EEG. E) iERP recordings of deviant (DEV, Blue) and standard (STA, Red) stimuli during a global-local oddball task. Selected electrodes demonstrated an N2 and P3 modulation at the frontal

The current use of dense arrays of electrodes (from 64 to 256 channels) allows a better characterization of field potentials and improves the estimation of cortical brain sources, which generates the ERPs. The source estimation reduces the spatial imprecision of ERPs and links the temporal information with low-resolution anatomical measures. Important advances on parametric and non-parametric methods have been developed recently (Grech et al., 2008). Several engineering solutions of an inverse problem to find ERP sources using parametric and non-parametric approaches are available (e.g., LORETA, sLORETA, VARETA, S-MAP, ST-MAP, Backus-Gilbert, LAURA, SLF, SSLOFO and ALF; BESA, MUSIC and FINES). Methods of distributed sources (Figure 7), including biophysical and psychological constraints (e.g., LAURA), can produce more relevant results. Finally, principal-component analysis (PCA) and independent-component analysis (ICA) are now accessible for ERP source localization. The development of distributed EEG/MEG source analysis using statistical parametric mapping of MRI promises further advances in social-

FMRI provides a fine spatial resolution but measures indirect brain signatures (hemodynamic response) and has poor temporal resolution. ERPs are a direct measure of cortical activity but have poor spatial resolution. Combining fMRI and ERPs provides a spatial and temporal fine-ground resolution of cognitive brain activity (Gore, Horovitz, Cannistraci and Skudlarski, 2006). Recently, removal algorithms of fMRI artifacts on ERPs

affective neuroscience (e.g., Junghofer, Peyk, Flaisch and Schupp, 2006).

(above) and parieto-temporal sites (below).

**5.4 FMRI-ERP simultaneous recordings** 

**5.3 Source location in dense arrays** 

Fig. 7. ERP source estimation using distributed dipole modeling (N170 and fERN). A) N170 source imaging estimation of fusiform gyrus for faces, words and face-word simultaneous stimuli in controls (above) and patients (below) with ADHD. Average values of estimated, standardized current density power at maximum peaks of activation. B) Cortical current density mapping of valence and reward magnitude. The source estimation of distributed valence dipoles (fERN, left) and magnitude effects (P3, right) for controls, patients with ADHD and those with bipolar disorders (BD). Color-map values represent the t-values of comparisons between signal and noise. Modified from Ibanez et al., Accepted, Submitted a.

have been developed, facilitating the combined use of both methods. For instance, ERP/fMRI co-recording allows an enhanced study of origins and locations of ERP neural generators. For example, the spatial (face-processing brain areas) and temporal brain dynamics (N170) of face processing in the human brain have been reported with this methodology (Sadeh et al., 2008)

Event-Related Potential Studies of Cognitive and Social Neuroscience 411

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