Preface

The rate of technological progress is encouraging increasingly sophisticated lines of enquiry in cognitive neuroscience and shows no sign of slowing down in the foreseeable future. Nevertheless, it is unlikely that even the strongest advocates of the cognitive neuroscience approach would maintain that advances in cognitive *theory*  have kept in step with methods-based developments. There are several candidate reasons for the failure of neuroimaging studies to convincingly resolve many of the most important theoretical debates in the literature. For example, a significant proportion of published functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies are not well grounded in cognitive theory, and this represents a step away from the traditional approach in experimental psychology of methodically and systematically building on (or chipping away at) existing theoretical models using tried and tested methods. Unless the experimental study design is set up within a clearly defined theoretical framework, any inferences that are drawn are unlikely to be accepted as anything other than speculative. A second, more fundamental issue is whether neuroimaging data alone can address *how* cognitive functions operate (far more interesting to the cognitive scientist than establishing the neuroanatomical coordinates of a given function – the *where* question).

The classic neuropsychological tradition of comparing neurologically impaired and healthy populations shares some of the same challenges associated with neuroimaging research (such as incorporation of individual differences in brain structure and function, attribution of specific vs general functions to a given brain region, and the questionable assumption that the shared components operating in two tasks under comparison recruit the same neural architecture. However, a further disadvantage of functional neuroimaging relative to the neuropsychological approach is that it is a correlational method for inferring regional brain involvement in a given task – and interpretation of signal should always reflect this fact. Spatial resolution and sensitivity is improving with the commercial availability of ultra-high field human scanners, but a single voxel (the smallest unit of measurement) still corresponds to many thousands of individual neurons. Haemodynamic response to input is slow (in the order of seconds) and the relationship between this function and neural activity remains incompletely understood. Furthermore, choice of image preprocessing parameters can appear somewhat arbitrary and an obvious rationale for selection of statistical thresholds, correction for multiple corrections, etc. at the analysis stage can

#### X Preface

likewise be lacking in some studies. Therefore, to advance our knowledge about the neural bases of cognition, rigorous methodological control, well-developed theory with testable predictions, and inferences drawn on the basis of a range of methods is likely to be required.

Preface XI

Tedeschi and Esposito (Chapter 6) present an excellent consideration of the utility of measuring resting state networks (RSNs) in clinical populations using fMRI. Some authors have questioned whether systematic neuroimaging analysis of the resting state represents an appropriate context for advancing cognitive theory. Nevertheless, this review presents a highly compelling argument for studying RSNs (particularly when combined with MRI tractography) in order to enhance understanding of pathological mechanisms in a range of neurological conditions. Kanahara et al. (Chapter 7) focus their comprehensive review on single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and photon emission tomography (PET) studies of resting state blood flow and metabolism in a range of psychiatric conditions including schizophrenia, major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder and

Sleep deprivation is associated with a wide range of neurocognitive effects, but attention and other aspects of executive function appear particularly vulnerable. Kirov and Brand (Chapter 8) review evidence for the role of sleep in the regulation of cognitive functions, with particular focus on neuroimaging investigations. The distinction between vegetative state (VS) and minimally conscious state (MCS) is clearly expressed in the clinical literature. The former refers to a state of "wakeful unawareness" in which patients are awake, can open their eyes and produce basic orienting responses, but have a total loss of conscious awareness. MCS differs to the extent that patients with this diagnosis are able to produce cognitively mediated behavioural responses. From a clinical perspective however, the distinction can be very difficult and a number of recent neuroimaging studies have provided indirect evidence that some VS patients have been able to communicate answers to orally presented questions. This rather disturbing finding that such patients may be more aware than the clinicians (or family members) may realise is of profound clinical importance given the very different prognosis and treatments indicated in the two conditions. Marino et al. (Chapter 9) review the role of neuroimaging in improving our understanding of coma, VS and MCS while recognising the continuing importance of

Impulsive behavior is a major component of several neuropsychiatric disorders including schizophrenia, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), substance abuse, bipolar disorder, and borderline and antisocial personality disorders. The temporal, motor and reward related aspects of impulsiveness and decision-making are exemplified by the impulsive behaviors typically evident in ADHD and borderline personality disorder (BPD), with or without comorbidity. Archer and Bright (Chapter 10) consider the role of structural and functional neuroimaging for furthering our understanding of the cause and development of impulsivity in these conditions.

Marks and Katz (Chapter 11) carefully evaluate the potential role of MRI for establishing the nature of the relationship between exercise and the integrity (both physiological and cognitive) of the brain. The question of whether (and the extent to which) exercise can offset age-related cognitive decline is one which has attracted a

obsessive-compulsive disorder.

comprehensive standardised clinical assessment.

Triarhou (Chapter 1) provides a translation of Georg Koskinas' 1926 presentation to the Athens Medical Society in which the neuropsychiatrist described 107 cytoarchitectonically defined cortical areas (plus 60 "transition" areas) in the human brain. In comparison to Brodmann's (1909) universally recognised system (in which 44 cortical areas are defined), the von Economo and Koskinas system (published as an atlas and textbook in 1925) provided a fourfold increase in cortical specification. The author provides a compelling argument for more widespread adoption of von Economo and Koskinas' detailed criteria (commonly used in clinical neuroscience) in neuroimaging studies of human cognition.

Heterogeneity in brain structure and function across individuals is an important issue in neuroimaging research. Although attempts are made to manage such differences during stages of preprocessing and statistical analyses of datasets (as well as during the participant selection process), there can be a tendency to neglect the importance of individual differences due to the importance in the literature of identifying commonalities in the functioning of our brains. For example, it is quite common in fMRI studies to find participants who have relatively "silent" brains relative to others undertaking the same cognitive task. Age is a well recognised factor affecting brain structure and function, but the importance of cultural differences is relatively poorly understood. Goh and Huang (Chapter 2) present neuroimaging findings associated with age and cultural experience and also consider their interaction. Interestingly, research appears to suggest that culture-specific functional effects present in early adulthood are robust and remain in place despite subsequent age-related neurobiological change. Such observations also suggest that ageing effects in the brain may, in part, be contingent upon the nature of external experiences – raising clinical implications for modulating or offsetting neurocognitive changes associated with increasing age.

Danckert and Mirsattari (Chapter 3) consider the viability of fMRI studies of single neurological cases for furthering our understanding of brain-behaviour relationships. With careful attention to methodological issues, the authors present a strong argument for the single case approach (for both clinical and cognitive neuroscience purposes) in which comprehensive neuropsychological assessment and fMRI are employed and the results interpreted in the context of large-scale normative structural and functional MRI data. Chapter 4 (Martín-Loeches & Casado) provides a useful review of recent research on the neural correlates of human language and Chapter 5 (Yokoyama) considers whether (and the extent to which) brain regions responsible for core language processes can be dissociated from those responsible for more general cognitive processes associated with working memory and central executive function.

Tedeschi and Esposito (Chapter 6) present an excellent consideration of the utility of measuring resting state networks (RSNs) in clinical populations using fMRI. Some authors have questioned whether systematic neuroimaging analysis of the resting state represents an appropriate context for advancing cognitive theory. Nevertheless, this review presents a highly compelling argument for studying RSNs (particularly when combined with MRI tractography) in order to enhance understanding of pathological mechanisms in a range of neurological conditions. Kanahara et al. (Chapter 7) focus their comprehensive review on single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and photon emission tomography (PET) studies of resting state blood flow and metabolism in a range of psychiatric conditions including schizophrenia, major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder.

X Preface

likely to be required.

increasing age.

and central executive function.

neuroimaging studies of human cognition.

likewise be lacking in some studies. Therefore, to advance our knowledge about the neural bases of cognition, rigorous methodological control, well-developed theory with testable predictions, and inferences drawn on the basis of a range of methods is

Triarhou (Chapter 1) provides a translation of Georg Koskinas' 1926 presentation to the Athens Medical Society in which the neuropsychiatrist described 107 cytoarchitectonically defined cortical areas (plus 60 "transition" areas) in the human brain. In comparison to Brodmann's (1909) universally recognised system (in which 44 cortical areas are defined), the von Economo and Koskinas system (published as an atlas and textbook in 1925) provided a fourfold increase in cortical specification. The author provides a compelling argument for more widespread adoption of von Economo and Koskinas' detailed criteria (commonly used in clinical neuroscience) in

Heterogeneity in brain structure and function across individuals is an important issue in neuroimaging research. Although attempts are made to manage such differences during stages of preprocessing and statistical analyses of datasets (as well as during the participant selection process), there can be a tendency to neglect the importance of individual differences due to the importance in the literature of identifying commonalities in the functioning of our brains. For example, it is quite common in fMRI studies to find participants who have relatively "silent" brains relative to others undertaking the same cognitive task. Age is a well recognised factor affecting brain structure and function, but the importance of cultural differences is relatively poorly understood. Goh and Huang (Chapter 2) present neuroimaging findings associated with age and cultural experience and also consider their interaction. Interestingly, research appears to suggest that culture-specific functional effects present in early adulthood are robust and remain in place despite subsequent age-related neurobiological change. Such observations also suggest that ageing effects in the brain may, in part, be contingent upon the nature of external experiences – raising clinical implications for modulating or offsetting neurocognitive changes associated with

Danckert and Mirsattari (Chapter 3) consider the viability of fMRI studies of single neurological cases for furthering our understanding of brain-behaviour relationships. With careful attention to methodological issues, the authors present a strong argument for the single case approach (for both clinical and cognitive neuroscience purposes) in which comprehensive neuropsychological assessment and fMRI are employed and the results interpreted in the context of large-scale normative structural and functional MRI data. Chapter 4 (Martín-Loeches & Casado) provides a useful review of recent research on the neural correlates of human language and Chapter 5 (Yokoyama) considers whether (and the extent to which) brain regions responsible for core language processes can be dissociated from those responsible for more general cognitive processes associated with working memory Sleep deprivation is associated with a wide range of neurocognitive effects, but attention and other aspects of executive function appear particularly vulnerable. Kirov and Brand (Chapter 8) review evidence for the role of sleep in the regulation of cognitive functions, with particular focus on neuroimaging investigations. The distinction between vegetative state (VS) and minimally conscious state (MCS) is clearly expressed in the clinical literature. The former refers to a state of "wakeful unawareness" in which patients are awake, can open their eyes and produce basic orienting responses, but have a total loss of conscious awareness. MCS differs to the extent that patients with this diagnosis are able to produce cognitively mediated behavioural responses. From a clinical perspective however, the distinction can be very difficult and a number of recent neuroimaging studies have provided indirect evidence that some VS patients have been able to communicate answers to orally presented questions. This rather disturbing finding that such patients may be more aware than the clinicians (or family members) may realise is of profound clinical importance given the very different prognosis and treatments indicated in the two conditions. Marino et al. (Chapter 9) review the role of neuroimaging in improving our understanding of coma, VS and MCS while recognising the continuing importance of comprehensive standardised clinical assessment.

Impulsive behavior is a major component of several neuropsychiatric disorders including schizophrenia, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), substance abuse, bipolar disorder, and borderline and antisocial personality disorders. The temporal, motor and reward related aspects of impulsiveness and decision-making are exemplified by the impulsive behaviors typically evident in ADHD and borderline personality disorder (BPD), with or without comorbidity. Archer and Bright (Chapter 10) consider the role of structural and functional neuroimaging for furthering our understanding of the cause and development of impulsivity in these conditions.

Marks and Katz (Chapter 11) carefully evaluate the potential role of MRI for establishing the nature of the relationship between exercise and the integrity (both physiological and cognitive) of the brain. The question of whether (and the extent to which) exercise can offset age-related cognitive decline is one which has attracted a

#### XII Preface

wealth of dubious "research findings" reported in the popular press, and this well argued and balanced review is a very welcome addition to the literature.

Preface XIII

primarily display involuntary reflexes and reactions, evidence (based on habituationdishabituation procedures) indicates that the haptic system is able to detect regularities and irregularities in the shape or texture of different objects – and that the tactile knowledge newborns accrue about an object held in one hand is transferred to the other hand despite the immaturity of the corpus callosum. Interestingly, crossmodal transfer is not always bidirectional. For example, newborns appear unable to apply haptic perception to recognise a visually presented shape but they can visually recognise the shape of an object they have held in their hand. In contrast, intermodal transfer for texture does appear to be bi-directional between touch and vision. The authors review behavioural studies of infants and neuroimaging data in adults in order to address the interdependencies of the visual and haptic systems from a

Golaszewski et al. (Chapter 17) present a detailed overview of the somatosensory system, with particular focus on functional neuroimaging investigations. Principles and methods of somatosensory stimulation are discussed including practical considerations, clinical applications and safety issues. Chang et al. (Chapter 18) describe the process of oxidative stress caused by carbon monoxide intoxication and

Li et al. (Chapter 19) provide a very clearly written and beautifully illustrated introduction to the measurement of effective connectivity with fMRI, in which the functional influence of one or more spatially distributed brain areas on another brain area is modelled. The authors are careful to emphasise the importance of a rigorous theoretical background, tight error control, intuitive interpretation and acknowledgement of likely commonality as well as diversity in connectivity within

Until very recently, it is probably fair to suggest that the status of EEG as a tool for exploring human cognition had diminished, due in no small part to the staggering increase in fMRI based research published in leading journals in cognitive neuroscience and related fields over the past 10-15 years. However, such a diminution is unwarranted, because both approaches continue to offer outstanding and complementary opportunities for understanding the neural bases of cognition (while also presenting significant methodological and interpretative challenges). Many of the leading journals are now encouraging manuscript submissions incorporating multiple methods, and the simultaneous employment of EEG and fMRI has had important repercussions both for progressing cognitive theory and promoting advances in method. Ibanez et al. (Chapter 20) describe the role of event related potentials (ERPs), measured with EEG, for understanding the temporal dynamics of sensory, perceptual and cognitive activity and consider the importance of this method to the study of

Claims that "cognitive training" has a positive impact on structural and/or functional integrity of the brain are often raised in the media but are typically unsupported by

present nicely illustrated structural and functional neuroimaging features.

predominantly developmental perspective.

and across clinical and healthy populations.

social neuroscience.

Recent research suggests that synchronization of oscillatory phases across brain regions (measured by EEG and MEG) may provide the basis for goal-directed attentional allocation and working memory functions. Kawasaki (Chapter 12) presents two EEG investigations implicating the role of frontal theta oscillations in conditions requiring active manipulation of the contents of working memory and parietal alpha oscillations in simple maintenance of working memory contents. These findings complement recent claims in the literature about the hierarchical organization (and dissociation) of cognitive control mechanisms in the human brain.

It is now recognized that bipolar disorder (BD) is associated with reductions in grey matter volume, particularly in right prefrontal, insular and anterior temporal regions. Nevertheless, in their review of neuroimaging findings, Dell'Osso et al. (Chapter 13) reveal inconsistencies in the literature (particularly on MRI). Most neuroimaging studies of structural changes in BP have small sample sizes and may therefore lack the power to detect subtle effects relative to appropriately matched controls. While some very recent meta-analyses have sought to address this problem, the current chapter serves a useful reminder that neuropsychiatric conditions typically encompass heterogeneity in symptom severity and diversity and in the ratio of organic to psychosocial factors driving their expression.

Silvetti and Verguts (Chapter 14) consider the utility of biologically driven reinforcement learning models for clarifying our understanding of attention and executive functions. The literature highlights the importance of functional relationships between anterior cingulate cortex and basal ganglia in cognitive control, but arguably the framework in which such relationships are investigated is overly constrained. The authors suggest that neural Darwinism (which, in this context, predicts that a sensory state will be considered valuable only if it subsequently leads to another valuable state) provides a broader and more appropriate context for explaining adaptive behaviour.

Principles and applications of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) are presented by Bourdillon and Perrey (Chapter 15), with particular focus on the measurement of cerebral oxygenation during motor performance. The size and portability of fNIRS devices provides opportunities for enhancing ecological validity of research investigations (in comparison to the restrictive conditions of fMRI), but strength of inferences which can be drawn are limited by a range of potential confounds and the lack of a standardised approach to data analysis. Nevertheless, the authors convincingly demonstrate the utility of this approach, particularly for the mapping of exercise-related brain functions.

Streri and Gentaz (Chapter 16) provide a fascinating review of intermanual and intermodal transfer in newborns. In contrast to the long held view that newborns primarily display involuntary reflexes and reactions, evidence (based on habituationdishabituation procedures) indicates that the haptic system is able to detect regularities and irregularities in the shape or texture of different objects – and that the tactile knowledge newborns accrue about an object held in one hand is transferred to the other hand despite the immaturity of the corpus callosum. Interestingly, crossmodal transfer is not always bidirectional. For example, newborns appear unable to apply haptic perception to recognise a visually presented shape but they can visually recognise the shape of an object they have held in their hand. In contrast, intermodal transfer for texture does appear to be bi-directional between touch and vision. The authors review behavioural studies of infants and neuroimaging data in adults in order to address the interdependencies of the visual and haptic systems from a predominantly developmental perspective.

XII Preface

wealth of dubious "research findings" reported in the popular press, and this well

Recent research suggests that synchronization of oscillatory phases across brain regions (measured by EEG and MEG) may provide the basis for goal-directed attentional allocation and working memory functions. Kawasaki (Chapter 12) presents two EEG investigations implicating the role of frontal theta oscillations in conditions requiring active manipulation of the contents of working memory and parietal alpha oscillations in simple maintenance of working memory contents. These findings complement recent claims in the literature about the hierarchical organization (and

It is now recognized that bipolar disorder (BD) is associated with reductions in grey matter volume, particularly in right prefrontal, insular and anterior temporal regions. Nevertheless, in their review of neuroimaging findings, Dell'Osso et al. (Chapter 13) reveal inconsistencies in the literature (particularly on MRI). Most neuroimaging studies of structural changes in BP have small sample sizes and may therefore lack the power to detect subtle effects relative to appropriately matched controls. While some very recent meta-analyses have sought to address this problem, the current chapter serves a useful reminder that neuropsychiatric conditions typically encompass heterogeneity in symptom severity and diversity and in the ratio of organic to

Silvetti and Verguts (Chapter 14) consider the utility of biologically driven reinforcement learning models for clarifying our understanding of attention and executive functions. The literature highlights the importance of functional relationships between anterior cingulate cortex and basal ganglia in cognitive control, but arguably the framework in which such relationships are investigated is overly constrained. The authors suggest that neural Darwinism (which, in this context, predicts that a sensory state will be considered valuable only if it subsequently leads to another valuable state) provides a broader and more appropriate context for

Principles and applications of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) are presented by Bourdillon and Perrey (Chapter 15), with particular focus on the measurement of cerebral oxygenation during motor performance. The size and portability of fNIRS devices provides opportunities for enhancing ecological validity of research investigations (in comparison to the restrictive conditions of fMRI), but strength of inferences which can be drawn are limited by a range of potential confounds and the lack of a standardised approach to data analysis. Nevertheless, the authors convincingly demonstrate the utility of this approach, particularly for the

Streri and Gentaz (Chapter 16) provide a fascinating review of intermanual and intermodal transfer in newborns. In contrast to the long held view that newborns

argued and balanced review is a very welcome addition to the literature.

dissociation) of cognitive control mechanisms in the human brain.

psychosocial factors driving their expression.

explaining adaptive behaviour.

mapping of exercise-related brain functions.

Golaszewski et al. (Chapter 17) present a detailed overview of the somatosensory system, with particular focus on functional neuroimaging investigations. Principles and methods of somatosensory stimulation are discussed including practical considerations, clinical applications and safety issues. Chang et al. (Chapter 18) describe the process of oxidative stress caused by carbon monoxide intoxication and present nicely illustrated structural and functional neuroimaging features.

Li et al. (Chapter 19) provide a very clearly written and beautifully illustrated introduction to the measurement of effective connectivity with fMRI, in which the functional influence of one or more spatially distributed brain areas on another brain area is modelled. The authors are careful to emphasise the importance of a rigorous theoretical background, tight error control, intuitive interpretation and acknowledgement of likely commonality as well as diversity in connectivity within and across clinical and healthy populations.

Until very recently, it is probably fair to suggest that the status of EEG as a tool for exploring human cognition had diminished, due in no small part to the staggering increase in fMRI based research published in leading journals in cognitive neuroscience and related fields over the past 10-15 years. However, such a diminution is unwarranted, because both approaches continue to offer outstanding and complementary opportunities for understanding the neural bases of cognition (while also presenting significant methodological and interpretative challenges). Many of the leading journals are now encouraging manuscript submissions incorporating multiple methods, and the simultaneous employment of EEG and fMRI has had important repercussions both for progressing cognitive theory and promoting advances in method. Ibanez et al. (Chapter 20) describe the role of event related potentials (ERPs), measured with EEG, for understanding the temporal dynamics of sensory, perceptual and cognitive activity and consider the importance of this method to the study of social neuroscience.

Claims that "cognitive training" has a positive impact on structural and/or functional integrity of the brain are often raised in the media but are typically unsupported by empirical evidence (this, of course has not prevented unscrupulous companies marketing "brain training" exercises and devices to the unwary customer). In particular, where specific studies *have* been reported in the media, they typically fail to offer evidence that results generalise beyond a straightforward practice effect on the employed tasks. Suo and Valenzuela (Chapter 21) provide a welcome review of neuroimaging outcomes associated with brain training trials by selecting only those studies published in peer reviewed publications which meet established criteria for scientific rigour. Nevertheless, readers may remain sceptical about the likelihood that the reported effects (often based on quite limited training) reflect general and robust non-specific improvements in cognitive performance (rather than simply reflecting changes associated with task-specific practice), and this review effectively communicates the heterogeneity in methods and outcomes across studies. The authors provide a number of suggestions for improving the quality and standardisation of research designs, and the strength of the inferences that can be drawn.

EEG-biofeedback (EBF) is an approach used to encourage participants to modulate CNS arousal by responding to real-time representation or feedback about their own brain activity. Diaz et al. (Chapter 22) describe the efficacy of this method for treating attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and insomnia. While acknowledging considerable theoretical and methodological issues, not least concerning the validity of the method as an effective form of therapy, the authors outline a number of sensible procedural guidelines that are now being followed (particularly the use of confirmatory evidence derived from other methods). Well controlled studies are appearing in the literature, and these tend to suggest promising avenues for EBF therapy in the treatment of some clinical disorders affecting CNS arousal. Central pain is a debilitating condition resulting from lesion or disease involving the central somatosensory system. In central post-stroke pain (CPSP), which occurs in approximately 10% of stroke patients, thalamic nuclei are most frequently implicated in the mechanism of central pain. On the basis of their review of psychophysical and neuroimaging findings in CPSP, Cheng et al. (Chapter 23) suggest a more complex distributed network of cortical regions is involved in the mechanism of central pain.

> **Dr. Peter Bright** Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK

XIV Preface

empirical evidence (this, of course has not prevented unscrupulous companies marketing "brain training" exercises and devices to the unwary customer). In particular, where specific studies *have* been reported in the media, they typically fail to offer evidence that results generalise beyond a straightforward practice effect on the employed tasks. Suo and Valenzuela (Chapter 21) provide a welcome review of neuroimaging outcomes associated with brain training trials by selecting only those studies published in peer reviewed publications which meet established criteria for scientific rigour. Nevertheless, readers may remain sceptical about the likelihood that the reported effects (often based on quite limited training) reflect general and robust non-specific improvements in cognitive performance (rather than simply reflecting changes associated with task-specific practice), and this review effectively communicates the heterogeneity in methods and outcomes across studies. The authors provide a number of suggestions for improving the quality and standardisation of

EEG-biofeedback (EBF) is an approach used to encourage participants to modulate CNS arousal by responding to real-time representation or feedback about their own brain activity. Diaz et al. (Chapter 22) describe the efficacy of this method for treating attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and insomnia. While acknowledging considerable theoretical and methodological issues, not least concerning the validity of the method as an effective form of therapy, the authors outline a number of sensible procedural guidelines that are now being followed (particularly the use of confirmatory evidence derived from other methods). Well controlled studies are appearing in the literature, and these tend to suggest promising avenues for EBF therapy in the treatment of some clinical disorders affecting CNS arousal. Central pain is a debilitating condition resulting from lesion or disease involving the central somatosensory system. In central post-stroke pain (CPSP), which occurs in approximately 10% of stroke patients, thalamic nuclei are most frequently implicated in the mechanism of central pain. On the basis of their review of psychophysical and neuroimaging findings in CPSP, Cheng et al. (Chapter 23) suggest a more complex distributed network of cortical regions is involved in the mechanism of central pain.

**Dr. Peter Bright**

Cambridge,

UK

Anglia Ruskin University,

research designs, and the strength of the inferences that can be drawn.

**1** 

Lazaros C. Triarhou

 *Greece* 

*University of Macedonia, Thessaloniki* 

**Cytoarchitectonics of the Human** 

 **to the Athens Medical Society** 

 **by Georg N. Koskinas (1885–1975)** 

**Cerebral Cortex: The 1926 Presentation** 

The Greek neurologist-psychiatrist Georg N. Koskinas (1885–1975) is better known for his collaboration with Constantin von Economo (1876–1931) on the cytoarchitectonic study of the human cerebral cortex (von Economo & Koskinas, 1925, 2008). Koskinas seems to have been one of those classically unrecognised and unrewarded figures of science (Jones, 2008, 2010). Such an injustice has been remedied in part in recent years (Triarhou, 2005, 2006). The

Fig. 1. The Vienna General Hospital on the left, where Koskinas worked between 1916 and 1927 under the supervision of Julius Wagner von Jauregg (1857–1940) and Ernst Sträussler (1872–1959) (author's archive). The 1926 roster of the Vienna Society for Psychiatry and Neurology on the right, showing Koskinas as a regular member (Hartmann et al., 1926)

**1. Introduction** 
