**1. Introduction**

310 New Research on Knowledge Management Models and Methods

Wenger, E. & Snyder, W. (2000). Communities of Practice: The Organizational Frontier.

Wenger, E. (1998). *Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity*. Cambridge

*Harvard Business Review*, pp. 139-145, ISSN: 0017-8012.

University Press, ISBN-13: 978-0521663632, Cambridge.

Knowledge management has often been identified as an important challenge for sustained organizational success and as a prerequisite for the productivity and flexibility of corporate and non-corporate organizations. Due to the global interconnectedness of markets today, the scope and quality of individual employees' knowledge have taken their place alongside more traditional organizational resources such as work and capital. Knowledge of employees is considered as the most important knowledge source within organizations. Therefore, it is necessary to explicitly plan and manage the development, consolidation, representation and application of the knowledge of organizations and individuals to support a learning organization. Above all, knowledge communication between employees is essential for growth of learning. When employees share knowledge with other colleagues within their organization, that knowledge can become a source of competitive advantage (Solano, 2010). The issue is finding the colleagues within an organization who can provide the knowledge and skills needed in a given situation. This is particularly true in large organizations, such as an international corporation with geographically distributed departments. Within the domain of knowledge management, the problem of finding a suitable expert is usually solved with the help of expert finding systems such as company yellow pages or similar tools. This article presents a case study in a biotechnological company concerning the implementation of yellow pages. The implementation process included four phases. Phase 1 comprehends a knowledge management diagnosis, including a differentiated needs analysis concerning knowledge management domains. Phase 2 is concerned about the design and phase 3 is comprehends the realization of this intervention; and in phase 4 the rollout of the intervention takes place (Tarlatt, 2001; Winkler & Mandl, 2007).

#### **2. Knowledge management in organizations**

Especially in the global situation of competitive pressure, organizations acknowledge the importance of developing innovative concepts for using their own resources and existing synergies to have an optimum effect while simultaneously minimizing costs. Innovative knowledge generation and utilization in for-profit and non-profit organizations are essential for the future and therefore require an intelligent, responsible and human knowledge management.

Implementation Process of a Knowledge Management Initiative: Yellow Pages 313

dissemination, knowledge utilization, knowledge retention and knowledge evaluation and concludes with an evaluation of these processes. The evaluation serves as a basis for reformulating the knowledge goals (Probst et al., 2010). Nonaka and Takeuchi's (1997) knowledge spiral has also achieved widespread recognition. In this model, the processes of socialization, combination, externalization and internalization are described. These processes involve the transformation of implicit and explicit knowledge within

When examining each of these approaches more closely, it becomes clear that they are often quite complex to apply in practice or as Callaghan (2000) states "knowledge strategies are often inflexible and unable to cope with the emergent properties that characterize the complex and dynamic environments of the 'knowledge age'". In addition, most models do not allow for conclusions to be drawn about individual knowledge management processes. However, some aspects can be identified that are relevant both for individuals and organizations and which also integrate the process models that have been formulated to date. These relate to aspects of goal setting and evaluation, knowledge documentation, knowledge communication, knowledge generation and finally knowledge utilization, for example, as described in the Munich reference model of knowledge management

The aspect of knowledge documentation includes all methods and processes that can be implemented to make knowledge transparent. From an organizational perspective, databases, knowledge cards and strategies for the dissemination of information within an organization play a key role. From an individual perspective, it is possible to externally represent knowledge by using elaboration strategies that relate to internal representation and mapping techniques or other visualization techniques. The presentation of knowledge,

This aspect includes all processes and methods for sharing and disseminating knowledge. On an organizational level, these involve incentives and career structures that may be designed to promote or hinder the dissemination of knowledge. These processes may also involve the use of technical support tools such as, for example, the Intranet, E-mail or Business TV. On an individual level, it is important to consider the competence, motivation and volition of the knowledge communication. In this context, the organization also needs to train its employees in these key competence areas and must also offer structures that are likely to facilitate the communication of knowledge (e.g. through suggestion schemes or the relevant career paths). This illustrates that the communication of knowledge is a key element for linking the individual to the organization. Knowledge communication not only facilitates the circulation of information, but also leads to the generation of new knowledge.

In modern society, each organization must create competitive advantage through innovations, new ideas and products. Therefore, an organization that does not continue to develop and does not generate new knowledge will not be capable of surviving. Individual departments, such as pre-manufacturing, research and development, may often promote the generation of knowledge within the organization. Idea competitions or creativity workshops could also help to keep the organization flexible and innovative. For a "learning organization" it is important not to overlook the learning individual. From an individual

both internal and external, forms the basis for the communication of knowledge.

(Reinmann-Rothmeier et al., 2001; Mandl & Schnurer, 2007).

**Knowledge Documentation** 

**Knowledge Communication** 

**Knowledge Generation** 

organizations.

Among the precursors of knowledge management is the engineering approach, in which technology is of great importance. Even today, technologies are an integral part of modern knowledge management. Until now, most knowledge management strategies could be categorized under the approach of business administration. In this approach, especially organizational aspects are important, such as knowledge for business goals and strategies as well as the role of staff development for knowledge management.

Another approach, the recent line of development, is concerned with the psychological approach to knowledge management. Here a central role is given to human and its individual handling of knowledge through tools and strategies (Reinmann & Mandl 2010). Finally knowledge management has a social logical sense, covering topics such as knowledge society, organization development and system theories.

In connection to these approaches, knowledge management is referred to as the systematic and reasoned dealing of knowledge concerning economic, employment or human resources. Dealing means both the supply and design of frameworks, methods and technical tools as well as the optimization of technical, organizational and mental processes (Reinmann & Mandl 2010, p. 1050). In this sense, human, organization and technology together form the three key components of knowledge management, considering also the relation to society (Mandl, 2010; Reinmann-Rothmeier & Mandl, 2000).


#### **2.1 Knowledge management models**

Knowledge management models are intended to support knowledge and decision-making processes by depicting "actions that are intended to result in anticipated business outcomes; and actions that emerge as a result of the many complex activities that are undertaken within an organization" (Callaghan, 2000). Knowledge management models can represent goals, measures, structures, and processes to provide roadmaps for how to document, communicate, generate and utilize knowledge. They have useful functions such as providing a framework amongst the multitude of possible knowledge management methods and tools and helping to prevent unreflective practice. Models also act as a potential anchor for knowledge to analyze issues in organizations and act as a starting point for organization-specific knowledge management concepts and their implementation or help to highlight the ultimate integrative role of knowledge management to better coordinate different tasks (Reinmann, 2009).

Several diverse models have been developed to conceptually describe the processes involved with knowledge management. One of the most well known models is the model of the Geneva School. This model is based on setting goals relative to the individual processes of knowledge identification, knowledge acquisition, knowledge development, knowledge dissemination, knowledge utilization, knowledge retention and knowledge evaluation and concludes with an evaluation of these processes. The evaluation serves as a basis for reformulating the knowledge goals (Probst et al., 2010). Nonaka and Takeuchi's (1997) knowledge spiral has also achieved widespread recognition. In this model, the processes of socialization, combination, externalization and internalization are described. These processes involve the transformation of implicit and explicit knowledge within organizations.

When examining each of these approaches more closely, it becomes clear that they are often quite complex to apply in practice or as Callaghan (2000) states "knowledge strategies are often inflexible and unable to cope with the emergent properties that characterize the complex and dynamic environments of the 'knowledge age'". In addition, most models do not allow for conclusions to be drawn about individual knowledge management processes. However, some aspects can be identified that are relevant both for individuals and organizations and which also integrate the process models that have been formulated to date. These relate to aspects of goal setting and evaluation, knowledge documentation, knowledge communication, knowledge generation and finally knowledge utilization, for example, as described in the Munich reference model of knowledge management (Reinmann-Rothmeier et al., 2001; Mandl & Schnurer, 2007).

#### **Knowledge Documentation**

312 New Research on Knowledge Management Models and Methods

Among the precursors of knowledge management is the engineering approach, in which technology is of great importance. Even today, technologies are an integral part of modern knowledge management. Until now, most knowledge management strategies could be categorized under the approach of business administration. In this approach, especially organizational aspects are important, such as knowledge for business goals and strategies as

Another approach, the recent line of development, is concerned with the psychological approach to knowledge management. Here a central role is given to human and its individual handling of knowledge through tools and strategies (Reinmann & Mandl 2010). Finally knowledge management has a social logical sense, covering topics such as

In connection to these approaches, knowledge management is referred to as the systematic and reasoned dealing of knowledge concerning economic, employment or human resources. Dealing means both the supply and design of frameworks, methods and technical tools as well as the optimization of technical, organizational and mental processes (Reinmann & Mandl 2010, p. 1050). In this sense, human, organization and technology together form the three key components of knowledge management, considering also the relation to society




Knowledge management models are intended to support knowledge and decision-making processes by depicting "actions that are intended to result in anticipated business outcomes; and actions that emerge as a result of the many complex activities that are undertaken within an organization" (Callaghan, 2000). Knowledge management models can represent goals, measures, structures, and processes to provide roadmaps for how to document, communicate, generate and utilize knowledge. They have useful functions such as providing a framework amongst the multitude of possible knowledge management methods and tools and helping to prevent unreflective practice. Models also act as a potential anchor for knowledge to analyze issues in organizations and act as a starting point for organization-specific knowledge management concepts and their implementation or help to highlight the ultimate integrative role of knowledge management to better

Several diverse models have been developed to conceptually describe the processes involved with knowledge management. One of the most well known models is the model of the Geneva School. This model is based on setting goals relative to the individual processes of knowledge identification, knowledge acquisition, knowledge development, knowledge

framework that will facilitate the management of knowledge resources.

based processes in an efficient and user-friendly manner.

well as the role of staff development for knowledge management.

knowledge society, organization development and system theories.

(Mandl, 2010; Reinmann-Rothmeier & Mandl, 2000).

continuous learning.

**2.1 Knowledge management models** 

coordinate different tasks (Reinmann, 2009).

The aspect of knowledge documentation includes all methods and processes that can be implemented to make knowledge transparent. From an organizational perspective, databases, knowledge cards and strategies for the dissemination of information within an organization play a key role. From an individual perspective, it is possible to externally represent knowledge by using elaboration strategies that relate to internal representation and mapping techniques or other visualization techniques. The presentation of knowledge, both internal and external, forms the basis for the communication of knowledge.

#### **Knowledge Communication**

This aspect includes all processes and methods for sharing and disseminating knowledge. On an organizational level, these involve incentives and career structures that may be designed to promote or hinder the dissemination of knowledge. These processes may also involve the use of technical support tools such as, for example, the Intranet, E-mail or Business TV. On an individual level, it is important to consider the competence, motivation and volition of the knowledge communication. In this context, the organization also needs to train its employees in these key competence areas and must also offer structures that are likely to facilitate the communication of knowledge (e.g. through suggestion schemes or the relevant career paths). This illustrates that the communication of knowledge is a key element for linking the individual to the organization. Knowledge communication not only facilitates the circulation of information, but also leads to the generation of new knowledge.

#### **Knowledge Generation**

In modern society, each organization must create competitive advantage through innovations, new ideas and products. Therefore, an organization that does not continue to develop and does not generate new knowledge will not be capable of surviving. Individual departments, such as pre-manufacturing, research and development, may often promote the generation of knowledge within the organization. Idea competitions or creativity workshops could also help to keep the organization flexible and innovative. For a "learning organization" it is important not to overlook the learning individual. From an individual

Implementation Process of a Knowledge Management Initiative: Yellow Pages 315

developed considering various situations, influences and conditions of different

In the following section, an implementation process is presented which relies primarily on the model of Tarlatt (2001) and Kremer (2003). The implementation process comprises four main phases that complement each other. Phase 1 involves a knowledge management diagnosis, including a differentiated needs analysis concerning knowledge management domains. Phase 2 is concerned about the design and phase 3 is concerned about the realization of the intervention. In phase 4, the rollout of the intervention takes place (Tarlatt,

organizations to ensure a successful implementation process.

Fig. 1. Implementation process of knowledge management intervention

Before implementing a knowledge management intervention, it is fundamental to analyze the specific needs for such a system and to make sure that there are appropriate context conditions with regards to content, organizational and technical aspects. Based on a vision (e.g. optimization of business processes), a diagnosis of knowledge management problems should be realized. The diagnosis should take the Munich knowledge management model into consideration with its four dimensions of knowledge documentation, communication, generation and utilization. There are different methodological approaches (interviews, questionnaire) to analyze needs. The target group of respondents should include managers and employees as well as the general organizational conditions to make the actual situation visible and to clarify the desired goals for formulating goal settings for potential

In this context, it is evident that a comprehensive procedure for a purposeful and acceptance-oriented implementation must precede the introduction of the intervention. This procedure should concentrate on the needs of the end user in order to actually contribute to the optimization of their business processes. Based on the diagnosis, management makes decisions taking into account the order of priority concerning the analyzed needs as well as the financial, technical and personal resources. In addition, management should retain the business case providing the implementation project with its first written framework. The business case describes the vision of the organization concerning knowledge management, the results of the needs analysis and its goal settings as well as the detailed decision-making concerning one concrete knowledge management intervention. Concerning the knowledge

**3.1 Phase 1: Knowledge management diagnosis** 

interventions (see figure 2).

2001; Winkler & Mandl, 2007) (see figure 1).

perspective, it is the goal of optimal knowledge generation to create knowledge structures that allow knowledge to be transferred to other contexts and used in a flexible manner. In the sense of knowledge management, this means that the organization must create structures that allow for the most practice-based learning possible within the organization.

#### **Knowledge Utilization**

Only knowledge that has been previously represented, communicated and generated can be applied in practice, either at an organizational level through concrete products or services or on an individual level when applying acquired knowledge. Alone the fact that knowledge has been represented, communicated or acquired does not guarantee its application. In knowledge management models to date, knowledge utilization has been of rather undifferentiated significance. Some practice reports and empirical studies to date (Bullinger et al., 1998) have concluded that problems in implementing knowledge management are mainly due to problems with knowledge utilization. Despite this fact, there are rarely concrete instruments or strategies provided for the effective and targeted utilization of knowledge.

In a manner similar to the model of Probst et al. (2010), partial processes are initiated through setting a goal and are completed with an evaluation.

Unfortunately, the above-mentioned knowledge management models do not provide a framework of how knowledge management can be implemented in concrete business and production processes. Above all, we must emphasize that knowledge management is not one unitary vacuum that can be implemented adhoc, but that projects must emerge concerning specific knowledge management interventions and strategies which foster the idea of knowledge management by being sub-processes. Introducing knowledge management interventions, strategies or even innovations in organizations is seldom unproblematic. In many cases, the purpose of introducing a new concept, such as a knowledge management initiative, is unclear, too abstract or too generally formulated. Consequently, newly developed tools are often doomed to failure from the outset. This is either due to the fact that there is no adequate target group for utilization or it fails to win the intended users' acceptance. One reason is that many innovations do not meet the actual needs of employees (Akhavan et al., 2005 & Chua & Lam, 2005).

To overcome these shortcomings, there is a need for a systematic implementation process to ensure the sustainable acceptance and utilization of knowledge management initiatives.
