**2. Forerunners of knowledge governance**

During the "ruling decades" (1975-2005) of knowledge management, every innovative approach, dealing with the "knowledge domain" was introduced as a fruitful contribution to the mainstream knowledge management literature. Then again some of them had more complex scope and abstraction level, but their alternative classification became possible only in the last few years, identifying them as early attempts to find broader and more comprehensive framework. We have to start with the short review of these pioneer approaches and models1.

 1 Part 2-3 is a slightly modified version of our papers with Nikunj Dalal. (Dalal & Z. Karvalics, 2009, 2011)

Transcending Knowledge Management, Shaping Knowledge Governance 221

have official hierarchic regulatory structures. Rather, while they may share some characteristics with markets and hierarchies, they are more likely to have informal practices of coordination, common goals or interests, and transaction mechanisms based on attributes such as trust and recommendations rather than prices or administrative orders (Thompson, 2003). Knowledge networks provide an effective coordination mechanism for creating, sharing, and distributing knowledge within and across organizations as well as in specialized domains such as cancer and climate change. Policy networks may be seen as special types of knowledge networks in the political domain which attempt to relate private

Knowledge asset management views knowledge as an organization's intellectual capital (Boisot, 1998) and as a strategic asset. This view attempts to combine process-centric approaches that views knowledge management as a set of communication processes and the product-centric approach that focuses on the documents, creation, and reuse. In the early knowledge management literature, the knowledge market was generally described as a mechanism for distributing knowledge resources between providers and users. It was Albert Simard, who developed a cyclic end-to-end knowledge-market model (Simard, 2006). The model is based on nine stages: generate, transform, manage, use internally, transfer, add value, use professionally, use personally, and evaluate. The latest (third generation) vision of knowledge markets is even more ambitious: It views knowledge markets as formal or informal community contexts, platforms, or environments (real or virtual) used to promote knowledge commerce, trade and exchange, demand and supply, between knowledge buyers and sellers. They are used to organize, coordinate, aggregate, facilitate, communicate, broker, and network flows and exchanges of knowledge between knowledge

Many recent approaches have begun to recognize that the focus on mere knowledge is not enough. Many organizational and societal crises are crises not because of a lack of information, knowledge or other resources but because of greed, lack of values, and a dearth of wisdom. While wisdom has been a focus of philosophical and religious traditions since antiquity, only in recent times are we seeing attempts to understand wisdom from an organizational science perspective. Combining the notions of wisdom, communities of practice, and networks, Nikunj Dalal has proposed the vision of wisdom networks as communities that aim to actualize and inculcate wisdom in specific domains (Dalal, 2008). Wisdom networks are involved in inquiry of key issues in a domain, the creation and dissemination of wisdom-based learning, counseling, participation in community initiatives,

It was Thomas H. Davenport, one of the "founding fathers" of Knowledge Management who has successfully introduced the concept and described the "activity portfolio" of the Chief Knowledge Officer (CKO), fertilizing the discussion about the "knowledge leadership" of an organization (Davenport, 1994). Michael J. Earl and Ian I. Scott created a well-itemized tipology of the CKO's, as integrator and synchronizators of all the relevant

**2.5 Knowledge asset management and knowledge markets** 

seekers and knowledge providers (Davis, 2007).

and in building linkages with other wisdom networks.

**2.6. Wisdom management** 

**2.7 Chief knowledge officers** 

and public actors.

#### **2.1 Management cybernetics**

Stafford Beer was the first to apply cybernetics to management in the 1960s, calling it the "science of effective organization". Management cybernetics focuses on the study of organizational design, and the regulation and self-regulation of organizations from a systems theory perspective (Beer, 1985). Beer's viable system model (VSM) can be used to study different aspects of knowledge management in an individual, organization or network and to model knowledge processes dynamically over time with the goal of improving the organizational systems (Leonard, 2000). Management cybernetic approaches have led to the transformation of organizations particularly of public bodies such as governments and the advancement of new forms of governance.
