**3.1.1 Renewable energy generation**

The bulk of the rural population in Africa have no access to electricity. According to World Economic Outlook (2010), only 14% of sub-Saharan African has access to electricity. It is thus estimated that 582 million rural people in sub-Saharan Africa did not have access to electricity in 2009 (World Economic Outlook, 2010). North Africa is an exception because 98.4% of rural population is electrified and only 2 million did not have access to electricity in 2009 (World Economic Outlook, 2010). Biogas is a potential off-grid, clean energy fuel solution for rural areas of Africa (Amigun and von Blottnitz, 2010), that can provide energy services such as cooking, heating and lighting.

## **3.1.2 Environmental benefits**

Fuel wood consumption is often portrayed as a cause of environmental degradation, and may lead to energy insecurity for rural African households, especially where the resource is

Anaerobic Biogas Generation for Rural Area Energy Provision in Africa 51

health problems caused by the smoke inherent to traditional ways of cooking and heating, particularly open fires include: sneezing, nausea, headache, dizziness, eye irritation and respiratory illnesses (Onguntoke et al., 2010). Biogas improves health of the rural people by providing a cleaner cooking fuel thus avoiding these health problems. Women and children have the greatest risk of these health problems and children under 5 years are at high risk of contracting acute respiratory illnesses such as, pneumonia. Often, the rural population are also faced with lack of sanitation, resulting in water borne diseases affecting mainly women and children. Operating a biogas plant implies that manure is directly fed to the plant

As indicated in Table 3, there are some digesters have been installed in a number of sub-Saharan Africa. These have mainly been pilot or demonstration projects aimed at testing the technical viability of small-scale biogas technology at a limited scale (Hivos, 2009a). These pilot projects have mostly been funded by non-governmental organizations and built for health clinics, schools, and small-scale farmers. While the small-scale biogas plants are located throughout Africa, only a few of them are operational (Parawira, 2009). There is also limited documentation on whether the existing biogas digesters have been successful in achieving the benefits highlighted in section 3.1. Some country specific examples is Tanzania, Ivory Cost and Burundi, which have produced biogas from animal and human waste using the Chinese fixed-dome digester and the Indian floating-cover digester (Omer and Fadalla, 2003). These have not been reliable and in many cases, poor performance has been reported (Omer and Fadalla, 2003). Thus, the plants have only operated for a short period due to poor technical quality (Mshandate and Parawira,

Currently, a number of different organizations are establishing biogas initiatives in Africa, particularly in rural areas, in order to supply cleaner burning energy solutions. These initiatives are at different stages of development such as: prefeasibility, feasibility, design and implementation to a limited extent. For instance, Burkard (2009) reports on five biogas case studies in Kenya which were to utilize agricultural leaves, residues from floriculture, and residues from vegetable production and canning. In 2010, it was reported that the Dutch government was to spend 200 million Kenyan Shilling to set up 8000 biogas digesters throughout the country. The initiative was targeting farmers practising zero grazing (Daily Nation, 2010). Similar projects are being implemented in Ethiopia, Uganda, Senegal, Burkina Faso, and Tanzania. There are also some other initiatives such as biogas for better life, which is at various stages of biogas development in Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Sudan, Zambia, Malawi, South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, Mali, Senegal, and Ghana1. The Netherland Development Organization (SNV) has been supporting the development of National Biogas programmes in East Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda) and West Africa (Senegal and Burkina Faso)2. While there are few documented successful small-scale biogas plants in the rural areas of Africa, this section will present some selected country specific

keeping the kitchen smoke free and farmyard cleaner.

2009).

biogas projects.

1 http://www.biogasafrica.org/

2 http://www.snvworld.org/en/ourwork/Pages/Renewable%20Energy.aspx

**3.2 Lesson from some biogas initiatives (case studies) in Africa** 

commercialized (Hiemstra-van der Horst and Hovorka, 2009). The high dependence on woodfuel in the sub-Saharan Africa has resulted in an alarming rate of tree felling and deforestation (cited in United Nations Economic and Social Council, 2007). According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (2011), nearly half of the forest loss in Africa is due to removal of wood fuel. The estimated deforestation rate in Africa is twice the world rate (AfriNews, 2008). More than 15 million hectares of tropical forests are depleted or burnt every year in order to provide for small-scale agriculture or cattle ranching or for use as fuel wood for heating and cooking (United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, 2004). Some alarming and worrying deforestation facts in Africa include (AfriNews, 2008): loss of over 90% of West Africa's original forest - currently, only a small proportion remains; between 1980 and 1995, an area of 1.1 million ha was cleared every year; only one tree is replanted for every 28 trees cut down. In Uganda where 90% of the population lives in rural areas and directly depends on land for cultivation and grazing, forestland has shrunk dramatically. In Nigeria, it is feared that the country will be left without forest due to the present level of deforestation activities.

Forests are required in order to build a resilient natural ecosystem as they moderate climate, act as water reservoirs and are habitat to wildlife. The loss of ground cover due to deforestation thus results in secondary problems such as exposing the soil to erosion during heavy rainfall, flooding, increased evaporation, drought, and increase in the greenhouse gas emissions. Familiar country specific example is the recent frequent droughts and floods experienced in East African countries, particularly Kenya, Somali, Uganda and Ethiopia, that have been associated with deforestation (IRIN, 2006; Mekonnen, 2006). Similarly, the declining rainfall in the West African countries is also attributed to deforestation. The use of alternative energy such as biogas has a potential to reduce the demand for wood and charcoal use, hence reducing greenhouse gas emissions improving water quality, conserving of resources - particularly trees and forests - and producing wider macroeconomic benefits to the nation (Amigun and Blottnitz, 2010) due to reduced deforestation. In addition, the slurry and waste from the biogas plants provides a high quality fertiliser that can be used to improve the soil fertility and increase productivity in agriculture dependent rural communities in Africa.

#### **3.1.3 Improving quality of life in rural areas**

The use of biogas has a potential improve the quality of life in the rural areas through reduced drudgery in women and children, reduced indoor smoke, improved sanitation and better lighting (Amigun and Blottnitz, 2011). Wood fuel gathering is a hard and time consuming duty for women. For instance, it is estimated that women can spend 2-6 hours in collecting wood fuel (DFID, 2002) depending on the country and region. For instance, one study in Limpopo, South Africa found that the rural women spend 5-6 hours (Masekoameng et al., 2005), while another study in a different region of South Africa report that the women spend over two hours. This takes away time that could be better utilized in other productive activities such as income generation or education particularly for girls who have to be absent from school to undertake such task. Biogas plants thus can help in reducing the workload of women and girls in collecting firewood.

Burning traditional fuel releases smoke which contains toxic pollutants such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and particulate matter (Smith et al., 2005). Some of the prevalent

commercialized (Hiemstra-van der Horst and Hovorka, 2009). The high dependence on woodfuel in the sub-Saharan Africa has resulted in an alarming rate of tree felling and deforestation (cited in United Nations Economic and Social Council, 2007). According to the United Nations Environmental Programme (2011), nearly half of the forest loss in Africa is due to removal of wood fuel. The estimated deforestation rate in Africa is twice the world rate (AfriNews, 2008). More than 15 million hectares of tropical forests are depleted or burnt every year in order to provide for small-scale agriculture or cattle ranching or for use as fuel wood for heating and cooking (United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, 2004). Some alarming and worrying deforestation facts in Africa include (AfriNews, 2008): loss of over 90% of West Africa's original forest - currently, only a small proportion remains; between 1980 and 1995, an area of 1.1 million ha was cleared every year; only one tree is replanted for every 28 trees cut down. In Uganda where 90% of the population lives in rural areas and directly depends on land for cultivation and grazing, forestland has shrunk dramatically. In Nigeria, it is feared that the country will be left without forest due to the

Forests are required in order to build a resilient natural ecosystem as they moderate climate, act as water reservoirs and are habitat to wildlife. The loss of ground cover due to deforestation thus results in secondary problems such as exposing the soil to erosion during heavy rainfall, flooding, increased evaporation, drought, and increase in the greenhouse gas emissions. Familiar country specific example is the recent frequent droughts and floods experienced in East African countries, particularly Kenya, Somali, Uganda and Ethiopia, that have been associated with deforestation (IRIN, 2006; Mekonnen, 2006). Similarly, the declining rainfall in the West African countries is also attributed to deforestation. The use of alternative energy such as biogas has a potential to reduce the demand for wood and charcoal use, hence reducing greenhouse gas emissions improving water quality, conserving of resources - particularly trees and forests - and producing wider macroeconomic benefits to the nation (Amigun and Blottnitz, 2010) due to reduced deforestation. In addition, the slurry and waste from the biogas plants provides a high quality fertiliser that can be used to improve the soil fertility and increase productivity in agriculture dependent rural

The use of biogas has a potential improve the quality of life in the rural areas through reduced drudgery in women and children, reduced indoor smoke, improved sanitation and better lighting (Amigun and Blottnitz, 2011). Wood fuel gathering is a hard and time consuming duty for women. For instance, it is estimated that women can spend 2-6 hours in collecting wood fuel (DFID, 2002) depending on the country and region. For instance, one study in Limpopo, South Africa found that the rural women spend 5-6 hours (Masekoameng et al., 2005), while another study in a different region of South Africa report that the women spend over two hours. This takes away time that could be better utilized in other productive activities such as income generation or education particularly for girls who have to be absent from school to undertake such task. Biogas plants thus can help in

Burning traditional fuel releases smoke which contains toxic pollutants such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and particulate matter (Smith et al., 2005). Some of the prevalent

present level of deforestation activities.

communities in Africa.

**3.1.3 Improving quality of life in rural areas** 

reducing the workload of women and girls in collecting firewood.

health problems caused by the smoke inherent to traditional ways of cooking and heating, particularly open fires include: sneezing, nausea, headache, dizziness, eye irritation and respiratory illnesses (Onguntoke et al., 2010). Biogas improves health of the rural people by providing a cleaner cooking fuel thus avoiding these health problems. Women and children have the greatest risk of these health problems and children under 5 years are at high risk of contracting acute respiratory illnesses such as, pneumonia. Often, the rural population are also faced with lack of sanitation, resulting in water borne diseases affecting mainly women and children. Operating a biogas plant implies that manure is directly fed to the plant keeping the kitchen smoke free and farmyard cleaner.
