**4. Effect of chitosan on the performance of UASB treating fruit-processing wastewater**

According to Kaseamchochoung et al. (2006), chitosan with 85%DD and MW of 3.5x105 Da yielded the highest flocculation efficiency and versatility to changes in environmental pH and ionic strength.

Lertsittichai et al. (2007) studied the efficiency of chitosan in a UASB reactor treating tropical fruit-processing industry wastewater. The details of their study were as follows. The fruit canning factory wastewater consisted mainly of sugar. The wastewater characteristics were: COD 5,130 to 5,520 mg/L, volatile fatty acid (VFA) 703 to 1,834 mg/L, pH 5 to 6 and ionic strength of 0.028 to 0.036 M.

Two identical UASB reactors with a working volume of 30 L were employed for the comparative study. The startup period was operated at a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 85 hours, corresponding to an organic loading rate (OLR) of 1.45 g COD/L·d. Chitosan at a concentration of 2 mg/g suspended solids was added to the reactor on the second day and the same amount was added on the 37th operating day. The HRT of both reactors were reduced in a stepwise fashion, at 85, 65, 45, and 35 hours, when the COD removal was higher than 80% for at least 3 times the HRT.

Throughout the operation of the process, the OLR values ranged from approximately 1 to 4 g COD/L·d. Lertsittichai et al. (2007) found that the UASB with chitosan addition gave 9 to 59% lower COD effluent and had a 4 to 10% higher removal efficiency than the control UASB. The low VFA values corresponded to high biogas production because VFA is an intermediate for methane production. The UASB with chitosan addition gave a lower VFA value and a 35% higher biogas production rate than the control (Fig. 5).

Effluent VSS refers to biomass washout. Lertsittichai et al. (2007) found that the biomass washout increased during the initial operation period of both reactors. After 35 days, the biomass washout decreased due to granule formation. The biomass washout from the UASB with chitosan addition was 16 to 68% lower than that from the control. The UASB with chitosan addition was found to consistently have 24 to 37% higher average particle sizes than the control, corresponding to the lower biomass washout.

In addition to pH, ionic strength of a medium is also a major factor affecting flocculation. Kaseamchochoung et al. (2006) investigated the effect of ionic strength on flocculation by chitosan of high (0.1 M) and low (0.01 M) ionic strength. At pH 7, ionic strength did not signficantly influence the pattern of flocculation by chitosan M70 and the flocculation remained at approximately 95%. In contrast, at pH 5, chitosan M70 performed significantly better in the high-ionic-strength medium. Under the low ionic strength condition, the flocculation dropped from approximately 95% to 45% (Fig. 4). A possible explanation for the effect of salt was obtained from classical theories of colloidal stability (Strand et al., 2001). The extension of the double layer, which causes electrostatic repulsion between charged colloids and the range of repulsion forces, decreases with increasing ionic strength in the surrounding medium. Therefore, bacterial cells should be able to come closer and thus

**4. Effect of chitosan on the performance of UASB treating fruit-processing** 

According to Kaseamchochoung et al. (2006), chitosan with 85%DD and MW of 3.5x105 Da yielded the highest flocculation efficiency and versatility to changes in environmental pH

Lertsittichai et al. (2007) studied the efficiency of chitosan in a UASB reactor treating tropical fruit-processing industry wastewater. The details of their study were as follows. The fruit canning factory wastewater consisted mainly of sugar. The wastewater characteristics were: COD 5,130 to 5,520 mg/L, volatile fatty acid (VFA) 703 to 1,834 mg/L, pH 5 to 6 and ionic

Two identical UASB reactors with a working volume of 30 L were employed for the comparative study. The startup period was operated at a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 85 hours, corresponding to an organic loading rate (OLR) of 1.45 g COD/L·d. Chitosan at a concentration of 2 mg/g suspended solids was added to the reactor on the second day and the same amount was added on the 37th operating day. The HRT of both reactors were reduced in a stepwise fashion, at 85, 65, 45, and 35 hours, when the COD removal was

Throughout the operation of the process, the OLR values ranged from approximately 1 to 4 g COD/L·d. Lertsittichai et al. (2007) found that the UASB with chitosan addition gave 9 to 59% lower COD effluent and had a 4 to 10% higher removal efficiency than the control UASB. The low VFA values corresponded to high biogas production because VFA is an intermediate for methane production. The UASB with chitosan addition gave a lower VFA

Effluent VSS refers to biomass washout. Lertsittichai et al. (2007) found that the biomass washout increased during the initial operation period of both reactors. After 35 days, the biomass washout decreased due to granule formation. The biomass washout from the UASB with chitosan addition was 16 to 68% lower than that from the control. The UASB with chitosan addition was found to consistently have 24 to 37% higher average particle sizes

value and a 35% higher biogas production rate than the control (Fig. 5).

than the control, corresponding to the lower biomass washout.

flocculate better in a high ionic strength medium.

**wastewater** 

and ionic strength.

strength of 0.028 to 0.036 M.

higher than 80% for at least 3 times the HRT.

Fig. 5. Biogas production against time (from Lertsittichai et al., 2007). R1 is the control UASB reactor and R2 is the reactor with chitosan addition. Reprinted with permission from *Water Environment Research*. Volume 79, No. 7, pp. 802 to 806, Copyright © 2007 Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, Virginia.

In addition, Lertsittichai et al. (2007) found that the UASB with chitosan addition consistently had a 6 to 41% longer solids retention time (SRT) than the control corresponding to a lower effluent VSS and a higher average particle size. The VSS from the bottom sampling ports of the UASB with chitosan addition was higher than that of control, leading to greater overall sludge density. From their observations, Lertsittichai et al. (2007) concluded that chitosan helped sludge pellet development. They gave the possible explanation that the cell surfaces of bacteria carry negative charges, and the electrostatic interactions between them are repulsive. Therefore, a cationic polymer, such as chitosan, assists the flocculation of the bacteria leading to faster sludge formation and a higher density of sludge retained in the reactor.

Overall, Lertsittichai et al. (2007) used only small amounts of chitosan (two injections with 2 mg chitosan/g suspended solids at each injection). They saw no sign of inhibition to biomass activity. Throughout the course of their experiment at a mesophilic temperature (35oC), the UASB with chitosan addition clearly showed superior performance to the reactor without chitosan, with 9 to 59% lower effluent COD, 4 to 10% higher COD removal, up to 35% higher biogas production rate, and decreased washout of biomass and increased granular size.
