**11.1 On-farm availability of manure**

Huge quantities of manure are produced on farms. In fact a cattle farming operation which has a herd size of 10,000 animals can on a daily basis generate wastes equal to that produced by a city of half a million residents. Considering cattle for instance reported values of daily manure production range from 10kg (VITA, 1980) to 60kg (Safley Jr, et al., 1985) per animal. Legg (1990) reports that the 8.5, 28, 6.9 and 104 million cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry reared in England and Wales produced 80, 11, 11, and 30 million tonnes of manure respectively for the year immediately preceding. Smith and Chambers (1998) noted that manure arising from dairy beef farming comprise the majority (73 million tonnes) of the 90 million tonnes

Potentials of Selected Tropical Crops and Manure as Sources of Biofuels 25

cattle waste, the 2:1 mixing ratio produced the most biogas. The paper therefore recommended a livestock wastes: water mixing ratio of 3:1 for poultry and piggery slurries, and 2:1 for cattle slurry for maximum biogas production from methane-generating systems,

After the anaerobic digestion of manure to produce biogas, a nutrient-rich substrate which is still very beneficial to plants remains. This observation is supported by the findings of Thomsen (2000). These studies agree that only small differences of between 0.5 and 2.0% are usually measurable in the aggregate nutrient concentrations when digested manure is compared to the undigested form. Adelekan et al., (2010) did a comparative study of the effects of undigested and anaerobically digested poultry manure and conventional inorganic fertilizer on the growth characteristics and yield of maize at Ibadan, Nigeria. The pot experiment consisted of sixty (60) nursery bags, set out in the greenhouse. The treatments, thoroughly mixed with soil, were: control (untreated soil), inorganic fertilizer, (NPK 20:10:10) applied at the 120 kgN/ha; air-dried undigested and anaerobically digested manure applied at 12.5 g/pot, or 25.0 g/pot or 37.5 g/pot, and or 50.0 g/pot. Plant height, stem girth, leaf area, number of leaves at 2, 4, 6 and 8 weeks after planting (WAP) and stover mass and grain yield were measured. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) at P ≤ 0.05 was used to further determine the relationships among the factors investigated. Generally, results in respect of plants treated with digested manure, were quite comparable with those treated with undigested manure and inorganic fertilizer, right from 2WAP to 6WAP. Stover yield was increased to as much as 1.58, 1.65 and 2.07 times by inorganic fertilizer, digested and undigested manure, respectively while grain yields were increased by only 200% with inorganic fertilizer, but by up to 812 and 933% by digested and undigested manure, respectively. The paper concluded that digested poultry manure enhanced the growth characteristics of the treated plants for the maize variety used. As observed, the order of grain yield was undigested manure > digested manure > inorganic fertilizer. These results agree with those reported by Agbede et al., (2008) for sorghum (*Sorghum vulgare*), Akanni (2005) for tomato (*Lycopersicon esculentum*) and Adenawoola and Adejoro (2005) for jute

Organic manures play a direct role in plant growth as a source of all necessary macro and micronutrients in available forms during mineralization. Thereby, they improve both the physical and physiological properties of soil (El Shakweer et al., 1998; Akanni, 2005), thus enhancing soil water holding capacity and aeration (Kingery et al., 1993; Abou el Magd et al., 2005; Agbede et al., 2008). Organic manures decompose to give organic matter which plays an important role in the chemical behavior of several metals in soil through the fulvic and humic acid contents which have the ability to retain metals in complex and chelate forms (Abou el Magd et al., 2006). They release nutrients rather slowly and steadily over a longer period and also improve soil fertility status by activating soil microbial biomass (Ayuso et al., 1996; Belay et al., 2001). They thus, ensure a longer residual effect (Sherma and Mittra, 1991), support better root development and this leads to higher crop yields (Abou el Magd et al., 2005). Improvement of environmental conditions and public health as well as the need to reduce cost of fertilizing crops are also important reasons for advocating increased use of organic manures (Seifritz, 1982). While the practice of anaerobic digestion

given 30% TS content.

(*Corchorus olitorus* L).

**11.3 Potential of digested manure as a fertilizer** 

annual animal production of livestock manure in the UK. Yet another estimate, Smith et al., (2001) reported that 4.4 million tonnes of poultry manure are produced annually in the UK; comprising about 2.2 million broiler litter, 0.3 million tonnes of turkey litter, 1.5 million tonnes of layers manure (i.e. from egg producing hens) and 0.4 million tonnes from other sources (mainly breeding hens, cocks, and ducks). Total manure production from pigs in England and Wales is estimated to be about 10.03 million tonnes per year with about 45% as slurry and 55% as farmyard manure (Smith et.al., 2001).

The yearly production of livestock wastes in the Netherlands is estimated to be about 10 million tonnes dry matter (De Boer, 1984). The paper noted that 75 to 80% of it is ruminant waste while the rest is attributed to manure from pig and poultry. Specifically in the case of Nigeria, reported values of animal waste production range from 144 million tonnes/year (Energy Commission of Nigeria, 1998) to 285.1 million tonnes/year (Adelekan, 2002). This huge production of manure from farms can constitute a threat to the environment since it may not be readily returned to or in fact absorbed by land for fertilization. The challenge is how to find effective uses for the livestock wastes out of which the production of biofuels is an attractive option.

#### **11.2 Biogas production from manure**

Manure continues to be a promising resource for biogas production. Chynoweth et al. (1993) suggested potential biogas production from cattle waste, buffalo waste, piggery waste, chicken waste and human excreta as 0.360, 0.540, 0.180, 0.011 and 0.028 m3 kg-1. The right mixing ratio of slurry can further increase the quantity of gas which can be produced from any particular feedstock. Adelekan and Bamgboye (2009b) investigated the effect of mixing ratio of slurry on biogas productivity of wastes from poultry birds, pigs and cattle. The investigation was carried out using 9 Nos. 220-litre batch type anaerobic digesters designed to remove CO2, H2S and other soluble gasses from the system. Freshly voided poultry, piggery, and cattle wastes were collected from livestock farms at the Institute of Agricultural Research and Training (IAR&T), Moor Plantation, Ibadan, Nigeria. After being totally freed of foreign matter, the samples were well stirred and digested in a 3x3 factorial experiment using a retention period of 30 days and within the mesophilic temperature range. The waste: water mixing ratios of slurry used were 1:1, 2:1 and 3:1 by mass. Three replicates were used for each ratio. Biogas yield was significantly (p < 0.05) influenced by the various factors of animal waste (F=86.40, P< 0.05), different water mixing rates (F=212.76, P< 0.05) and the interactions of both factors (F=45.91, P< 0.05). Therefore, biogas yield was influenced by variations in the mixing ratios as well as the waste types used. The 1:1 mixing ratio of slurry resulted in biogas productions of 20.8, 28.1, and 15.6 l/kgTS for poultry, piggery and cattle wastes respectively. The 2:1 ratio resulted in 40.3, 61.2 and 35.0l/kgTS while the 3:1 ratio produced 131.9, 117.0 and 29.8l/kgTS of biogas respectively. Therefore an increasing trend was observed in biogas production as mixing ratio changed from 1:1 to 3:1. For cattle waste however, production decreased from ratio 2:1 to ratio 3:1. The N, P, K values were highest for poultry waste (3.6, 2.1, and 1.4% respectively) and least for cattle waste (2.2, 0.6, 0.5% respectively). Organic carbon was highest for cattle waste (53.9%) and least for poultry waste (38.9%). Reduction in C/N ratio for each experiment ranged from 1.1 to 1.9%. This study found that for poultry and piggery wastes, slurries mixed in ratios 3:1 waste:water produced more biogas than those of 2:1 and 1:1 ratios. For cattle waste, the 2:1 mixing ratio produced the most biogas. The paper therefore recommended a livestock wastes: water mixing ratio of 3:1 for poultry and piggery slurries, and 2:1 for cattle slurry for maximum biogas production from methane-generating systems, given 30% TS content.
