**3.1 Methane production from FVW**

Evaluation of the feasibility of producing methane from fruit and vegetable waste (FVW) was performed in two different stages: an initial stage with different conditions for high biogas and methane yields and VS removal evaluated in batch experiments. The evaluation

Biogas Production and

0

0.2

0.4

**VS Removal percentage (%); Biogas Productivity (m3/kgVS)**

0.6

0.8

1

Cleanup by Biofiltration for a Potential Use as an Alternative Energy Source 121

Inculated Systems Systems without inoculum addition

Fig. 1. VS removal percentage (%/100); Biogas productivity in m3/kgVS; (○) Final pH obtained for different conditions evaluated in the batch systems. I, FVW inoculated with cow manure (10%); IN, FVW inoculated and supplemented with NH4Cl as a nitrogen source; IpH FVW inoculated and salts added (buffer) to control pH; IpHN, FVW inoculated, buffering salts, and NH4Cl added; WI, FVW without inoculation (Control); WIN, FVW and NH4Cl; WIpH, FVW and buffering salts; and WIpHN, FVW buffering salts and NH4.

Inoculated IN IpH IpHN WI (FVW) WIN WIpH WIpHN CD (FVW:MR)

0

1

2

3

**Final pH**

4

5

6

7

**System**

Similar conditions were obtained by the codigestion of a mixture of FVW and meat residues (obtained from meat packaging operations at the same market). The meat residues (MR) provide a high nitrogen concentration, and protein hydrolysis could result in natural pH control due to NH4 production. For the codigestion system of FVW and MR, the highest biogas yield of 0.9 m3/kgVS (methane yield of 0.45 m3/KgVS) was observed, reaching an

The feasibility of an anaerobic digestion process using FVW and MR was then evaluated in a 30 L ADR system. To determine the effect of MR addition on biogas and methane production, experiments were carried out using different MR proportions. The biogas productivity and methane percentages obtained under different conditions after 130 days of

Modified from Garcia-Peña et al., 2011.

organic matter degradation of 93% (Figure 1).

operation are presented in Table 1.

of the anaerobic digestion process in a fed-batch mode and the feasibility of the long operation time under stable conditions were determined in a second stage of the project.

The design and efficient operation of an anaerobic digestion system can be determined by establishing the physical and chemical characteristics of the organic waste and the culture conditions, which have an effect on biogas production and process stability of the system. The residue mixture used as feedstock was composed of products most frequently and consistently sold in the market (i.e., excluding seasonal products). The FVW mixture (equal proportions of each residue, w/w) showed a total solid (TS) content of approximately 73-100 g/Kg waste (approximately 10%), a pH of 4, and a moisture content of 90% (Garcia-Peña et al., 2011). The FVW had a higher soluble carbohydrate content (only contained fruits and vegetables and did not include a source of protein), a high moisture content, and could be considered a highly degradable substrate. These properties make it an ideal candidate for CH4 production.

Since the FVW is highly degradable, large amounts of volatile fatty acids (VFA) are produced and a rapid acidification of the system could inhibit the biological activity of the methanogens. Some reports have demonstrated that pH control is one of the most important parameters in achieving high biogas production (Mata-Alvarez 1992, Bouallagui et al., 2005). Additionally, as mentioned above, the FVW contains no nitrogen source. Some experiments were also performed to evaluate the effect of adding a nitrogen source, considering that an adequate C/N ratio is necessary to enhance the anaerobic digestion process. Different conditions were thus tested to optimize biogas and methane production using FVW, including buffered and nitrogen supplemented systems with and without inoculation.

Figure 1 shows the data obtained for TS removal, biogas production (m3/kgVS) and final pH under the evaluated conditions. As an overall result, the inoculation, pH control and nitrogen source addition all had positive effects on VS reduction and biogas yield. Higher degradation percentages of approximately 86 % of the initial total volatile solid (tVS) were obtained in the inoculated and pH-regulated system (IpH) as well as in the inoculated, pHregulated and nitrogen-added system (IpHN) in a 28-day culture. Higher VS removal was correlated with higher biogas production. The highest biogas production (0.42 m3/kgVS) was obtained in the inoculated system with pH control and nitrogen addition (IpHN), reaching a VS removal percentage of 86%.

Lower biogas productions of 0.15 m3/kgVS and 0.08 m3/kgVS were measured in the systems without inoculum (WIpH and WIpHN) and had correspondingly low VS removals of 42 and 34%, respectively.

The results suggested a correlation of pH with biogas productivity, with higher productivity occurring at pH values close to the optimum pH of 7. Methane production (approximately 45-53+0.5% v/v in the biogas mixture) only occurred in the inoculated systems, with the highest methane percentage (53 %, v/v) observed for the IpHN system.

Biogas and CH4 production were in the range (0.16-0.47 m3/kgVS) of those reported by other authors for anaerobic digestion processes using FVW as a feedstock (Rajeshwari et al., 1998, Alvarez 2004, Mata-Alvarez et al., 1992; Boullagui et al., 2003). In the inoculated systems, both nitrogen addition and pH control had positive influences on biogas production. Therefore, these conditions should be used to produce the maximum amount of methane from FVW.

of the anaerobic digestion process in a fed-batch mode and the feasibility of the long operation time under stable conditions were determined in a second stage of the project.

The design and efficient operation of an anaerobic digestion system can be determined by establishing the physical and chemical characteristics of the organic waste and the culture conditions, which have an effect on biogas production and process stability of the system. The residue mixture used as feedstock was composed of products most frequently and consistently sold in the market (i.e., excluding seasonal products). The FVW mixture (equal proportions of each residue, w/w) showed a total solid (TS) content of approximately 73-100 g/Kg waste (approximately 10%), a pH of 4, and a moisture content of 90% (Garcia-Peña et al., 2011). The FVW had a higher soluble carbohydrate content (only contained fruits and vegetables and did not include a source of protein), a high moisture content, and could be considered a highly degradable substrate. These properties make it an ideal candidate for

Since the FVW is highly degradable, large amounts of volatile fatty acids (VFA) are produced and a rapid acidification of the system could inhibit the biological activity of the methanogens. Some reports have demonstrated that pH control is one of the most important parameters in achieving high biogas production (Mata-Alvarez 1992, Bouallagui et al., 2005). Additionally, as mentioned above, the FVW contains no nitrogen source. Some experiments were also performed to evaluate the effect of adding a nitrogen source, considering that an adequate C/N ratio is necessary to enhance the anaerobic digestion process. Different conditions were thus tested to optimize biogas and methane production using FVW, including buffered and nitrogen supplemented systems with and without inoculation.

Figure 1 shows the data obtained for TS removal, biogas production (m3/kgVS) and final pH under the evaluated conditions. As an overall result, the inoculation, pH control and nitrogen source addition all had positive effects on VS reduction and biogas yield. Higher degradation percentages of approximately 86 % of the initial total volatile solid (tVS) were obtained in the inoculated and pH-regulated system (IpH) as well as in the inoculated, pHregulated and nitrogen-added system (IpHN) in a 28-day culture. Higher VS removal was correlated with higher biogas production. The highest biogas production (0.42 m3/kgVS) was obtained in the inoculated system with pH control and nitrogen addition (IpHN),

Lower biogas productions of 0.15 m3/kgVS and 0.08 m3/kgVS were measured in the systems without inoculum (WIpH and WIpHN) and had correspondingly low VS removals

The results suggested a correlation of pH with biogas productivity, with higher productivity occurring at pH values close to the optimum pH of 7. Methane production (approximately 45-53+0.5% v/v in the biogas mixture) only occurred in the inoculated systems, with the

Biogas and CH4 production were in the range (0.16-0.47 m3/kgVS) of those reported by other authors for anaerobic digestion processes using FVW as a feedstock (Rajeshwari et al., 1998, Alvarez 2004, Mata-Alvarez et al., 1992; Boullagui et al., 2003). In the inoculated systems, both nitrogen addition and pH control had positive influences on biogas production. Therefore, these conditions should be used to produce the maximum amount of

highest methane percentage (53 %, v/v) observed for the IpHN system.

CH4 production.

reaching a VS removal percentage of 86%.

of 42 and 34%, respectively.

methane from FVW.

Fig. 1. VS removal percentage (%/100); Biogas productivity in m3/kgVS; (○) Final pH obtained for different conditions evaluated in the batch systems. I, FVW inoculated with cow manure (10%); IN, FVW inoculated and supplemented with NH4Cl as a nitrogen source; IpH FVW inoculated and salts added (buffer) to control pH; IpHN, FVW inoculated, buffering salts, and NH4Cl added; WI, FVW without inoculation (Control); WIN, FVW and NH4Cl; WIpH, FVW and buffering salts; and WIpHN, FVW buffering salts and NH4. Modified from Garcia-Peña et al., 2011.

Similar conditions were obtained by the codigestion of a mixture of FVW and meat residues (obtained from meat packaging operations at the same market). The meat residues (MR) provide a high nitrogen concentration, and protein hydrolysis could result in natural pH control due to NH4 production. For the codigestion system of FVW and MR, the highest biogas yield of 0.9 m3/kgVS (methane yield of 0.45 m3/KgVS) was observed, reaching an organic matter degradation of 93% (Figure 1).

The feasibility of an anaerobic digestion process using FVW and MR was then evaluated in a 30 L ADR system. To determine the effect of MR addition on biogas and methane production, experiments were carried out using different MR proportions. The biogas productivity and methane percentages obtained under different conditions after 130 days of operation are presented in Table 1.

Biogas Production and

for new cell synthesis (Garcia-Peña et al 2011).

sulfate accumulation at the same time.

loading was 144 g/m3h.

gaseous stream (approximately 10 ppmv) reached 99%.

**3.2 H2S elimination from the biogas stream using a biofiltration system** 

A characterization of the three potential biofilter packing materials was performed. The highest water retention capacity (WRC) was found in vermiculite (65%), while the WRC for lava rock was 15%. Although vermiculite showed a higher WRC, lava rock favored water irrigation, which ensured that the desired moisture level was maintained and avoided

The acetic, propionic, butyric and valeric acid could also be present in the biogas stream, their assimilation was determined in batch experiments. The biodegradation of different loadings of acetic and propionic acids as individual substrates were also evaluated in the lava rock biofilter as it as previously described elsewhere (Ramirez-Saenz et al., 2009).

As the MR proportion increased in the ADS, the H2S concentration in the biogas stream also increased. The biodegradation of H2S was determined in the lava rock biofilter under two different empty-bed residence times (EBRT). Results for H2S elimination capacity as a function of H2S inlet loading in the lava rock biofilter, operated at 85 sec and 31 sec EBRT, are depicted in Figure 2. As shown in Figure 2A, at an EBRT of 85 sec, the relationship between the inlet loading and the elimination capacity was linear, and the critical H2S elimination capacity defined by Devinny et al., 1999 (i.e., deviation from the 100% removal capacity) was not yet reached at an inlet loading of 144 g/m3h. Under these operation conditions, the removal efficiency of H2S for loadings between 36 and 144 g/m3h was always above 98 %. Furthermore, the EC reached a maximum of 142 g/m3h when the H2S

For an EBRT of 31 sec (Figure 2B), the H2S elimination capacity was found to be linear with respect to H2S inlet loading up to 200 g/m3h (100% removal efficiency). A higher inlet loading of 300 g/m3h reduced the removal efficiency in the system to 85 %. An inlet loading of 400 g/m3h (corresponding to 3000 ppmv) caused the removal efficiency to drop to 75%, which suggested inhibition of biological activity and/or insufficient mass transfer. In this case, the critical H2S EC was 200 g/m3h, whereas a maximum H2S EC value of 232 g/m3h was achieved in the biofilter. At the same time, however, the removal of VFAs present in the

Cleanup by Biofiltration for a Potential Use as an Alternative Energy Source 123

bicarbonate alkalinity was equal to the moles of NH4 according to the stoichiometric equation for methanogenesis of an organic mixture (carbohydrates and proteins) (Garcia-Peña et al 2011). Additionally, at stable and at long operation times the CO2 percentage was lower than those obtained during the start-up of the ADS. The required alkalinity was 3445 mg/L, while an alkalinity as CaCO3 of 4804.6 mg/L was calculated under the experimental conditions (i.e., 70% removal efficiency and an initial substrate concentration of 50 gCOD) using the stoichiometric equation for an organic mixture of carbohydrates and protein (50:50) (Garcia-Peña et al, 2011). This total alkalinity value was high enough to avoid a possible acidification of the Anaerobic Digestion System (ADS), and the high buffering capacity allowed stable operation without external control. The increase in methane production after the 80th day of operation could have resulted from an increase in the methanogenic population and its adaptation to the operating conditions of the ADS. The high VS removal, the increased methane yield, and the natural pH control during the stable period of the ADS was due to an adequate ratio of nutrients and the availability of proteins


Table 1. Biogas production, VS removal and methane production during the start-up of the ADS. a average, b biogas was composed mainly of CO2 and CH4, with the remaining biogas percentage (v/v) accounted for by CO2.

In the first stage, no methane was observed in the biogas effluent, thus biogas production resulted from the hydrolysis of the easily degradable components of the feedstock. After 20 days of operation, the anaerobic digestion reactor (ADR) was inoculated with (13 %, v/v cow manure) and a new, strong biological activity was observed. In this period, the CH4 content in the biogas was 16 % (v/v) due to the initial activity of the methanogenic population introduced into the ADR with the inoculum. The methane percentage increased from 16 to 30% (v/v) as the proportion of MR (50:50) increased. When steady state was reached (after 80 days of operation) with a 75:25 mixture of FVW and MR, the CH4 percentage was stable at 53 ± 2 %, and the pH was stable at 6.9 ± 0.5 (naturally regulated during this last stage of the process).

For the next stage (on the 70th day of operation), a 50:50 mixture of FVW:MR was added and the CH4 percentage recovered to 30%. Once stable operation was achieved after 83 days, the biogas production showed a constant value of approximately 0.25 m3/kgVS and a methane percentage of 53%, corresponding to a methane production of 0.135 m3/kgVS and a VS removal of 78%. The reactor was regularly fed with a 75:25 mixture of FVW:MR. Under these conditions, the CH4 percentage was stable at 53 ± 2 %, and the pH was stable at 6.9 ± 0.5.

An appropriate buffering capacity and a highly stable experimental system were observed with Organic Loading Rates (OLRs) in the range of 2.4 to 2.7 g COD/L day (Hydraulic Retention Times (HRT) in the range of 15–20 days). The natural pH regulation during the stable operation of the ADS was a result of NH3 release from protein hydrolysis. The results could also be explained as an effect of the alkalinity in the system. At normal percentages of CO2 in the digester gas, between 25 and 45%, a total alkalinity of at least 500 to 900 mg/L is required to keep the pH above 6.5. Higher CO2 partial pressure makes alkalinity requirements larger (Rittmann and McCarty, 2001). When the meat residues were introduced into the ADS, the alkalinity started to increase considering that the moles of

VS removal (%)

Methane (%)b

Methane production (m3/kgTS)

Biogas production (m3/kgVS)

Start-up 0-19 1.03 89 0 0 Inoculation 20-43 0.64 81 16 0.10 75:25 43-55 0.5 70 28 0.14 50:50 55-64 0.4 73 30 0.12 100:0 64-76 0.24 80 14 0.033 50:50 76-83 0.2 75 30 0.06 75:25 83-130 0.25a 78 53 0.135

operation 0.4 65 63 0.252

Table 1. Biogas production, VS removal and methane production during the start-up of the ADS. a average, b biogas was composed mainly of CO2 and CH4, with the remaining biogas

In the first stage, no methane was observed in the biogas effluent, thus biogas production resulted from the hydrolysis of the easily degradable components of the feedstock. After 20 days of operation, the anaerobic digestion reactor (ADR) was inoculated with (13 %, v/v cow manure) and a new, strong biological activity was observed. In this period, the CH4 content in the biogas was 16 % (v/v) due to the initial activity of the methanogenic population introduced into the ADR with the inoculum. The methane percentage increased from 16 to 30% (v/v) as the proportion of MR (50:50) increased. When steady state was reached (after 80 days of operation) with a 75:25 mixture of FVW and MR, the CH4 percentage was stable at 53 ± 2 %, and the pH was stable at 6.9 ± 0.5 (naturally regulated

For the next stage (on the 70th day of operation), a 50:50 mixture of FVW:MR was added and the CH4 percentage recovered to 30%. Once stable operation was achieved after 83 days, the biogas production showed a constant value of approximately 0.25 m3/kgVS and a methane percentage of 53%, corresponding to a methane production of 0.135 m3/kgVS and a VS removal of 78%. The reactor was regularly fed with a 75:25 mixture of FVW:MR. Under these conditions, the CH4 percentage was stable at 53 ± 2 %, and the pH was stable at 6.9 ± 0.5.

An appropriate buffering capacity and a highly stable experimental system were observed with Organic Loading Rates (OLRs) in the range of 2.4 to 2.7 g COD/L day (Hydraulic Retention Times (HRT) in the range of 15–20 days). The natural pH regulation during the stable operation of the ADS was a result of NH3 release from protein hydrolysis. The results could also be explained as an effect of the alkalinity in the system. At normal percentages of CO2 in the digester gas, between 25 and 45%, a total alkalinity of at least 500 to 900 mg/L is required to keep the pH above 6.5. Higher CO2 partial pressure makes alkalinity requirements larger (Rittmann and McCarty, 2001). When the meat residues were introduced into the ADS, the alkalinity started to increase considering that the moles of

Time of operation (days)

percentage (v/v) accounted for by CO2.

during this last stage of the process).

Current

bicarbonate alkalinity was equal to the moles of NH4 according to the stoichiometric equation for methanogenesis of an organic mixture (carbohydrates and proteins) (Garcia-Peña et al 2011). Additionally, at stable and at long operation times the CO2 percentage was lower than those obtained during the start-up of the ADS. The required alkalinity was 3445 mg/L, while an alkalinity as CaCO3 of 4804.6 mg/L was calculated under the experimental conditions (i.e., 70% removal efficiency and an initial substrate concentration of 50 gCOD) using the stoichiometric equation for an organic mixture of carbohydrates and protein (50:50) (Garcia-Peña et al, 2011). This total alkalinity value was high enough to avoid a possible acidification of the Anaerobic Digestion System (ADS), and the high buffering capacity allowed stable operation without external control. The increase in methane production after the 80th day of operation could have resulted from an increase in the methanogenic population and its adaptation to the operating conditions of the ADS. The high VS removal, the increased methane yield, and the natural pH control during the stable period of the ADS was due to an adequate ratio of nutrients and the availability of proteins for new cell synthesis (Garcia-Peña et al 2011).
