**4. Overview of biogas production**

Biomass is basically used as fuel, fertilizer, and feed. One fact which is evident in the literature is that the use of biomass, particularly livestock manure as fertilizer and feed has not grown with the continuously increasing rate of production of the manure itself. For instance, Wadman et al., (1987) pointed out that in the Netherlands, the total production of manure from housed cattle (during the winter period only) pigs, poultry, and fattening calves increased from 10 tonnes/ha in 1950 to 26 tonnes/ha in 1982. Neeteson and Wadman (1990) observed that within that same period however in the same country, the need to use animal manures as fertilizers decreased due to the widespread adoption of cheap inorganic fertilizers. These inorganic fertilizers have a number of advantages over manure namely; their composition is known, they are easier to store, transport, and apply and have a more predictive effect on crop growth than manures. Therefore, livestock manure was increasingly regarded as a waste product rather than a fertilizer.

The situation reported for the United Kingdom is another example. Using agricultural census data, Smith and Chambers (1993) estimated that around 190 million tonnes of livestock excreta per year are produced on U.K farms. Some 80 million tonnes of this is

Potentials of Selected Tropical Crops and Manure as Sources of Biofuels 5

The major disadvantage however is that they produce a mixture of gaseous products that must be upgraded to methane and are only economic at larger scales. Biological processes on the other hand, have the major advantages of producing biogas composed primarily of methane and carbon dioxide with traces of hydrogen sulfide, and are also low – temperature processes which are economical at a variety of scales. Biomass gasification is a process in which solid fuels are broken down by the use of heat to produce a combustible gas (Foley and Barnard, 1985). Fuels that can be gasified include wood, charcoal, coal, and a variety of other organic materials. In the sense used in this chapter, gasification should be distinguished from biogas production which uses wet organic feed stock and works by means of microbial action. Biological processes of biogas production may be aerobic (Evans and Svoboda, 1985) or anaerobic (Voermans, 1985). However, because of the high cost of aerobic processes particularly as regards the provision of energy to sustain the processes, anaerobic processes are preferred. As noted by Voermans (1985) biogas is the main purpose of anaerobic digestion and it comprises 55–70% CH4; 30–45% CO2, water vapor, and 0.0–

Biomass represents a continuously renewable potential source of biogas and other biofuels and thus is certainly an option to inevitable fossil fuel depletion. Biogas can be economically converted to methane at facilities ranging from smallholder utility equipments to large scale plants and therefore can be tailored to supply rural and urban gas needs as well as meet regional and nationwide energy demands. According to Shoemaker and Visser (2000), the composition of biogas produced by anaerobic digestion as compared to natural gas is given in Table 2. It is readily seen from the table that overall, biogas is of a better quality than natural gas and possesses much less potential for polluting the environment. Biogas

However, the present potential of biofuels to enhance energy security is limited. Globally, the huge volume of biofuels required to substitute for fossil fuels is beyond the present overall capacity of global agriculture. For example in the year 2006/2007, the United States used 20 percent of its maize harvest for ethanol production, which replaced only three percent of its petrol consumption (World Bank, 2008). The possibility of more significant displacement of fossil fuels should be possible with second and third generation biofuels.

Component Natural gas (%) Biogas (%) CH4 85 50-80 CO2 0.89 20-45 C2H6 2.85 - C3H8 0.37 - C4H10 0.14 - N2 14.32 - O2 <0.5 - H2S <0.5 0-1.5 NH3 - 0-0.45

0.5% H2S Anaerobic digestion is brought about in anaerobic digesters.

**5. Biofuels for the production of energy** 

therefore constitutes a good alternative to natural gas.

Table 2. Compositions of Natural Gas and Biogas by Volume

collected in buildings and yards where they are stored and hopefully applied to land later. However, land application of all the collected manure has not always been possible over the years. Chalmers (2001) in a review of fertilizer, lime and organic manure use on farms in Great Britain noted that the proportion of UK land receiving organic manures remained at 16% for tillage cropping but increased slightly for grassland, from a mean of 40% in 1983- 1987 to 44% in 1993–1997. Just as in the case of the Netherlands referred to previously, livestock manure produced on UK farms constituted a burden since land application of all of it was increasingly impossible. Against the background that Netherlands used as an example has 5, 95, and 14 millions of cattle, poultry, birds, and pigs respectively, implications for other countries which have higher livestock populations are quite significant.

The option of using livestock manure as fuel merits closer investigations for its evident biogas–generation potential. Heltberg et al., (1985) pointed out that biomass could potentially contribute about 3.2 billion GJ to the United states energy resources, which is roughly the amount of energy expected to be supplied from nuclear and hydroelectric power plants in the USA as at that time. Within the USA itself, some projects are already operational. Thomas (1990) reported the case of a commercial project in California which was generating about 17.5 MW of electricity from cattle manure. Biogas typically refers to methane produced by fermentation of manure or other biomass under anaerobic conditions. Mata-Alvarezi (2002) focused on the state of research on the subject in Europe and noted that the process is popular in the rural areas, particularly in the Netherlands and Denmark because it provides a convenient way of turning waste into electricity. The use of biogas is encouraged because methane burns with a clean flame and produces little pollution or no pollution.

The use of manure to produce biogas for energy supply also has attractive prospects in developing countries. According to Akinbami et al., (2001), Nigeria produced about 227,500 tons of fresh animal waste daily. The paper noted that since 1kg of fresh animal waste produces about 0.03 m3 of biogas, then Nigeria can produce about 6.9 million m3 of biogas everyday. In addition to all this, 20kg per capita of municipal solid waste (MSW) has been estimated to be generated in the country annually. Going by the census figures 140 million inhabitants, the total generated MSW would be at least 2.8 million tonnes every year. With increasing urbanization and industrialization, the annual MSW generated will continue to increase. Biogas production can therefore be a profitable means of reducing or even eliminating the menace and nuisance of urban waste in many cities by recycling them; while at the same time contributing towards providing adequate solution to the seemingly intractable problem of energy security. In the case of Nigeria, a few small scale biogas plants have been constructed by the Sokoto Energy Research center (SERC) and the Federal Institute of Industrial Research (FIIRO) Oshodi, Lagos. As of now contributions of these small - scale biogas plants to aggregate energy supply are yet to become significant (Energy Commission of Nigeria, 1998). Similar potential as this exists in many countries across the developing world.

Processes for the conversion of biomass to biogas may be classified into two categories namely thermal processes (as in biomass gasification), and biological processes (as in anaerobic digestion). As observed by Chynoweth and Isaacson (1987), the major advantage of thermal processes is their ability to effect total conversion of organic matter at rapid rates.

collected in buildings and yards where they are stored and hopefully applied to land later. However, land application of all the collected manure has not always been possible over the years. Chalmers (2001) in a review of fertilizer, lime and organic manure use on farms in Great Britain noted that the proportion of UK land receiving organic manures remained at 16% for tillage cropping but increased slightly for grassland, from a mean of 40% in 1983- 1987 to 44% in 1993–1997. Just as in the case of the Netherlands referred to previously, livestock manure produced on UK farms constituted a burden since land application of all of it was increasingly impossible. Against the background that Netherlands used as an example has 5, 95, and 14 millions of cattle, poultry, birds, and pigs respectively, implications for other countries which have higher livestock populations are quite

The option of using livestock manure as fuel merits closer investigations for its evident biogas–generation potential. Heltberg et al., (1985) pointed out that biomass could potentially contribute about 3.2 billion GJ to the United states energy resources, which is roughly the amount of energy expected to be supplied from nuclear and hydroelectric power plants in the USA as at that time. Within the USA itself, some projects are already operational. Thomas (1990) reported the case of a commercial project in California which was generating about 17.5 MW of electricity from cattle manure. Biogas typically refers to methane produced by fermentation of manure or other biomass under anaerobic conditions. Mata-Alvarezi (2002) focused on the state of research on the subject in Europe and noted that the process is popular in the rural areas, particularly in the Netherlands and Denmark because it provides a convenient way of turning waste into electricity. The use of biogas is encouraged because methane burns with a clean flame and produces little pollution or no

The use of manure to produce biogas for energy supply also has attractive prospects in developing countries. According to Akinbami et al., (2001), Nigeria produced about 227,500 tons of fresh animal waste daily. The paper noted that since 1kg of fresh animal waste produces about 0.03 m3 of biogas, then Nigeria can produce about 6.9 million m3 of biogas everyday. In addition to all this, 20kg per capita of municipal solid waste (MSW) has been estimated to be generated in the country annually. Going by the census figures 140 million inhabitants, the total generated MSW would be at least 2.8 million tonnes every year. With increasing urbanization and industrialization, the annual MSW generated will continue to increase. Biogas production can therefore be a profitable means of reducing or even eliminating the menace and nuisance of urban waste in many cities by recycling them; while at the same time contributing towards providing adequate solution to the seemingly intractable problem of energy security. In the case of Nigeria, a few small scale biogas plants have been constructed by the Sokoto Energy Research center (SERC) and the Federal Institute of Industrial Research (FIIRO) Oshodi, Lagos. As of now contributions of these small - scale biogas plants to aggregate energy supply are yet to become significant (Energy Commission of Nigeria, 1998). Similar potential as this exists in many countries across the

Processes for the conversion of biomass to biogas may be classified into two categories namely thermal processes (as in biomass gasification), and biological processes (as in anaerobic digestion). As observed by Chynoweth and Isaacson (1987), the major advantage of thermal processes is their ability to effect total conversion of organic matter at rapid rates.

significant.

pollution.

developing world.

The major disadvantage however is that they produce a mixture of gaseous products that must be upgraded to methane and are only economic at larger scales. Biological processes on the other hand, have the major advantages of producing biogas composed primarily of methane and carbon dioxide with traces of hydrogen sulfide, and are also low – temperature processes which are economical at a variety of scales. Biomass gasification is a process in which solid fuels are broken down by the use of heat to produce a combustible gas (Foley and Barnard, 1985). Fuels that can be gasified include wood, charcoal, coal, and a variety of other organic materials. In the sense used in this chapter, gasification should be distinguished from biogas production which uses wet organic feed stock and works by means of microbial action. Biological processes of biogas production may be aerobic (Evans and Svoboda, 1985) or anaerobic (Voermans, 1985). However, because of the high cost of aerobic processes particularly as regards the provision of energy to sustain the processes, anaerobic processes are preferred. As noted by Voermans (1985) biogas is the main purpose of anaerobic digestion and it comprises 55–70% CH4; 30–45% CO2, water vapor, and 0.0– 0.5% H2S Anaerobic digestion is brought about in anaerobic digesters.
