**3. The theoretical framework**

This chapter is underpinned by Boyer's model. Boyer's model provides a framework that guides knowledge exchange and transfer during community engagement [20, 43]. The model guides community engagement using four interrelated components—the scholarship of discovery, integration, teaching and application. There is a close relationship between the three functions of the university because one leads to another. Faculty develop research out of their teaching practice, while students are exposed to the service learning aspect of community engagement [36, 44].

Evidence from most universities reveals that universities clearly report on the teaching and learning, which includes the scholarship of and application through service learning, the scholarship of application, and discovery through research and the scholarship of integration through collaboration locally and internationally [29, 44]. Scholars such as Farnell [3] have acknowledged that the Third Mission has not received well-deserved attention, especially in the addressing social needs of the vulnerable group among others [22]. The assertion concurs with the evidence from reports from Universities, which points to the absence of inclusion of transformative collaborative activities with communities [25, 26]. Through research, the engaged scholarship facilitates community-based research that will address socioeconomic needs through skill development. Some global universities have made impressive strides through innovative community projects that address both students' knowledge and the economic wing of the community [45, 46]. The lack of consensus on the definition of community engagement creates grey areas in reporting outcomes especially because Boyer's model includes all components of teaching, research and community engagement.

In view of Boyer's scholarship of engagement [20], there seems to be notable progress in some aspects of the model across universities, particularly service learning, but the engaged community components are still staggering behind. Observations from the university ranking systems demonstrate great strides in community engagement because the ranking measures aspects such as scholarship application, and integration [47], where academics collaborate to share and exchange knowledge as the scholarship of application and integration.
