Theoretical Framework

#### **Chapter 1**

## Perspective Chapter: Individual Support Services in Inclusive Education – *Pros et Contras* (Polemic)

*Marinela Šćepanović, Snežana Nikolić and Nebojša Mitrović*

#### **Abstract**

Inclusive education needs constant support for its development and improvement. It is a long and demanding process that requires many changes, both in society and its attitude toward the rights and needs of all children to education, as well as in the management of the education system, which certainly implies the provision of various forms of support for inclusive education. From the position of an approach based on human rights, requirements move in the direction of the complete derogation of all segregated environments for children with disabilities; such attitudes are not emphasized on positive experiences in segregation (separate and stimulating education of the gifted, for example). We cannot ignore the need for children with different abilities for additional educational support. But is it reasonable to expect that teachers can respond to all the challenges that inclusive education sets before them in the context of the requirement to adapt the approach to the needs of each child? In polemic, we discuss the power and weakness of mainstream schools to respond to the requirements of the modern concept of inclusive education for all children and the need to keep professional individual educational support services for children who need them.

**Keywords:** inclusive education, polemic, human-rights approach, disabilities, giftedness, mainstream settings, individual support services

#### **1. Introduction**

Inclusive education is the most effective way to give all children a fair chance to go to school, learn, and develop the skills they need to thrive. Inclusive education means all children are in the same classrooms and schools. It means real learning opportunities for groups who have traditionally been excluded—not only children with disabilities but also speakers of minority languages and others.

Inclusive systems value the unique contributions students of all backgrounds bring to the classroom and allow diverse groups to grow side by side to the benefit of all [1].

For example, UNESCO underlines that every learner matters equally. Yet millions worldwide continue to be excluded from education for reasons that might include sex, gender orientation, ethnic or social origin, language, religion, nationality,

economic condition, or ability. Inclusive education works to identify all barriers to education and remove them and covers everything from curricula to pedagogy and teaching. UNESCO's work in this area is firstly guided by the UNESCO Convention against Discrimination in Education (1960), Sustainable Development Goal 4, and the Education 2030 Framework for Action, emphasizing inclusion and equity as the foundation for quality education [2, 3].

Sustainable Development Goal number 4 contains objective 4.a build and improve educational institutions that are sensitive to children, disabilities, and gender and provide a safe, non-violent, inclusive, and effective learning environment for all; and the indicator of achievement of the goal is: percentage of schools that offer basic services, according to the type of services [4]; so, we can understand that the existence and offering of basic support services in schools proves that educational institutions have become more inclusive and provide more adequate education for all children.

But what type of inclusive educational support is needed for students, and which support services are present in schools? And, are these services directly (individually) support to students, or is it support provided to students in a department or group? Are there so-called therapeutic services available as a form of support in school, such as occupational therapy or speech therapy? Who provides expert support to mainstream school students to overcome obstacles in education?

In this article, we argue about these issues (and broader) to justify the need to preserve individual professional support to students in different areas of expertise as solid support in inclusive education in mainstream schools, which has existed for a long time worldwide.

#### **2. Methodology**

In our research article, we use the polemic as a methodological approach to achieve an understanding of the proposed solutions and procedures and to reject the solutions that oppose them. We use polemic to argue with the opinions, experiences, acts, and arguments of other researchers. The methodological approach using polemics successfully returns in scientific practice (mainly in humanistic and social sciences) because Stoicism, Epicureanism, or some other ancient systems have become increasingly present in today's theories [5] as the basis of moral systems. Also, today's philosophical discussions are based on the ancient polemic from which they receive the most diverse ideas for consideration, such as Bogdanovski and Nišavić [6], the authors who transferred the polemic to the original theoretical discussion.

Although the term *polemic* is often related to theological considerations, its use in ancient philosophical schools had the greatest significance. In Brill's Dictionary of Religion, polemic is represented as "Here is a rhetorical 'attack strategy' for quarreling: polemics (Gk., polemiké téchne), and identified by irrelevantly aggressive, but overpoweringly argumentational, discourse." [7]. "Such argumentation is called polemics and it commonly contains an aggressive attack on or refutation of the opinions or principles of another and involves the art or practice of disputation or controversy" [8]. Roskam also claims that "the obvious starting point of philosophical polemics is the position of the opponent" [9], while ter Borg concerns that "polemics might be defined as a discursive conflict" [10].

As scientists found, polemics—from πολεμική/polemikḗ (sc. τέχνη/téchnē), "art of war," i.e., hurtful dispute through words—is directed toward topics and is thus objective in its orientation [11]. Peterson notices the basic but also the positive side of the polemics, *Perspective Chapter: Individual Support Services in Inclusive Education –* Pros et Contras *(Polemic) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114080*

describing them as "work on ideas of verbal warfare and destructive debate," while he says that in his study, however, polemical discussions were actually productive forms [12]. Other authors also recognize complex but with positive intent formed debates within polemics, which aim to produce new ideas and improve the future [13–16].

#### **3. Results**

#### **3.1 Inclusive education support services**

Inclusive education support services include all forms of educational work that assist students with needs for some form of education support, encourage their development and advancement, and their maximum inclusion and social interactions in school groups. Children and students may need additional support in education for various reasons and circumstances: children with disabilities, children with learning problems, migrant children, children of different religions and languages, children from different cultural backgrounds, victims of violence, children victims of child trafficking, children victims of abuse and exploitation, but also children with giftedness, children with double or multiple exceptionality (one or more disability and one or more giftedness) and in different areas talented and exceptional children, children without parents, street children, bilingual children, children from socially deprived environments, and the others.

Education support services are essential for inclusive education provided in the school, the environment, and/or the family of the child or student. Education support services include several procedures, which can be considered a process of supporting the child, the institution, and the family during education.

Schools support pupils with a wide range of special educational needs (SEN). They should regularly review and evaluate the breadth and impact of the support they offer or can access, and must co-operate with the local authority in reviewing the provision that is available locally and in developing the Local Offer [17].

Some possible forms of support applied in inclusive education in school are:


As shown above, *individual support from professionals in various specialties* is only one form of support for inclusive education. Then why is this service the main topic of our polemic? We believe its significance is far above other listed services because of its benefits for children and students. In the following text, we discuss and analyze its importance and possibilities.

Accurate identification through a thorough evaluative process, is the first step to ensure that individuals with learning disabilities receive the services, support, and accommodations that are required for academic and life success. The same source [18] also emphasizes that functional academic demands vary across the lifespan as well as across educational settings, so when an individual does not need support in one setting or at one time of life, it does not necessarily mean that support is not warranted at another time or in another context.

Other sources also speak about the importance of the ability assessment and referral toward the necessary support services in the school. As the European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education [19, 20] states, countries in Europe may have different types of official decisions, but for all official decisions:


We see that after the educational needs assessment process, in addition to providing support, documentation is kept on the support of the child/student, and the entire process is monitored and evaluated in some way. When the competent authority assesses the ability and needs of the child or student for educational support, the support process in inclusive education of the child/students begins.

*Perspective Chapter: Individual Support Services in Inclusive Education –* Pros et Contras *(Polemic) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114080*

#### **4. Individual support services**

Individual support services (personal, individual support) are the individual support of professionals in various specialties provided to children/students in the school and extracurricular educational environment.

The reviews [19, 20] show different forms of support in various countries individually provided by experts of different profiles. In nearly all countries, specialist provision professionals have to address special education issues to promote quality inclusive education at the school level. Specialists may be SEN teachers who are qualified in special education and/or in a specific type of special need. Their role is to support learners with SEN to follow the curriculum, taking into account their abilities and needs. Professionals can also guide teachers as they adapt their practices to learners' specific needs. According to the country reports, these specialists may include special pedagogues from pedagogical-psychological services who provide consultancy to learners receiving support, parents or guardians, and teachers. They may also be teaching or learning assistants who help the teacher deliver lessons or provide in-class support to specific learners. Some countries also emphasize the role of sign language interpreters.

What do individual support services include? In order to better understand the described services and their different activities carried out in various contexts, we propose the following overview of the individual support services (**Table 1**).

In the example of regulations in the education system of the Republic of Serbia, as corrective and stimulating exercise programs (as individual types of support are called), the following are listed:


Bearing in mind the diversity of the educational needs of children/students, it is clear that most of the above-mentioned individual support services require special implementation conditions in their application, primarily specialized rooms, and in


#### **Table 1.**

*Individual support services overview.*

addition, specific instruments for work—documentation, tools for work, literature, instruments, and technologies. Most importantly, highly qualified specialists provide these services with competencies in highly specialized areas of expertise.

Providing individual support services to children/students in inclusive education is forwarded to improve the child's capacities for successful and independent education. Therefore, this service is most important for children and students, and for the

*Perspective Chapter: Individual Support Services in Inclusive Education –* Pros et Contras *(Polemic) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114080*

same reason, parents and teachers often require this kind of support to be provided for children and students in inclusive education.

#### **5. Discussion**

#### **5.1 Individual support services—pros**

The professional service of individual work with a child supports the child's capacities in inclusive education. It can be seen as imminent and strong support for inclusive education or as a strong obstacle to setting up inclusiveness in schools. We discuss arguments and counter-arguments for this thesis.

Professional individual work with children with disabilities is not a newspaper; experts deal with decades, even longer, in this business and are educated to be in it. In the current professional and laic dictionary, different terms can be found that all indicate the same individual professional work with children who have faced obstacles in education:


We present arguments that justify the application of individual support services as support for inclusive education in mainstream schools for children and students who need educational support. All such services are provided mainly by educated special teachers or therapists.

#### *5.1.1 Support in the local environment*

The support of experts for the individual development and progress of children/ students in inclusive education, which is provided in their environment and settings, without the need for displacement in any form and duration, is particularly significant. Thus, it is stated in [22] that legislation and policy should focus on prevention and intervention approaches to enable all learners to overcome barriers to learning and participate fully, in line with the ultimate vision that all learners of any age are educated in their local community, alongside their friends and peers.

The stay of children/students in education under the auspices of the family is undoubtedly the best because it is the most stimulating social and emotional environment a child needs for development and progress. The family environment provides opportunities and chances for emotional stability and the child's development of positive values and skills.

When children and students have such support from professionals in their school, there is no need to leave their natural environment for such support and to learn and live far away from their homes and families.

#### *5.1.2 Personalized support*

The gains and benefits of individual professional work in inclusive education are, according to Šćepanović [21], the possibility of more precise planning and monitoring of the effects of work, constant focus on the user/student, which enhances motivation, helps to overcome difficulties in understanding, encourages perseverance and provides more data in observation, the possibility of focusing on micro-changes during the implementation of orders and tasks, increased student/user activity, more vigorous encouragement and encouragement to complete tasks, richer communication between process participants, as well as a better possibility of developing some social skills than is possible in a group. Overall, the focus on one student/user, as given by the very nature of this type of work, is not only a simple spatial orientation of a higher degree, but it is also a new type of relationship, communication, and interaction that creates a unique quality and a shift in the development, discovery, and experience of the world around these children/students.

#### *5.1.3 Support within the specific context of the child's/student's education*

Regarding the valuable aspects of individual work, we found opinions, i.e., studies of several authors [23, 24] that speak of corrective work. Thus, some authors [24] claim that "person-centered individual planning (or person-centered planning) is a set of advanced principles and strategies that emerged … as a way to better understand the experiences of people with developmental disabilities and to improve those experiences with the help of associates." Other authors [23] investigate the relationship between individual work planning and quality of life; the results of their research speak of the connection, i.e., conditionality of the observed variables.

Individual (and mandatory) support, which is provided to individual students with developmental disabilities or for other reasons, is realized within the framework of extracurricular mandatory individual activities and represents a model of direct, personal support aimed at the very specific needs, difficulties, and abilities of each individual student who individual support is provided.

In the educational context, it is important to point out that currently, the educational systems of European countries, in general, are faced with numerous challenges that can make education not fair and highlight inequalities related to: … gender, distance, wealth, developmental disabilities, ethnicity, language, migration, relocation, incarceration, sexual orientation, gender identity and expression, religion, and other beliefs and attitudes [2].

*Perspective Chapter: Individual Support Services in Inclusive Education –* Pros et Contras *(Polemic) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114080*

#### *5.1.4 Support from highly qualified experts*

The need to develop better quality work with children and students in an inclusive environment with different educational needs, including the need for additional educational individual support, has been discussed since the beginning of the development of inclusive education since not all participants are competent to support it.

This increasing recognition of learner diversity and complexity calls for greater collaboration. It will also require a changed role for education professionals, who must be prepared to provide more personalized pedagogies, increased use of digital technologies, and more varied learning pathways. School communities will increasingly be required to engage in the process of re-conceptualizing the notion of a school as an institution that offers more than curriculum content delivery [22].

That is why the support of existing highly qualified experts for the inclusive education of all children is welcome and should be used as an available resource in all circumstances for the benefit of children/students rather than forcing teachers to continue their education and seek new knowledge about working with children of different abilities and educational needs.

In the example of the Republic of Serbia, additional individual educational support services provided by specialists in special education and rehabilitation, are financed by the relevant ministries as a service that is a direct aid to inclusive education in Serbia. The service was introduced a few years after the introduction of inclusive education because it was shown that teachers are not sufficiently prepared to work with students with developmental disabilities and other students with a need for educational support and that without the help of special educators, there cannot be established inclusive education [21].

#### *5.1.5 Continuous support during schooling, with monitoring of development and progress*

Adequate individual additional educational support can be provided to a child/ student as much as there is a need for it, and it can be continuous during schooling and at different levels of education, from preschool to high school. Continuity of work with the child/student ensures monitoring of their progress and development while recording all crucial moments and facts related to the child/student's education in their portfolio. Other known forms of support are mostly one-time or repeated in a shorter period, so they cannot be a source of monitoring the progress and development of the child/student in the true sense of the word.

#### *5.1.6 Teachers' opinions*

The research that we are citing [25] had the character of action research because it was supposed to be carried out in parallel with the observed process of inclusive education, following the changes that occurred in the process. This type of research has a participatory character because the researcher actively participates in the process being investigated and gives his subjective view of the situation, and finally, it requires a change in the educational situation.

The archival method, individual interviews, and focus group interviews with the immediate participants of the process being investigated were used to conduct the research. The research was conducted in 2020 with the participation of 200 teachers from Southeast European countries online. The results of the study speak in favor of teachers' need for diverse support, and especially the need for professional support

from experts who can give them instructions on how to work more successfully in an inclusive environment, since they do not have enough such knowledge and competencies acquired during their studies. In terms of support for children and students, teachers most often, in a considerable percentage (96%), point out that, among other things, children/students need professional, individual support in the school environment. These findings are significant primarily because they come from teachers who work with children and also because of the high percentage of responses, that is, the significance of the answers.

#### **5.2 Individual support services—***contras*

#### *5.2.1 Segregation in providing additional individual educational support*

The most frequently mentioned argument for not including experts who provide additional individual educational support services to children/students in an inclusive environment (and these are usually special educators) is the reference to the fact that individual work with a child/student is actually a form of segregation of children and that as such must be considered discriminatory and unacceptable. The term "separation of a child from a group" has become a synonym for segregation and, thus, for discrimination, as stated in some sources. Interestingly, separating a child from a group is not considered segregation when a school pedagogue or psychologist works with him, and even less when a music or ballet expert works with him in a specialized environment. What's more, in working with gifted children and students, segregation is considered one of the very successful measures to support the education of the gifted since their segregation and grouping give excellent results on the progress and achievements of children and students with giftedness. In this situation, too, no one talks about segregation or discrimination. To be completely clear, we will ask you, the readers, a question: if your child had difficulties speaking difficulties, would you take him to a speech therapist for individual treatment or a throat and voice specialist? Is that also singling out a child based on some of his personal characteristics, or segregation? Of course not, since it is applied to the benefit and progress of the child.

Legal segregation is present in schools all over Europe thanks to the inconsistency and imperfection of legal regulations in education, while real segregation does not, in our opinion, have that much foothold in practice and is increasingly being overcome through the enrichment of diversity among the population, and its needs in general, including in the field of education.

Therefore, it is necessary to emphasize the apparent differences between real and legal segregation and discrimination on the one hand and the procedures of singling out children for their well-being and progress within the process of education and schooling on the other hand.

#### *5.2.2 Absence of unique work standards*

So far, a general framework with contents that should fully define this form of work has not been built: plan and program, goals, tasks, documentation, methods, means, techniques, conditions for performing work, implementers, users, etc. That is why it is now necessary to create protocols for handling and implementing corrective individual work that will describe the procedures for assessing abilities, applying, and evaluating the effects of support on children and students with developmental and learning disabilities and other children who need educational support. Some

#### *Perspective Chapter: Individual Support Services in Inclusive Education –* Pros et Contras *(Polemic) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114080*

countries define such services. For example, according to the same source, in the Republic of Serbia, it is prescribed that the implementation of educational work, as well as the provision of additional support in education and upbringing, through programs of corrective and stimulating exercises for students who, due to developmental disabilities and disabilities, specific difficulties in learning, social deprivation and other reasons for needing support in education and upbringing, the school can implement individual teaching through support programs for children and students with disabilities and others [21].

#### *5.2.3 Individual and direct support as therapeutic treatment, not an educational support*

Individual or direct work with children who need support, which professionals of various specialties carry out, is recognized as therapeutic work, that is, work that is not in the domain of education. Like most medical services provided by individuals—professionals, work that takes place in person with one recipient of services does not necessarily have to be in the field of medicine; such work can and is carried out in the field of education, in the form of specific skills (such as learning to play an instrument) or as the work of professional associates in schools—pedagogues, psychologists, and others. So why not work on providing professional individual support services for inclusive child education in such a way?

For a clear idea of the responsibilities and tasks of a special educator in inclusive education, we list only some mentioned by other authors [26], which clearly speak about the educational role of special educators in school.

As an SEN teacher, you'll need to:


#### *5.2.4 Individual therapeutic providers (or special educators) are opponents of inclusive education*

In some countries, special educators are sometimes blamed for the slow progress of the development of inclusive education, due to their alleged fear that the need for their work will cease with the progress of inclusive education. The truth is quite the opposite. The support of special educators is increasingly needed as children with different educational needs are included in general education, where they need additional educational support. Special educators are the only experts whose entire university education is dedicated to acquiring skills and knowledge about working with children of different abilities and educational needs. Their services are, therefore, of the highest quality, unique, and specific. It is an unjustified aspiration that it is necessary to "abolish" an entire profession because of unargued accusations of obstructing the development of inclusive education. At the same time, teachers and other professionals who do not have the competence to work with children of different abilities are forced to acquire additional knowledge and skills in order to work with children successfully. Is it difficult to imagine that all experts work for the welfare of children in collaboration and cooperation? As authors [27] say: "Productive professional collaboration between different parties is required to realize both visions of inclusive education." Also, the results of the study [28] show the need for enhancing collaboration between special and mainstream teachers in knowledge, readiness, and attitude for effective implementation of inclusive education in schools.

Fortunately, there are positive examples all over the world, and we can only hope that such a trend will continue. The best examples of collaboration are the transformation of special schools into resource centers, which serve as strong support for the inclusive education of all children in the local environment, deal with assistive technologies, and support both schools and families, as well as young people and adults with different abilities in their development and life. The backbone of the work of resource centers is special educators with their specific knowledge, experiences, and skills.

#### **6. Conclusion**

As a fundamental principle of the present civilization, the ethical universal position on human equality, freedom, and fraternity deduces a general relationship based on everyone's equally respected personality and its needs, abilities, and affinities. And so in education [21]. Not only the rights of all children to the same conditions and quality of education but also to the support they need in education determine us to choose and provide the highest quality support services, following personalized plans that we build on each child's personal needs. In the context of inclusive education, personal educational needs determine personally needed support and fully justify the application of individual professional support services to every child/student who needs it. Professionals who provide this kind of support cannot be seen as opponents of inclusion. Still, on the contrary, they are the most vital support because they enable children/students to attend classes with their peers in their natural environment, parents to understand their children's needs, and teachers to adapt their work to the needs and abilities of each particular child and student. The potentials of individual professional support in an inclusive school are: constancy and continuity in work, quality of work, knowledge of opportunities, daily possibility of cooperation with all

*Perspective Chapter: Individual Support Services in Inclusive Education –* Pros et Contras *(Polemic) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114080*

participants in the process, and better monitoring of the effects of work. The benefits of individual educational professional support services are proven and significant, and the service providers are highly qualified experts. Strict emphasis on segregation as a negative environment for the education of children/students, in the case of providing services of individual educational support, is not justified. From the example of work with the gifted, where the separated (segregated) environment proved very supportive for children/students, we learn that we are not right in insisting that segregation is wrong at all levels of education. All the stated reasons are arguments for the preservation and development of individual educational support services in the future and for the cooperation of all providers of education support services for children/students who need support.

#### **Acknowledgements**

Authors created this chapter in the project "Creating a protocol for assessing the educational potential of children with disabilities as a criterion for the development of individual educational programs," No. 179025, supported by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia.

#### **Author details**

Marinela Šćepanović1 \*, Snežana Nikolić1 and Nebojša Mitrović2

1 Faculty for Special Education and Rehabilitation, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Republic of Serbia

2 Faculty of Education Bijeljina, University of East Sarajevo, East Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

\*Address all correspondence to: mscepanovic@gmail.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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[28] Razalli AR, Hashim AT, Mamat N, Ariffin A. Collaborative teaching between special education teachers and mainstream teachers in inclusive education program. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences. 2020;**10**(8):1055-1065. Available from: https://hrmars.com/ papers\_submitted/7713/collaborativeteaching-between-special-educationteachers-and-mainstream-teachers-ininclusive-education-program.pdf

#### **Chapter 2**

## Perspective Chapter: Pedagogical Approaches and Institutional Policy for Democratic Practices in Education

*Farouk Gafer Abdel Hakem Marzouk*

#### **Abstract**

Democracy is interrelated to education which has a social function by which society members are always developed and shaped through participation in the mobility and ideology of that society. Since the democratic individual is the basis of society, one's democratic formation cannot take place unless the educational process makes him/ her a focus. In addition, democratic principles, values and society progress should be a goal of that process. Moreover, democratic behavior is based on interaction and participation in an atmosphere of freedom where equality, justice, acceptance of others, work through responsibility and teamwork, as well as social understanding. This democratic behavior plays an important role in the educational process and is considered as an indicator of the mental health of principals and teachers. It also has an impact on the behavior, attitudes and achievement of learners. The purpose of democratic behavior is to provide an educational atmosphere in which the desired educational goals are achieved, and to build effective humanistic relations among the educational community members, students and their parents, based on respect, trust, self-expression and a sense of tranquility. This chapter ended with presenting some of the factors helping to activate democratic practices in the educational institution, by stating the role played by each element of the educational system in the school.

**Keywords:** education, democratic practice, oedagogical approaches, institutional policy, democracy

#### **1. Introduction**

The process of socialization is the cornerstone in shaping the behavior of individuals and the formation of their feelings and attitudes towards the lofty and noble values upon which their actual lives are to be based. It impresses in them the belief in human humanity, establishes in themselves the values of freedom, justice, dignity, and equality, and instills in them the principles of human rights until it becomes a stable nature for them.

If democracy is related to all areas of life, then its connection with the field of education is more severe so that democracy cannot be achieved in any society unless education prevails, opportunities are spread among all its members, and the right to education is confirmed for all, just as the democratic life of nations depends on its dimensions and backgrounds. Educational; This is because the presence and integration of democracy in the life of nations depend on the extent to which democratic values are rooted in the minds and consciences of individuals, and the educational movement always represents a necessary link for democratic formation.

Today's societies are going through many great challenges, which require a decisive confrontation that puts us in front of the challenge of confrontation, either to be or not to be, which made all those interested in the affairs of the country stress the importance of education; To face all challenges and achieve comprehensive development [1]. As we are witnessing a world of rapid development in various fields of knowledge, which has made education a major role in meeting the needs of those societies and making progress for them in facing these challenges [2].

Achieving progress in facing these challenges Which showed many of the social and economic changes that have occurred in our societies, and put our educational institutions, especially the school, in front of a great task in order to develop the educational process and improve its effectiveness and efficiency through administrative reform, and raise the level of performance of educational institutions management; To shift from the rigid bureaucratic patterns of democratic practices that support collective participation in decision-making, and to look deeply into improving school performance, and raising the efficiency of the educational product [3].

Where the school represents the social environment capable of producing a democratic human being and creating habits that are capable of; To achieve the goals of peace, democracy and economic stability, however, not every educational system is capable of producing a new individuality, which gives rise to the urgent need to bring about a radical and sufficient educational change by making education more capable of leading society, directing its developments and solving its dilemmas that have arisen as a result of scientific and technical progress. Accordingly, the educational process must abandon the educational system, curricula, and educational contents that preceded the data of science and technology, and instead take the systematic use of the scientific method as a model and an example for intelligent exploration and investment in the potential energies of individuals [4].

Man acquires himself through socialization; because it is the process that develops the building of the human personality and makes it a participating member of society. Accordingly, socialization is what confers social dimensions on the human personality, those dimensions that are considered one of the drivers of behavior in different social situations during the stages of personality development and growth. Education is the process that uses all necessary means to ensure the preparation and upbringing of a person [5].

#### **2. Key concepts**

Democracy is a system that establishes the relationship between members of society and the state in accordance with the principle of equality between citizens in the rights and duties of citizenship, and their participation in making legislation that regulates their lives. The authority in a democratic system is for the people through the people, to achieve the people's sovereignty, purposes, and interests [6].

The understanding and practice of democracy is characterized by three elements: First, democracy is an institutional arrangement upon which to reach political decisions where citizens hold power through elections. Second, democracy is a system of

#### *Perspective Chapter: Pedagogical Approaches and Institutional Policy for Democratic Practices… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113093*

government in which rulers are held accountable for their actions in public affairs by citizens. And third, democracy is a political principle based on equality and justice [7].

Democracy, in its deep essence, is a daily practice that affects all aspects of life, and it is a way of thinking, behavior, and dealing, and not just an appearance on everyone without discrimination [8].

Education is linked to democracy just as democracy is linked to education. Education is an important tool for democracy, and democracy is a tool of education in building a democratic society, and the relationship between them is a dialectical and reciprocal relationship that depends on and is affected by the other, and since true democracy does not flourish except in an educated society, education does not take place and does not develop and for equality in education does not expand except in a democratic atmosphere. The philosophy of educational democracy lies in the fact that democracy can only be achieved in the field of education in a democratic context of social life [9].

Participation in the democratic process is the practical translation of good education and good awareness. Therefore, educators paid great attention to deepening democracy in school educational situations and worked to develop educational programs that integrate theory in the field of democracy with its practical reality, as it appears in educational and learning classroom situations. The educators also worked on studying the social patterns that work to achieve democracy within student societies in educational situations, and this would facilitate the achievement of the democratic class during which the individual learns the practice of democracy to apply it in his general social reality. The importance of democracy in the educational context as it is in the social context is highlighted by the fact that it is the mechanism through which individuals deal with different orientations and interests and seek to form common visions in many aspects of life. and their perceptions without the domination of a particular opinion over the opinions of others as a result of the authority that supports it, or other support mechanisms that are inconsistent with democratic frameworks in decision-making [10].

The learners exercise of their human rights within their educational institutions is the only guarantee of their conviction, defense, and practice in their public lives inside and outside the school. Therefore, education as a whole must convey this message, and that an appropriate climate prevails at the institutional level for the application of democracy, as should teaching and learning methods and working methods. And institutional policy directives to make peace, human rights and democracy daily practices and knowledge acquisitions at the same time [11]. Hence, removing the sources of fear, repression and violence in the educational process was a necessary condition for the positive creative interaction between the learner and the teacher, whether the process of teaching and learning is through the education system or through interaction with the sources of societal culture in the school of life [12].

The demand for the expansion of democratic practices has increased due to technological progress, which has allowed many new forms of political participation, as Internet users are able to be content producers, avoid formal dialog, and transform or ridicule them through remix practices and simple creative works [13]. Until it came to the emergence of digital democracy based on the use of digital information and communication technology tools in the generation, collection, classification, analysis, processing, and circulation of all data, information, and knowledge related to the exercise of the values of democracy and its various mechanisms [14].

Educators emphasize that developing citizenship among learners is one of the most important ways to face challenges and future developments; As the real progress of the homeland in light of global developments is made by the hands and minds of

citizens, so providing them with the values and skills of citizenship in general and democratic practices, in particular, is the main pillar for positive participation in social, political and economic development [15].

The exercise of human rights and freedoms in society is not achieved by merely stipulating them in the state's constitution and laws, or by the state's ratification of international agreements and charters on those rights and freedoms. Freedom in all its forms is the right of the citizen in a system in which the authority of governance is not the will of a person, but rather the will of a people within a framework in the legal and political organization, this organization is the democratic state [16]. The exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression goes beyond the narrow scope of the concept of right, which indicates that it is an authority for its owner to exercise it and to waive it, rising to the rank of duty that must be fulfilled [17].

The human experience, through its historical course, confirms that the democratic life of any nation is dependent on its educational dimensions and backgrounds. This is because the presence and consumption of democracy in the life of a nation depends on the extent to which democratic values are rooted in people's minds and consciences. The educational act has always been one of the most important episodes of democratic development in the various historical experiences of human society. The educational process constitutes the gateway to the necessity for every democrat. This means that a democratic life cycle cannot take place unless it takes its course deep within the educational cycle of particular societies. If democratic awareness constitutes a condition of historical necessity to ensure the continuity of democratic existence in a society, then educational institutions constitute the centerpiece of the process of building and forming this awareness [18].

Democracy is closely related to education, as education is a social function that shapes and develops the individual through his or her participation in the life and ideology of society, Its goal, This confirms the extent of the close interrelationship between democracy and education, which society is always keen on in order to ensure its continued existence in a progressive and constantly evolving manner [19].

Education that is based on violence, oppression and confiscation of freedom is the shortest way to destroy the individual and destroy society. Authoritarianism is one of the most important diseases that Arab education suffers from. Because most Arab educational problems, challenges and crises are nothing but symptoms of that disease or its consequences, and authoritarianism is the opposite of education. Education seeks to explode energies, while oppression kills it. Education aims to build the human personality in a comprehensive and integrated manner, while oppression produces a weak, distorted and turbulent personality [20].

It is not possible to build democracy in any society without spreading a democratic culture that deepens the values guiding the behavior of citizens, and democracy cannot be achieved without the existence of institutions through which democracy is practiced [21]. It has become agreed that the dissemination and consolidation of a culture of human rights is one of the most important pillars of democracy, as a mode of governance and a way of life, because human beings are the ones who make and practice democracy, and they will not improve that unless they are citizens armed with democratic culture [22].

In light of the foregoing, the current chapter deals with the most important points related to the nature of the relationship between the democratic process and education by showing: the institutions of political education, the dimensions of democratic education, and the elements of democracy in education, the mechanisms of democratic practice in the school.

*Perspective Chapter: Pedagogical Approaches and Institutional Policy for Democratic Practices… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113093*

#### **3. Political education institutions**

The process of political education is the process by which an individual learns social norms through institutions accordingly, the different society's political education, which helps it to live behaviorally with this society. In this sense, it is an advanced part of social upbringing, which is a process that the individual undergoes throughout his life, and it is filled with values. That intertwines and forms a social network of values that affect the behavior and attitudes of the individual. Also, political education is an evolutionary process through which an individual can achieve social and political maturity. The citizen has various information, feelings and beliefs that help him understand and evaluate general conditions and relate to the environment surrounding politics, and the citizen's political orientation is Part of his general social orientation [23].

From this perspective, political education includes all forms of formal and non-formal, planned political education and unplanned, at every stage of human life. Several sources are integrated to carry out the political education process for the individual, these sources include: the family, the educational institution, places of worship, the media, Political parties and civil society institutions. Given the scope of our interest, the focus will be on the role of the school in the political education process. The school is a distinct source of political education, and what distinguishes it from others is that it is a mandatory medium, as well as being the first official educational institution to which the individual relates in his life. The school plays a large and influential role in shaping the lifestyle of individuals through its functions, including: deepening the sense of belonging to the community, building the national personality that interacts with the environment in which you live, promoting and instilling positive values, trends and political ideas, nurturing the political behavior of the individual after the family, Developing the student's abilities to think and the ability to dialog in order to achieve credibility, and make the individual a positively participating member in society [24].

The contemplator of these jobs finds that the school needs an atmosphere full of freedom and democracy as a prerequisite and necessary for the development of these abilities among students. The mind grows, innovates and thinks where there is an atmosphere of freedom and democracy, suffocates and dies in an atmosphere of oppression and confiscation of opinion. The school accomplishes this task by relying on several variables, namely: curricula and materials, the teacher who serves as a role model for the learner, and finally the nature of the prevailing climate in the school. The experience that the learner acquires in school affects his future perception of political authority. The teacher who encourages students to participate, cooperate, express their opinions and respect the other opinion depending on democratic political behavior in the hearts of his students and makes them more able to express their opinions and take positions on various issues, and the opposite happens if the teacher has a dictator or authoritarian tendency.

#### **4. Dimensions of democratic education**

The concept of citizenship is the real entrance to understanding what democracy is and how to practice it. At the same time, education for democracy must be based on a clear concept of citizenship, and how it is acquired according to a political system that has certain peculiarities and defines what rights and duties are within its framework. Hence, citizenship determines the individual's behavior in his relationship with his environment, society and system as the real entrance to urge the citizen to adhere

to the spirit of responsibility and belonging, and it is the other side of the nation's sovereignty, so that national sovereignty is not complete without citizenship [25].

In general, citizenship education includes four main dimensions:


In this context, citizenship education targets four basic levels, which are [26]:

• The national level: It is concerned with strengthening belonging to the homeland, preserving its gains and achievements, realizing the nature of the political system, respecting the laws and legislation in the state, appreciating the importance of preserving national unity, love of the public interest, attention to public issues, and the values of political participation.

*Perspective Chapter: Pedagogical Approaches and Institutional Policy for Democratic Practices… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113093*


#### **5. Elements of democracy in education**

There are a set of basic components of the democratic trend in education, including [27]:


### **6. Mechanisms of democratic practice in the school**

In order for the democratic climate to be achieved in the educational institution, it is necessary to think about administrative practices, since management under democracy becomes a humane, social and educational process, concerned with the individual and respecting his personality. Democratic management is based on the following foundations [28]:


*Perspective Chapter: Pedagogical Approaches and Institutional Policy for Democratic Practices… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113093*

• Establishing sound human relations between students, workers and the community, based on respect for the personality and ideas of the individual, and creating a sense of belonging, loyalty and mutual trust among the group.

The social and political democratic education of students in the school can be done through the practice of the following mechanisms [29].


The following are the most important factors that help to activate democratic practices in the educational institution, by explaining the role played by each element of the educational system in the school, which are:

#### a.**Teacher and Class Interaction:**


*Perspective Chapter: Pedagogical Approaches and Institutional Policy for Democratic Practices… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113093*


#### b.**The school administration:**


#### c.**Curriculum and Instruction:**


*Perspective Chapter: Pedagogical Approaches and Institutional Policy for Democratic Practices… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113093*


#### **7. Conclusion**

The current chapter dealt with the most important points related to the nature of the relationship between the democratic process and education by addressing some points that indicate that relationship. Where several sources are integrated to carry out the process of political education for the individual, and these sources include: the family, the educational institution, places of worship, the media, political parties, and civil society institutions.

The chapter also discussed the dimensions of democratic education, which included: knowledge of rights and duties, understanding of national identity, promotion of belonging, and promotion of participation. Citizenship education takes place on four basic levels: the national level, the social level, the personal level, and the skill level.

The chapter also monitored the most important elements of democracy in education, the most important of which are: spreading knowledge and knowledge among people, rejecting the domination of one class, and participating in decision-making. With regard to the most important mechanisms of democratic practice in the school, foremost among them was the recognition of individual differences between students and allowing each student to develop his capabilities, coordinating efforts between staff and students so that the school becomes one cooperative family in order to achieve its goals, and the establishment of sound human relations between students, workers and society, from By respecting the individual's personality and ideas.

#### **Author details**

Farouk Gafer Abdel Hakem Marzouk Faculty of Graduate Studies for Education, Cairo University, Egypt

\*Address all correspondence to: faroukgafer@yahoo.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Perspective Chapter: Pedagogical Approaches and Institutional Policy for Democratic Practices… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113093*

#### **References**

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[2] Zaher DA-D. Cost and financing in Arab education systems (future perspective). In: The Second Conference of Education Ministers in the Arab World. Damascus, Syria: Future School; 2000. p. 1

[3] Bougherra A. The Degree of Secondary School Principals' Application of the Principles of Democratic Management from the Teachers' Point of View in the State of M'sila. Algeria: Hadj Lakhdar University; 2008. p. 5

[4] Jamila H. The School's role in building democracy according to John Dewey. Academy for Social and Human Studies (Algeria). 2013;**10**:35

[5] Khattab SA-Q, Ali MF. Education and awareness of human rights in Islam. In: Conference on "Human Rights Defining and Dispelling Educational Visions". Egypt: Institute of Educational Studies, Cairo University; 2004. p. 55

[6] Emara M. The January 25 Revolutions and Breaking the Barrier of Fear. Cairo, Dar el Salaam: Dar el Salaam Library; 2011. p. 120

[7] United Nations. Annual report of the United Nations high commissioner for human rights and the reports of the office of the high commissioner and the secretary-general. In: Study on the common challenges faced by states in their efforts to ensure democracy and the rule of law from a human rights perspective. United Nations: Human Rights Council, 22nd session, General Assembly; 2012. p. 6

[8] Houhou AS. Principles and constituents of democracy. In: Al-Mufker Magazine, No. 5. Algeria: Faculty of Law and Political Sciences, Mohamed Khider University of Biskra; 2009. p. 327

[9] Elzubun SO. Democratic practices of faculty members at Jerash Al-Ahliyya University from the perspective of their students. Educational Sciences Studies. 2011;**38**(2):651

[10] Al-Khawaldeh TM. Problems faced by members of student bodies in democratic practices in Jordanian universities. Journal of the College of Education in Damietta. 2004;**45**:59

[11] Jawhar AS, Al-Basel MMF. Raising the Arab Child on his Rights in Educational Institutions. Cairo: The Egyptian Library; 2010. p. 50

[12] Hamid TA. Education and the Industry of Repression: A Study in Education and Social Control. Cairo: Merritt for Publishing and Information; 2000. p. 7

[13] Revel R. The digital revolution is a cultural revolution, the world of knowledge. The National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters, Kuwait. 2018;**462**:166

[14] Ghaitas GM. Digital Democracy. Cairo: General Egyptian Book Organization; 2009. p. 45

[15] Taha AM, Hakem FGA. Education of Citizenship between Theory and Practice. Cairo: Anglo-Egyptian Library; 2013. p. 13

[16] Younes RZ. Requirements for democratic practice and social change. International Studies. 2005;**27**:14

[17] Al-Rashidi A. Human Rights towards an Introduction to Cultural Awareness, the General Authority for Cultural Palaces. Cairo; 2005. p. 68

[18] El-Fil WSS. The opinions of teachers and students of the Institute of Teacher Preparation in Teaching Democracy. Conductivity Studies. 2008;**19**:91

[19] Mustafa RA. Democracy and education and their role in achieving sustainable development. Sebha University Journal (Humanities). 2007;**6**(3):6

[20] Al-Sourti YI. Authoritarianism in Arab education, the world of knowledge series. The National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters. 2009;**362**:8

[21] Al-Ansari IMI, Alim RMA. The practice of digital democracy by students of the College of Education at Kuwait University. Journal of Educational Sciences. 2012;**20**(2):185

[22] Abdel-Fattah AMM. Human Rights Culture among Secondary School Students, an Exploratory Study in the Light of the Developments of the January 25 Revolution. Egypt: Cairo University; 2015. p. 29

[23] Al-Toukhi HM. The university and political culture for students in the light of the January 25 revolution. Journal of the College of Education. 2012;**149**:7

[24] Al-Kurdi MS. Political upbringing in educational institutions. The Political and International Journal. 2010;**15**:30

[25] Zidan OM. The educational role of youth centers in developing citizenship values. Journal of Educational and Psychological Studies. 2011;**73**:374

[26] Ammar R. Education, Citizenship and Social Integration. Cairo: Social Contract Center; 2014. p. 13

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[28] Harb RAR. An-Najah National University Students' Perceptions of the Democratic Practices of its Faculty Members. Cairo: College of Graduate Studies, An-Najah National University; 2007. p. 17

[29] Helmy FA. Trends in the Social and Professional Mobility of Teachers and their Consistency with the Requirements of Democratic Transformation in Egypt. Cairo: The National Center for Educational Research and Development; 2013. p. 104

#### **Chapter 3**

## Participatory Pedagogical Approaches in Higher Education: Understanding from the Practices in Bangladesh, the UK and the USA

*M. Mahruf C. Shohel, Md. Ashrafuzzaman, Sabrina Ahmed, Nazia Tasnim, Tahmina Akter, G.M. Rakibul Islam, Mohammad Abu Bakar Siddik and Sumaya Rahman Mitu*

#### **Abstract**

Participatory pedagogical approaches stand as the core driving force behind transforming individual student's learning journeys into more active, enjoyable, and effective ones. Participatory pedagogy motivates students to participate willingly and actively in their learning and to take ownership of their educational journey. This shift in pedagogy impacts students' enrolment, progress, and retention. The relevance of this shift from teacher-led to student-led practices became particularly evident during the COVID-19 pandemic, which substantially challenged the traditional roles of teachers and students for the first time in recent years, placing teachers aside and allowing students to take agency over their learning. Given this reality, this chapter explores the main facets of participatory pedagogies. It discusses diverse emerging pedagogical approaches being used at the higher education level in the contexts of Bangladesh, the UK, and the USA to develop an understanding of the best practices. This chapter also highlights the process of co-creating knowledge with students during their learning journeys at higher education institutions. After analysing the related literature, it is apparent that incorporating participatory pedagogies into educational practices provides opportunities to nurture teachers' and students' critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, communication, problem-solving abilities and lifelong learning. Furthermore, participatory approaches empower individuals to contribute actively to their learning communities.

**Keywords:** Bangladesh, educational paradigm, emerging technologies, higher education, innovative pedagogical approach, instructional process, participatory pedagogy, students as co-creators of knowledge, UK, USA

#### **1. Introduction**

The transformation of instructional and pedagogical processes is facilitated, supported, and reformed by the comprehensive utilisation of technological,

organisational, and pedagogical drivers in education [1]. The COVID-19 pandemic, a recent and unprecedented event, can be viewed as a significant catalyst for a shift towards technology-enhanced teaching and learning, with students playing a pivotal role in shaping their education [2–4]. Consequently, teachers, students, and educational institutions are rapidly transitioning to a new educational paradigm that heavily relies on diverse technologies and innovation to personalise teaching and learning. This transition also demands innovative pedagogical approaches, the cultivation of social, interpersonal, and cognitive skills among students and teachers, and a transformation of institutional structures [5].

In recent years, there has been criticism of teacher-centered pedagogies, while participatory pedagogical approaches have gained global attention for their effectiveness in teaching and learning processes [6]. Participatory pedagogy does not mean that students can do whatever they want without considering how it affects others or their learning [7]. Instead, participatory pedagogy provides opportunities for students to engage in classroom teaching and learning actively [8]. Participatory pedagogy, also known as active learning or student-centred learning approach, is a teaching method that places students at the centre of the learning process, giving them the freedom to learn according to their needs and interests. It encompasses various aspects of teaching and learning, such as engagement and motivation [8, 9], critical thinking and problem-solving [10], ownership of learning [11–13], diversity and inclusiveness [14, 15], readiness for the real world [16–18], higher-order thinking abilities [10], promotion of creativity [14], improved communication skills [9, 15], student happiness and satisfaction [8], and lifelong learning [19].

In higher education, participatory pedagogy is critical in nurturing students and making them active, engaged, and empowered [10]. It equips students with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary for academic success and future careers [20]. Over the years, changes in pedagogical practices have been observed for various reasons, including technological advancements, emergency situations, the evolving position of students within the learning ecosystems, innovative pedagogies for better learning outcomes, and market demands [21, 22]. These factors have redefined the roles of teachers and students within the learning environment, shifting it from predominantly teacher-centric approaches to more student-centric ones. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the 'new normal' situation has further emphasised the need to study these shifts in pedagogical practices within the higher education arena [23]. Therefore, this chapter aims to explore the participatory pedagogical approaches, uncovering the best practices and their defining features, and critically evaluating the current practices of three distinct countries representing both the Global North and the Global South.

#### **2. Rationale of the exploration**

Over time, the conventional notion of pedagogy has undergone a significant transformation, gradually handing over the control of teaching and learning activities to students from teachers, especially in higher education, where the students are quite experienced and come to the classrooms with their perspectives. This transformation happens due to the changing educational philosophies, new teaching and learning methodologies, advancements in educational technology, and a thorough understanding of how students learn [24]. In the past, teacher-centred pedagogical practices were common, where teachers narrated subject matter, and students passively received the

#### *Participatory Pedagogical Approaches in Higher Education: Understanding from the Practices… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114070*

information during the whole learning process [25]. Over time, many educationists, philosophers, and psychologists argued for students' engagement and active role in learning [26] and proposed innovative participatory pedagogical approaches. Despite the persistence of the factory model of schooling from the third Industrial Revolution, the fourth Industrial Revolution in the twenty first century has significantly challenged the traditional role of teachers as the sole authority in the teaching and learning process. Therefore, along with technological advancements, changes in societal needs, and growing recognition of the importance of student engagement in the learning process, the landscape of higher education is evolving rapidly towards learner-centred approaches, as are the pedagogical approaches [27].

Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic emergency made this issue more evident than ever. The world witnessed the prolonged academic institution closure [2, 4, 28] and teachers stayed physically distant while students took ownership of their education and learning [3]. Thus, the teacher's prime role has become auxiliary and the agency of students learning has changed its direction from teachers to the students. In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, higher education has undergone a profound transformation, impacting institutions across both the Global North and the Global South.

As mentioned earlier, participatory pedagogies in higher education have gained attention across the globe. This exploration focuses on understanding the new-aged participatory pedagogical practices in Bangladesh, the UK, and the USA contexts. Thus, this chapter presents how these pedagogical approaches enhance student engagement, sense of belonging, and learning outcomes. Implementing participatory pedagogies in higher education is considered as an effective approach to bridging the theory-practice gap and promoting active, participatory, and experiential learning [29]. Educators can enhance student engagement and learning outcomes in higher education by understanding the rationale and practices of participatory pedagogies in these diverse contexts.

#### **3. Objectives of the exploration**

The investigation presented in this chapter aims to shed light on the main aspects of participatory pedagogical approaches practised in Bangladesh, the UK, and the USA. This chapter also compares and contrasts pedagogical practices in higher education within these three countries and highlights different teaching and learning features. Finally, this chapter presents a comprehensive overview of participatory pedagogies and their potential role or function to improve teaching and learning activities by emphasising students' active participation and engagement in the process.

#### **4. Contextual understandings of participatory pedagogical approaches**

#### **4.1 Participatory pedagogies in higher education**

Participatory pedagogy is an educational approach that emphasises active involvement, collaboration, and the co-creation of knowledge by students and teachers [8]. Furthermore, it represents not only a pedagogical method but also a condition for learning environment within educational policy, signifying the aspirations of a liberal society [8]. Participatory pedagogy encompasses a wide array of activities where the participation of students and teachers is mandatory, including pair work, group work, role-play, peer teaching, peer observation, peer assessment, group teaching, panel

discussion, brainstorming, debate, recitation, group assignment, project work, report writing, and more, all of which collectively define its key characteristics [30].

The primary objective of participatory pedagogy is to empower students to take an active role in their learning process [31]. It aims to foster critical thinking, problemsolving, and decision-making skills among students, equipping them to tackle realworld challenges. Additionally, participatory pedagogy actively promotes justice, equality, and co-agency within the classroom setting, reflecting and disseminating these values throughout the school community and society [8]. Furthermore, participatory pedagogies encompass diverse learning methods, such as project-based learning, cooperative learning, service learning, inquiry-based learning, collaborative learning, problem-based learning, and experiential learning [32]. These approaches aim to foster a more inclusive and democratic teaching and learning environment where students actively share their experiences and perspectives. In this context, the role of the teacher evolves into that of a facilitator rather than the sole source of knowledge and information. Moreover, participatory pedagogy operates on the premise that knowledge is constantly evolving and emphasises the link between thinking, reflecting and taking action to address societal challenges [14]. In recent years, it has gained recognition as one of the most prominent and effective teaching and learning approaches in education [33].

Freire [25] argued for the empowerment of students and the transformation of the teacher–student relationship into one of subject-to-subject, rather than subjectto-object. Many educators also contend that students should actively control their learning through dialogue, negotiation, critical thinking, reflective action and active participation instead of passively receiving information [34]. In higher education, participatory pedagogies position students and teachers as active collaborators in the teaching and learning process [35]. Within this participatory approach, students take a central role in discovering information, developing skills, and shaping their attitudes. They can showcase their critical thinking, apply their creative abilities, and voice their opinions in the classroom. Thus, participatory pedagogies underscore principles of reciprocity, the co-creation of shared realities, small-scale activities, and the establishment of inclusive learning communities [36]. These pedagogical methods align closely with the concept of active learning, fostering learner-centred, dynamic, meaningful, and engaging environments with multi-directional collaboration and constructive feedback.

In participatory pedagogical approaches, students engage in reading provided learning materials for critical thinking, as it is one of the fundamental components of co-creating knowledge, thus encourage students to actively and critically engage with texts to make meanings for better understanding [37]. Research has consistently demonstrated that participatory pedagogies and active learning strategies significantly improve learning outcomes and cultivate lifelong learning skills [38].

#### **4.2 Digital pedagogy: when technology is a tool for participation in the pedagogical process**

Digital pedagogy, as defined, encompasses the integration of technology into the teaching and learning process across various modalities [39]. This approach involves digital tools and resources into instructional design and delivery, aiming to enhance the learning experience for individuals. Digital pedagogies can manifest in different forms, applicable to both face-to-face and distance education settings, including computer-based learning, blended learning, flipped classrooms, online learning, e-learning, and mobile learning [40, 41]. This digital pedagogical approach offers

#### *Participatory Pedagogical Approaches in Higher Education: Understanding from the Practices… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114070*

several advantages, such as heightened flexibility, access to a broader range of educational resources, and opportunities for collaboration and engagement.

In the broader sense, digital pedagogies empower students to acquire knowledge more rapidly and conveniently, distinct from traditional methods [42]. Additionally, digitalisation results in significant time savings for teachers and students by enabling them to concurrently manage other responsibilities and efficiently utilise their time to meet individual needs [43]. In today's digital environment, students and teachers connect through digital platforms or virtual learning environments (VLEs) [44]. For instance, blended learning combines face-to-face instructions with online learning activities. This approach empowers higher education students to learn at their own pace, engage with course materials, and interact with their teachers and peers through various digital channels and tools. Both in-person and distance modalities in flipped classrooms utilise technology to deliver instructional content outside the classroom, freeing up class time for more interactive and collaborative activities such as discussions, problem-solving exercises, and group projects [45].

Digital teaching and learning, which can be synchronous or asynchronous, allow students to access course materials and participate in discussions at their convenience from anywhere with a device and an internet connection [46]. Digital pedagogies are gaining popularity in education and in-service professional learning both in developing and developed countries, particularly through mobile learning opportunities using various handheld devices [47–49]. These approaches harness technology to enhance the teaching and learning process. Online distance teaching and learning (ODTL) approaches leverage the ubiquity of mobile devices, providing students with access to course materials and interactive activities on the go [50]. It is important to note that technology is not a panacea, and digital pedagogies must be thoughtfully designed and implemented to ensure their effectiveness and inclusivity for all learners. In higher education, technological integration involves using current tools, equipment, and materials, including electronic media, to enhance learning [51]. This process includes managing instructional resources, selecting appropriate technologies based on students' learning needs, and teachers' capacity to integrate them [52, 53].

Pedagogy and technology are intertwined components in modern higher education systems [54]. Pedagogical principles determine the goals, contents, and teaching and learning methods, while technology can facilitate and enhance the implementation of pedagogical strategies and approaches [55–57]. Technologies can support various pedagogical strategies and approaches, including active learning, collaboration, and personalised learning. The effective integration of technology into teaching and learning necessitates careful consideration of the pedagogical approaches used. Merely understanding of how to use specific hardware and software is insufficient to improve the educational process through technology [58, 59]. It requires knowledge of pedagogical principles specific to the application of technology in educational settings, concerning the content of a particular subject or discipline.

Technology in pedagogy entails the management and coordination of digital teaching materials and resources to enhance learning [60]. It also includes selecting appropriate technology based on students' learning needs and teachers' capacity to adapt it to specific learning activities for youth. It requires teachers to select appropriate technology while arranging lessons. Teachers must use appropriate technology to present and assess instruction, as well as for subsequent learning activities. This expansive concept of 'technologies in education' assists teachers in developing a coherent approach to pedagogies and technologies [61]. Ultimately, integrating pedagogy and technology improves student engagement and learning outcomes in higher

education. However, the effective use of technology with pedagogical understanding also demands high level of professional skills from teachers to maximise its impact on students. Through this process, the effectiveness of technology in educational activities and its suitability for different target groups can be assessed [62].

According to the modern definition, pedagogical technology is not limited to the use of technical teaching aids or devices; rather, it is the identification of principles and the development of techniques for improving the educational process by analysing factors that increase educational efficiency, designing and applying techniques and materials, and evaluating the methods employed [63]. As in higher education, most students are young adults or adults, so guiding their learning through technology and digital space is good for students' self-paced agentic learning. Teachers who are teaching in higher education institutes are having training on Technological, Pedagogical and Content Knowledge (TPACK), and developing their pedagogical practices using the TPACK model (**Figure 1**, [64]) within blended, digital, flipped classrooms, which are heavily dependent on technological knowledge.

#### **4.3 Participatory pedagogical approaches and students as co-creators of knowledge**

Education as a process has a lot to offer in fostering democratic practices and giving students opportunities and confidence to become decision-makers in shaping

#### **Figure 1.**

*Diagrammatic presentation of the technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge framework updated to include context [64].*

#### *Participatory Pedagogical Approaches in Higher Education: Understanding from the Practices… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114070*

their learning journey and deciding their own learning outcomes. Thus, participatory pedagogical approaches are one of the key determinants for providing students with the opportunities to become the co-creators of knowledge and skills they need to meet the demands of the 21st century. In higher education, research and practice using the notion of 'students as co-creator' in learning and teaching have gained increasing attention [36, 65, 66]. Although relatively broad, the majority of these studies have been conducted in Australia, Canada, Scandinavian countries, the United Kingdom, and the United States [66], mostly in the Global North.

In pedagogical practices and educational research, student engagement refers to a wide variety of in-class and out-of-class activities that teachers plan to motivate and interest students, as well as the time and effort they invest in meaningful activities [67]. However, the terms 'partnership', 'students as partners', and 'co-creator of learning and instruction' are frequently used interchangeably ([21], p. 1024). The term 'partnership' is sometimes resisted by teaching staff of higher education institutes, as some teachers find its radical implications threatening and disengaging. Similarly, the phrase 'students as partners' has been criticised for only naming one of the partners [65]. Nevertheless, teachers frequently welcome the opportunity to discuss co-creation in the context of student agency, learner empowerment, shared decisionmaking, and negotiation of learning and teaching.

In addition, a great deal of diversity in the types of co-creation that are being practised around the world, with a focus on various activities, actors, and goals. Examples include students co-researching university-wide projects and acting as change agents [68], students collaborating with staff in conducting research and scholarship projects [69], and student representatives working with university staff on committees for quality assurance and enhancement purposes [68, 70]. This has been linked to a partnership movement ([65], p. 209), but it is a movement that embraces a variety of emphasis, motivations, methods, values, and outcomes. Ensuring clarity about the nature of co-creation practices being described, researched, and discussed globally is one of the challenges presented by this rich diversity. This clarity is presently crucial for researchers to build on existing data and foster deeper discussions and understandings within the field.

It is important to explore the roles that students take during co-creating knowledge at the higher education level. Bovill et al. [71] developed a typology outlining four roles that students play in co-creation endeavours: representative, consultant, coresearcher, and pedagogical co-designer. Although the roles frequently overlap, this model allows us to distinguish between them. The student representative role, which is typically an elected position involving a small group of students representing a larger group of students. The consultant or intern role, which frequently involves students being selected by staff and is typically paid to collaborate on projects, and the co-researchers and pedagogical co-designer roles, where students may or may not be selected depending on the project's specifics. On the other hand, Buckley [72] proposes a different classification, dividing student engagement into two main areas of focus: the pedagogical and the political, with the former focusing on learning and teaching and the latter on university governance. This classification includes much partnership and co-creation work. Furthermore, Bryson et al. [73] suggest a third typology that the students who are engaged in partnerships can classify the work that has already been done by students in partnerships. When two models of partnerships are used, model A involves only a small group of students interacting with staff, while model B involves all students enrolled in the curriculum. Nevertheless, Bovill and Woolmer [74] shed light on the topic from two significant dimensions, i.e.,

co-creation curriculum (co-designing a programme or course, typically before the programme or course begins) and curriculum co-creation (co-design of learning and teaching within a course or programme usually during the course or programme). Therefore, it can be summarised that in participatory pedagogical approaches in higher education, researchers broadly identified the roles of students as co-creators of knowledge, co-researchers, co-curriculum developers and co-governors.

#### **4.4 Whole-class engagement strategies through participatory pedagogy and co-creation of knowledge**

Whole-class co-creation in higher education teaching and learning means inviting all students in a face-to-face or online classroom to actively collaborate and negotiate with the instructor and with one another on the different aspects of the learning process. This may involve negotiating the content or subject matter, the purpose of their work, the pedagogical approach, the numerous methods they can use to work and learn together, or their preferred learning style for evaluation. Whole class engagement in learning differs in practices and definitions. Still, it typically entails students in participating, interacting, or contributing mentally or physically to information gathering activities, problem-solving and knowledge reflection. This typically includes activities such as reading, writing, discussion, small-group work, values, and attitude exploration [21]. Formative assessment being a part of the learning process is also included as a strategy to engage the whole class when discussing co-created learning and instruction. Students who are involved in self-assessment, peer assessment, and providing feedback to peers and course teachers are some ways involved in co-creating the assessment system too [75]. The term co-created curriculum is not as widespread and common practice as it should have been because of the lack of agreement over how higher education curriculum is defined and the consequent impact on what students are invited to co-create [74]. Thus, co-creating some of the components of the curriculum is more common in higher education systems than the full curriculum.

In co-creation, the purposes, resources, methods, assessments and outcomes of learning and teaching are jointly negotiated, and there is a shared vision, a shared responsibility for learning that implies greater student agency and empowerment than just active learning. Co-creation involves fostering deeper relationships between students and their teachers and among students themselves [76]. These, in combination, increase active participation for the whole class engagement and quality learning in higher education.

#### **5. Pedagogical approaches in higher education in different countries**

#### **5.1 Pedagogical practices in Bangladesh**

#### *5.1.1 Background*

The primary objective of higher education in Bangladesh, as outlined in the National Education Policy-2010, is to foster the generation of new knowledge, alongside developing a competent workforce in the country. Currently, a total of 169 universities (54 public, 112 private, and 3 international) provide tertiary education (undergraduate and postgraduate studies) to nearly 1.24 million students across the country [77, 78]. The Madrasas, religious education institutions, also offer Fazil and

#### *Participatory Pedagogical Approaches in Higher Education: Understanding from the Practices… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114070*

Kamil degrees, which are equivalent to bachelor's and master's levels, respectively. Islamic Arabic University, Bangladesh regulates these faith-based higher educational institutions. In 2021, a total of 22,636 Fazil Madrasas and 6739 Kamil Madrashas throughout the country provided tertiary education to nearly 0.8 million students [78].

In the last decade, many studies have been conducted on pedagogical approaches and methods in teaching and learning around the world. However, few studies are found in this regard in the Bangladeshi context. In Bangladesh, where traditional teaching and learning approaches are still prevailing in higher educational institutions [79], the educational arrangements, curriculum, instruction and assessment have been analysed in order to understand how they align with student-centred, participatory, and co-creative pedagogical approaches. In addition to document analysis and empirical research evidence, the authors share their perspectives, given that they have all studied in Bangladeshi higher educational institutions and three of them have direct teaching experience.

#### *5.1.2 Lecture-based teaching and learning*

Students in Bangladeshi higher educational institutions experience teacher-centric lecture-based teaching and learning processes mostly in social science, humanities and business studies related disciplines compared to the science, technology, and engineering-related disciplines where students get chances to learn through hands-on practices in laboratories and industries [79]. This is a one-way communication in which pupils remain basically passive in class. While the world is observing a shift towards participatory approaches of teaching and learning, these approaches are yet to be implemented in Bangladesh [80]. The lecture method of teaching and learning is becoming ineffective for students in the classroom due to its strict adherence and the dominating role of the teachers in the process. The traditional mindsets of some teachers, high teacherstudent ratio, assessment-driven teaching and learning system, content-based curriculum, short class duration, existing fixed classroom stuff, unusual size of the classroom, and the lack of instructional tools and technology are major factors that hinder the effective implementation of these participatory approaches [81].

#### *5.1.3 Pedagogical practices*

In the higher education institutions of Bangladesh, various pedagogical practices can be observed and it varies from public universities to private universities and even in universityaffiliated postgraduate colleges. Also, as universities offer a wide range of disciplines, applications of different pedagogical approaches are also common and accepted. Majority of the public universities in Bangladesh usually do not use the Learning Management System (LMS) for teaching and learning activities. The lecture hour usually lasts from 1 to 1.5 hours and in most cases, lecture sessions are less interactive and less participatory [82]. Teaching styles, delivery of sessions, and classroom activities largely do not follow any unified or specified approach but depend on individual teachers' personal choices. Participatory pedagogy appears to be a relatively new phenomenon in Bangladesh and has received insufficient logistical support and attention; hence no research has been done yet [83].

#### *5.1.4 Teacher training*

Teacher training is significantly lacking at the higher education level, despite it being recognised as a hurdle in achieving high-quality education [84–86].

The Graduate Training Institute (GTI) is the only recognised institute to provide pedagogical training to teachers from both public and private universities [83]. Recognising the significance of teacher training in higher education, the University Grants Commission (UGC) has collaborated with the British Council to establish the Centre of Excellence in Teaching and Learning (CoETL) at six public universities [87], as well as several private universities. Other universities, through their Institutional Quality Assurance Cell (IQAC), organise in-house day-long training, seminars and workshops on limited topics for their faculty members on an ad hoc basis.

Early-career university teachers possess a strong grasp of subject matter expertise within their respective fields, but their understanding of effective teaching methods is limited [88]. The university teachers unanimously recognised the importance of a well-structured teacher training programme that equips them with the practical application of pedagogical theories in their specific teaching contexts. Evidence indicates that pedagogical training significantly impacted the fostering of conceptual change, the adoption of a student-centred approach, and the enhancement of selfefficacy beliefs [89].

#### *5.1.5 Interdisciplinary courses*

With time, Bangladeshi higher education institutions have acknowledged the need for multidisciplinary research in tackling intricate, practical issues. Multidisciplinary courses generally integrate concepts and approaches from other academic fields to offer a comprehensive and balanced education [90]. The following are some typical interdisciplinary courses offer by Bangladeshi universities: environmental studies, disaster management, digital media studies, business analytics, international relations and diplomacy. Programmes and courses offered by different colleges may vary depending on the faculty's specialisations and areas of competence [90, 91].

#### *5.1.6 Feedback*

The amount of formative evaluation feedback that students receive in Bangladeshi public higher education institutions varies. Some teachers and programmes actively provide it, but this is not always the case. Conversely, private higher education institutions typically keep a closer check on the performance of their faculty members and guarantee regular feedback. A study conducted on five renowned private universities in Bangladesh reported that the concept of feedback is no longer abstract; instead, educators are practising it in the field using a range of methods and a positive outlook [92]. Additionally, both the teachers and students agreed that feedback is essential for fostering engagement and interaction and helping students perform better. Nonetheless, it is important to highlight that not all higher education institutions have a strong feedback culture, and in certain instances, there may not even be a desire to create one. These practices are similar to what Hanefar et al. [93] noticed in their research on formative assessment practices.

#### *5.1.7 Specific contact hours*

There is a variance in contact hours between university policies and course delivery methods in Bangladesh. Contact hours at semester-based universities are usually determined by the credit hours allotted to the individual courses. There is a common practice in academia, also prescribed by the Bangladesh Accreditation

#### *Participatory Pedagogical Approaches in Higher Education: Understanding from the Practices… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114070*

Council, that 1 credit theory course requires 3 hours lecture while 1 credit practical course requires 2-hours laboratory work in a week of 14 weeks long semester system [94]. Formalising office hours, mentorship, and tutoring is not a common practice in many universities. Nevertheless, to support their students, a lot of university teachers provide unofficial help and advice outside of established lecture times [95]. Bangladesh Open University offers its students in-person tutorial classes in a few carefully chosen centres apart from its main campus [96].

#### *5.1.8 Research and independent inquiry*

While Bangladeshi university teachers are expected to engage in ongoing research as a prerequisite for career advancement and tenure extension, their role in some cases extends beyond individual research endeavours to fostering a collaborative environment for knowledge co-creation with students. Although providing students with contemporary, evidence-based education is encouraged, it is not obligatory. Instead, the emphasis lies on encouraging students to engage in more independent research and inquiry during the final years of students' academic life. In some universities, it is worth noting that specific and intensive research-focused courses for students are not readily accessible, and students face constraints when conducting research and exploring diverse research paradigms, designs, and tools [97]. To promote knowledge co-creation, Bangladeshi universities should prioritise the development of research-oriented curricula and provide students with ample opportunities to collaborate with faculty on research projects.

#### *5.1.9 Internationalised diversity*

Bangladesh has become an increasingly attractive destination for international students from South Asia, the Middle East, and African countries, seeking higher education opportunities at the lowest cost, especially in medical science. Both private and public universities in Bangladesh have opened their doors to students from diverse backgrounds, fostering a vibrant and multicultural learning environment. Public universities and medical colleges have students from neighbouring countries. Many private universities have started admitting students from African continents. These international students are drawn to Bangladesh's educational institutions for their quality academic programmes, affordable tuition fees, lower living cost, and the opportunity to experience a rich cultural tapestry. Their presence enriches not only the academic discourse but also strengthens global connections and collaborations, contributing to a more inclusive and diverse higher education landscape in Bangladesh. A study conducted by Luqman et al. [98] revealed noteworthy challenges faced by international undergraduate and postgraduate students studying in Bangladesh based on their participation in university activities, levels of cultural stress, communication difficulties, and socio-demographic characteristics. The results showed that cultural stress and academic obstacles substantially impact overseas students' academic success. In order to prepare international students for interaction and a successful life in the host community, the study suggests that institutions set up classes for training in local communication skills.

#### *5.1.10 Assessment method*

Regarding assessment in university courses, two-pronged methods are usually used: formative and summative assessments. According to this assessment paradigm, formative assessments typically receive 40% or less of the overall weightage, while summative assessments receive 60%. Assessment methods also vary between the public and private universities, and while some institutions use the UGC's grading scheme, most of them have their own policies for assessments [99]. Formative assessment in Bangladeshi universities often involves a range of techniques, including class tests, field excursions, projects, quizzes, assignments, presentations, and class participation. The emphasis on formative assessment aligns with the principles of participatory pedagogy, which encourages active engagement and student ownership of the learning process. These techniques are frequently used to assess students' continuous improvement and comprehension throughout the course. However, summative assessment techniques, which evaluate the total learning results, usually involve written exams, viva voce exams, capstone projects, theses, monographs, project papers, and other such materials. The results of these summative tests are crucial in establishing how well the students have understood the course material overall. In addition to traditional assessment methods, online assessment has gained much attention in Bangladesh, particularly during and after the COVID-19 pandemic [2]. Adopting online assessments has also opened up new possibilities for Bangladeshi universities to incorporate participatory pedagogies into summative assessments, such as collaborative online projects and assignments.

#### *5.1.11 Teacher-centric approach*

The implementation of participatory pedagogies in Bangladeshi universities faces significant challenges due to the prevalence of teacher-centred approaches resulting from high student-teacher ratios. Changing the educational method to become more student-centred can be difficult due to the vast quantity of pupils compared to the number of teaching staff. As a result, there are few possibilities for targeted instruction and tailored attention, and instructional approaches and interactions are typically more instructor-driven. Even if there might be initiatives to encourage student involvement and engagement, Bangladesh's higher education system may find it challenging to completely implement a student-centred strategy due to high teacherstudent ratio and resource limitations [100].

#### *5.1.12 Learning management system (LMS)*

Adopting Learning Management Systems (LMS) has quickly gained popularity in Bangladeshi higher education as a means of planning and delivering teaching and learning [101]. Several LMSs were widely used in Bangladeshi higher education institutions, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic [102] to increase student attendance and enhance student engagement. The popularity of various LMS platforms may shift over time when new systems are developed. Specifically, popular LMS platforms at the time included Moodle, Blackboard, Canvas, Edmodo, Google Classroom, and customised LMS solutions. Moodle, well-known for its global reach, was liked for its adaptability and open-source nature, and was adopted by several public and private educational institutions in Bangladesh. For example, in order to improve teaching and learning, BRAC University and the University of Liberal Arts (ULAB) devised a system and introduced Moodle [103]. Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Digital University, Bangladesh (BDU), a public university chose Moodle as its Learning Management System. North South University signed an agreement with Canvas, a worldwide acclaimed LMS, in 2021 [104]. The University of Dhaka implemented 'DUBDLMS', an LMS software, in 2023, to automate portions of its educational procedures.

#### **5.2 Pedagogical practices in the UK**

#### *5.2.1 Small group interactive teaching*

Universities in the UK mostly offer small-group face-to-face or remote teaching and learning activities, allowing more interaction between students and teachers. This approach is designed to provide sufficient attention and support to each student by their tutors and ensure their student's active participation and learning in lectures [105, 106]. The authors argued that it is important to debate on inclusion in the modern UK by pointing out pedagogical problems and taking advantage of the small group teaching philosophy. The universities encourage teachers to incorporate their research into their teaching, which means that students learn from academics that are experts in their field and are up-to-date with the latest developments in their subject area. Students are encouraged to question assumptions, evaluate evidence, and develop their own ideas and opinions. Moreover, lecture sessions include group work, peer work, individual work and several other wide ranges of tasks ensure student active engagement and participation [107]. Such approaches help to develop students' communication, critical thinking, collaboration, analytical and problem-solving skills, etc. and prepare them for success in their careers.

#### *5.2.2 Independent learning*

The UK's universities strongly emphasise independent and self-directed learning [108]. Findings from the research of Morris [108] emphasised how crucial it is to seize the chance to develop students' self-directed learning proficiency in formal educational environments. In the UK universities, students are expected to take responsibility for their own learning and to engage in self-directed study outside of formal class time. Students are encouraged to read and take notes from a list of the mandatory and additional reading lists, which might include books, book chapters, research articles, reports, periodicals and case studies. This approach helps develop students' research, independent and academic reading, critical reasoning, and time-management skills. By engaging in self-reading and learning, students acquire prior knowledge and understanding of given topics which allows them to meaningfully engage in discussions and debates with their peers and teachers during classroom activities. This approach also helps create a supportive and interactive learning environment that fosters students' critical thinking and analytical skills. The courses and teaching timetables are also designed in a way that the students get plenty of time for their independent learning and development.

#### *5.2.3 Learning management system (LMS)*

The use of the Learning Management System (LMS) in teaching and learning is also very common in the UK universities. The widely used LMS in the UK is 'Moodle' which creates a Virtual Learning Environment (VEL) for both teachers and students [103]. There are four major VLEs namely Moodle, Blackboard, Canvas, and Brightspace which higher education institutions use in the UK, and they require first internet connectivity to operate. LMS is a flexible web platform developed and

designed to support classroom teaching and activities and currently significantly impacts knowledge acquisition [109]. LMS can contain a vast range of resources and materials that both teachers and students can easily access and use anytime from any location. LMS serves various purposes; for instance, it contains teaching and learning materials, reading materials and instructions for individual learning, announcements and updates for students, and it can also be used for assignment submission, assignment feedback by tutors, etc. Such LMS are popular with teachers and students for its accessibility and efficacy.

#### *5.2.4 Flexible learning environment*

Universities in the UK provide a flexible learning environment that allows students to tailor their learning experiences to meet their individual needs. For example, students can choose from a wide range of courses and modules and can also choose to study full-time, part-time, through both face-to-face and online modalities or even entirely distance learning. At undergraduate and postgraduate levels, students often enjoy the opportunity to select course-specific optional modules and additional modules from other disciplines such as language or arts modules for the fulfilment of their respective degrees. Moreover, students also enjoy a 'change of mind period' where they can further amend the selected courses and then enrol into their choices of courses. Many universities offer project-based activities or internship opportunities instead of research or dissertation work. Evidence suggests that students also prefer a flexible learning environment [110].

#### *5.2.5 Research-led teaching and students' involvement in research*

Most of the UK universities are known for their research-led teaching and learning. The end goal of many academic programmes is the active participation of students in research. These research projects develop not only the students' critical thinking skills but also add significantly to the epistemological pool of the UK [111]. This means that students are taught by academics that are actively engaged in research and are experts in their field having contemporary and advanced knowledge. This approach helps to ensure that students are exposed to the latest developments and ideas in their subject area. This method is successfully administered when the courses are holistically merged with the curriculum aimed to achieve a specific goal, divided into a manageable number of themes. One of this method's salient features is reading before the lecture or seminar session. The lecture sessions are mostly based on a certain theme, and at least half the sessions are dedicated to students' discussions based on their pre-reading and the lectures. Most of the sessions are interactive, follow participatory approaches and offer plenty of time for students, reflection on the topics. By actively participating in research and the research cultures of their departments and disciplines, students who participate in research-based learning can transform themselves into intellectual producers. As a result, these pedagogies offer the opportunity for a critical and beneficial intervention against certain detrimental trends in educational reform, both in the UK and internationally [112, 113].

#### *5.2.6 Academic writing and construction*

The UK's universities have evidence of offering in-course and external support for developing academic writing and construction [114]. The course-ending with an

#### *Participatory Pedagogical Approaches in Higher Education: Understanding from the Practices… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114070*

assignment or a project requires constant development over a semester. Students are supported by instructing them to begin with a small idea and slowly develop it over a planned course of time. The course teachers monitor this process with utmost precision and occasional case extensions. Moreover, multiple out-of-course supports are offered by the university or at the faculty or school or department level to develop academic writing, paper or assignment writing, formatting, idea-development sessions, and writing boot camps. One form of such support is 'tutorial' support, where students in a group or sometimes individual students can directly discuss with their tutors, which helps them to deepen their understanding and reduce ambiguity over assignment topics. Additionally, there are provisions of writing and academic consultation support provided by a specialised group of academics or departmental units in most of the universities, undergoing these various modalities of writing development creates a lasting effect on the students' overall learning. A large number of international students are also heavily benefiting from this method of writing skill development [115].

#### *5.2.7 Tutor-based education*

Most of the UK universities have a personal tutor system, which provides students with a dedicated academic advisor who can offer guidance and support throughout their academic journey [116]. The personal tutoring system supports students to settle into their studies and deal with their mental well-being and other additional and need-based issues. The first aspect of the tutoring system is dedicated seminars for individuals who need help with their academic and non-academic issues. As previously mentioned, the traditional lectures accompany heavy loads of reading. The universities arrange formative sessions of supervision and doubt clearance on the thematic readings. Secondly, as the overall goals of the courses end up with a final assessment including assignments or project reports, mostly involving writing, periodical supervision is offered to all the students or small groups of students to ensure their progress. This approach helps to ensure that students receive individual attention and can access support when needed.

#### *5.2.8 Assessment method and feedback*

Assessment in UK higher education is typically based on various methods, including essays, exams, presentations, and practical assessments, to ensure that students are assessed in various ways. This allows students to demonstrate their knowledge and skills in a range of contexts and helps to ensure that they are wellrounded in their learning. Students receive regular feedback on their work throughout the academic year, which helps them to improve their performance and achieve their full potential. University mostly provides a student handbook that entails detailed guidelines of assignments, exams, marking criteria etc. along with information on the student code of conduct, academic integrity and so on. After both formative and summative assessments, students get detailed comments from their teachers regarding what they can improve further. This feedback is provided with privacy using online portals where only students can access their own feedback and work on that [117–119].

#### *5.2.9 Global education*

Universities in the UK are considered international higher education institutions with students and faculty members from across the globe. The university encourages its students to develop a global perspective and intercultural communication skills by providing a range of opportunities for students to study abroad and engage in international research projects. This helps teachers to create a diverse and inclusive learning environment that prepares students for the global workforce [115].

#### *5.2.10 Internationalised diversity*

Internationalised diversity is one of the salient features of the classrooms in the British higher education institutions. Many students from around the globe join with their own respective backgrounds, contexts, and lenses while making sense of their higher education learning journey. Their socio-economic, political, psychological, and ethnic being bring them as unique contributors within the wider context as they also bring their own perspectives in an ongoing conversation and discourse. The students add invariably new borders to the teaching and learning process, and the contents automatically make them co-creators of knowledge.

#### *5.2.11 Pedagogical approaches*

Higher education in the UK primarily employs student-centred pedagogical approaches [120]. Feeding more to the discussion of ensuring students' participation as co-creators of knowledge, departments undertake pedagogical approaches that support the learning goals. Academics design the instructional materials to put the students at the centre of their learning activities. Teachers remain as facilitators, whereas the students perform all the actions ranging from reading to designing and implementing a project. Moreover, the students are ignited to pursue independent inquiry, and the facilitators monitor them methodically. Critical thinking is one of the most vital characteristics of a student-centred education. The concept of critical thinking is prevalent throughout education, and it is constantly linked to reason, which is seen as the primary goal of education in the Western world [121].

#### *5.2.12 Independent inquiry*

Independent inquiry being the key driving force of the Western higher education systems. British universities follow a structure for nurturing students' questions throughout their academic journey. Even though examinations are popular modalities of assessing students worldwide, writing assignments, term papers or essays are accepted as a standard of assessing the students' interest in finding answers to their inquiries. A primary example can be the term-ending papers or end of the module assignments, the topic of which is proposed by the students individually. In most cases, the topic is chosen by the individual student at the beginning of the term based on their own interests. The term is divided into different themes, and the students simultaneously continue developing their topical ideas with the relevant learnings from those themes. Their development of ideas and the quest to find answers to respective questions are monitored and supported over time. Secondly, by the end of an academic level, students are expected to submit a dissertation which supposedly has undergone gradual evolution. This dissertation is completely based on the students' personal inquiries or hypotheses.

Students pursuing post-secondary education in the UK are considered to have proven to possess a certain level of intellectual achievement, capacity, and interest to perform in the scholarly arena. Therefore, their respective institutions treat them as young scholars, and faculty members' philosophical standing shows that the students are equals. This

#### *Participatory Pedagogical Approaches in Higher Education: Understanding from the Practices… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114070*

is not only how the students are addressed but also is reflected in the ratio of participation in academic activities [122, 123]. However, undergraduate students sometimes are treated as students who are still consolidating their area of interest, while postgraduate students are already given the responsibility to join in co-creating knowledge along with the faculty members. This mode of pedagogy became more popular among students after COVID-19 pandemic and the inclusion of blended and online-based asynchronous courses where students progress at their own pace and flexibility [124].

#### *5.2.13 Specific contact hours*

In most of the courses, timetables are designed in a way that allows sufficient teacher-student contact hours which include lectures as well as seminars, workshops, lab work activities, etc. For each module, the total duration of lecture and activity hours in a particular semester mostly varies on course credits hours; however, the time span for each day session typically lasts 2–3 hours. Within these face-to-face sessions, teachers plan interactive and participatory activities to deliver the contents and ensure expected learning outcomes. Apart from regular lectures, seminars and other activities, students also get direct group or individual tutorial support. Additionally, students can ask for one-to-one support from tutors if needed. After COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a change in the traditional contact hour rules for university courses. Constraints in resource, time, and space during the pandemic made university leaderships think and come up with more practical solutions like online and blended courses [125, 126].

#### *5.2.14 Students' feedback*

Getting feedback from students is one of the key features of the UK higher education system in terms of the course, teacher evaluation and curriculum development. In UK educational institutions, students' feedback is deemed valuable and is taken into consideration to evaluate the course contents, curriculum and assessment process, teachers' support and performance, etc. After the end of each core or optional module, feedback from the students is collected mostly electronically to assess overall efficacy and draw recommendations to improve students' experience and satisfaction. In some universities, most of the courses have either selected or elected course representatives who act as the voice of all students and gather feedback from students to present in quarterly review and assessment meetings. Based on this feedback, necessary revisions and amendments are taken in terms of content and curriculum, teaching and learning activities, teacher's support and assessment process etc. [127].

#### *5.2.15 Cross-disciplinary classrooms*

One distinctive feature of the UK higher education institutes is that it offers a multi-disciplinary approach to learning. While designing the curricula, related cross disciplinary contents are considered to introduce students to a wide realm of knowledge and enable them to learn and think from different perspectives. Students are offered with different optional and cross-disciplinary modules that they can study along with the core modules. Also, while delivering such modules or contents, teachers from other disciplines collaborate and the collaboration is not often limited within the same university but goes beyond different cities or even regions [128].

#### **5.3 Pedagogical practices in the USA**

#### *5.3.1 Focus of higher education*

The focus of the higher education system in the United States is multifaceted. The country has sought to make higher education more accountable by focusing more on students' learning outcomes. The professional training programme for future teachers is also a focus of the higher education system in the United States. The country has a massive enterprise in higher education, defined by both excellent and dubious providers, broad inclusion, and steep inequality. The United States higher education system has been at the forefront of international education [129]. In current practice, vocationalism or employability is deeply embedded in the USA higher education system. Reform efforts need to focus on ways to integrate vocational purposes with broader goals of civic engagement, intellectual development, and moral reasoning [87, 130–133]. In the USA, teachers in higher education follow various pedagogical approaches depending on modality, discipline, and students' backgrounds. Nevertheless, one of the main goals of formal higher education is to develop critical thinking among students, which is done through the classroom engagement of students.

#### *5.3.2 Open curriculum*

The higher education system of the USA is known for its open curriculum for its students. Kelly [134] defined an 'open curriculum' as a flexible educational approach where students can accommodate their learning needs based on their future aspirations by acknowledging their previously acquired relevant education and skills. From undergraduate level programmes to the highest degrees offered in the universities the flexibility might vary, but along with teacher-created traditional curricula, the students are also responsible for co-designing curriculum along the course which is termed as co-creation of curriculum in some cases [74]. This process helps the teaching and learning process by focusing on students' learning needs and improving their learning experiences. The flexibility in course selection and self-paced learning also forces the students to communicate with their course teachers and other students in the programme who help them to figure out their own pathway to reach their expected goals. This process keeps the students more invested and engaged in their own learning process [35]. The teaching process in the USA universities has many unique qualities. One of them is cocreating the course syllabus. Even though the faculties develop the course syllabi, in many cases, students can provide input in the process [135]. Most of the syllabus can add students' interest areas relevant to the topics. The faculties discuss their syllabus in the first class and then discuss students' expectations from the course before finalising their syllabi. This also empowers students to contribute to their own learning process and motivates them to engage critically. This practice is more common in graduate-level courses.

#### *5.3.3 Students as co-creators of knowledge*

The co-creation of knowledge is seen as a way to enhance student learning and engagement and promote innovation and collaboration [136]. This approach involves

#### *Participatory Pedagogical Approaches in Higher Education: Understanding from the Practices… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114070*

students and teachers working together to create new knowledge and solve problems. This philosophy shapes their pedagogy and the process of engaging students in class as scholarly colleagues of their teachers. This philosophy also invites students to have a dialogue with their classmates and teachers. This process not only empowers students as new scholars but also forces them to think critically about the topic and their understanding of the topic.

The universities in the USA believe that students are co-creators of knowledge instead of knowledge replicators or consumers. The co-creation of knowledge is a growing trend in higher education in the USA. Many universities in the USA have implemented programmes that encourage the co-creation of knowledge. For example, some universities have established undergraduate and postgraduate research programmes that allow students to work with their teachers on research projects. These programmes provide students with hands-on experience in research and allow them to contribute to creating new knowledge [21]. Another example of the co-creation of knowledge in the USA is using service-learning programmes. These programmes allow students to apply their knowledge and skills to real-world problems to gain experience, and learn from the communities they serve. Servicelearning programmes are seen as a way to promote civic engagement and social responsibility, while also enhancing student learning from real-life experience.

Overall, co-creating knowledge is becoming an increasingly important focus in higher education in the USA. By involving students in creating new knowledge, universities promote innovation, collaboration, and engagement while also preparing students for success in their future careers.

#### *5.3.4 Student engagement and participation*

Student engagement and their active participation are crucial aspects of the higher education experience in the United States. Engaged students are more likely to be successful academically, graduate on time, and find fulfilling careers. Participation in classroom discussions, group projects, and extracurricular activities can help students to develop critical thinking, communication, and teamwork skills [137]. Instead of merely talking in class about the discussion topic, it requires preparation for thoughtful contributions to the learning process and the learning community, in this case, classroom learning. The small group approach, group discussion, and then sharing that discussion with the bigger group and answering questions to clarify the discussion points. It not only develop students' cognition processes but also make them realise the importance of disseminating ideas for scrutiny. This kind of classroom practice shifts the classroom ecology from authoritarian to democratic practices [138].

#### *5.3.5 Research and fieldwork for co-creating knowledge*

Like many renowned universities across the globe, adding research and experience relevant to the topic is also highly encouraged in higher education institutions in the USA. The faculties not only talk about their own experiences but also bring in experts from different fields to provide a better understanding of that research area. These shared experiences encourage the students to ask questions and interact with the experts in that field and try to attain diversity and justice in the research arena [139]. It also helps the diverse students in the higher education

institutions to be updated about the relevant research in the field. In some cases, they are offered to take part in various fieldwork projects as research assistants based on their areas of interest to gain some field experience.

#### *5.3.6 Critical thinking and independent study*

All the students are expected to complete the readings (such as books, book chapters, papers, blogs, etc.) assigned for each week based on the topics that will be discussed in class. The pre-sessional reading also guides them to ask critical questions related to on going discussion and the content of the topic. The discussion not only assists the students in learning better but also provides in-depth knowledge about the fieldwork [140].

Higher education in the USA also promotes self-regulation. The students are provided with the resources and constantly encouraged to think about how to use these resources best to develop knowledge and understanding in their interest areas. The contents or theories discussed in courses are often required to be used for classroom activities and are encouraged to connect them with the student's topic of interest to explore deeply. As a part of the co-creation of the syllabus, students in some courses have the liberty to choose their own readings in addition to the required ones and bring those to the class for discussion. These critical reading and independent study practices aim to prepare students for critical thinking and make them take charge of their learning [141, 142].

#### *5.3.7 Learning resources and support for students*

The higher education system of the USA not only provides various learning resources to students through physical library facilities, but also assist and support them to use those resources. The universities also offer digital or distance library facilities where students can access books, articles, book chapters, etc. through digital libraries. Faculty members now also suggest study materials which are not typical textbooks but rather open educational resources (OER) which students can access without spending money [143]. Moreover, students can request the library to buy books and articles if they cannot find what they want in the current library repository. One very interesting programme of these libraries is that they offer students to borrow books from other libraries, called inter-library loans. So, for urgent use, students can check the books they want through an online portal from other universities and request for borrowing them through their home university. Along with students, teachers are also encouraged to participate in various workshops and courses, to improve and share their pedagogical knowledge and practices with each other. There are some resources where teachers can seek support for learning, teaching and research. These additional supports with study materials and resources help students engage in participatory pedagogy in their courses. Research indicates that having free and open educational resources, library resources help students to achieve learning outcomes better [143].

The universities also offer writing resources for students. They provide with various online resources, i.e., how to write undergraduate and graduate scholarly pieces and provide support in specific areas of writing, for example, writing structures for essay writing, dissertation writing, and creative writing. Apart from this,

#### *Participatory Pedagogical Approaches in Higher Education: Understanding from the Practices… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114070*

for the non-English speaking international students, there are tutoring centres where they work with the tutors to improve their English writing skills. Also, they assist in reviewing write-ups for assignments and scholarly writing. Students can send their scholarly piece through an online portal to the writing tutors and they provide feedback on the writing structure, grammar, coherence of the content and other areas of writing. The tutors also provide guidelines for different referencing styles, like APA, Harvard, Chicago, etc. based on the preference of the student's affiliated department. These resources and support from the university help to increase students' selfefficacy and proficiency in writing [32].

#### *5.3.8 Learning management systems (LMS) and digital tools*

The universities use learning management systems (LMS) (e.g., Canvas, Google Classroom, Blackboard, etc.) to distribute learning materials and support the students to be up-to-date with the course work and their assignments. The virtual environment helps the learners to communicate with the course teachers and other students. Teachers use LMS to provide the course resources like syllabus, reading documents, and links. The students can also provide their assignments through this same platform. One of the unique features of LMS is the link to similarity or plagiarism detection tools, such as Turnitin, iThenticate. Students can check their work for plagiarism through LMS and work on it to reduce similarity and improve their work before final submission [144, 145].

One of the other resources the universities provide is the software or digital tools that enhance students' learning. Writing software like MS Office, referencing software for their scholarly writing like, Endnote, Mendeley, Zotero, data analysis software like SPSS, STATA, SAS, R, and many more. Moreover, the university provides tutorials and training to use these software. Providing these software not only enhances students' scholarly work but also helps students to explore various software to use in their work which in turn makes them more tech savvy and develops their skills for their future employment. The university also provides virtual desktop support. The software that cannot be used outside of the university network for safety or licencing issues, can be accessed through a virtual desktop from the student's home.

#### *5.3.9 Interdisciplinarity and cross-disciplinarity courses*

Cross-disciplinary learning is one of the prominent features of the USA's universities. In most courses students from different (relevant) multiple disciplines are enrolled in the course. That ensures a curriculum that would cater to all of them within the boundary of the course's aim. In this process, the course can also provide a more holistic perspective to the students. These inter and cross-disciplinary courses also encourage discussions in class, and students can explore the topics from the perspective of different disciplines. This overview helps the students to engage critically in the course as well [146].

#### *5.3.10 Learning assessment*

The USA universities use both formative and summative assessments to assess students in higher education [147]. A big percentage of assessment is dedicated to formative assessment, through students' weekly reflective journals or posts, regular graded homework based on the weekly readings that may later be a part of a bigger summative assignment, and critical engagement in class and on the online discussion boards. In many courses, students are expected to review their peers' work based on rubrics which helps the students to reflect critically on their peer's papers and provide feedback to improve their work before submitting that to the teachers [148]. Once submitted, the teachers provide regular and timely feedback for each component to improve students' understanding of the coursework and expectations. The rest are part of summative assignments where students are expected to demonstrate their understanding of the course through developing scholarly papers, research proposals or projects. Self-assessment is an essential part of many courses. Along with assignments and homework, students are expected to write a paragraph assessing their own work. They grade their own work and reflect on what they have done and what could help them to improve their work. This self-assessment or grading mostly reflects on teachers' grading and feedback.

#### *5.3.11 Contact hour*

Universities have specified contact hours for each course depending on their credit hours [149, 150]. Based on that, each course is designed and planned. Most of the courses have 2.5-to-3-hour contact hours per week which is mandatory to attend. On top of mandatory in-person sessions, every week teachers have specified office hours when students can go to meet course teacher with or without a prior appointment and discuss any issues or ask any questions they might regarding the course.

#### *5.3.12 Students' involvement in teaching and learning evaluation*

Teacher evaluation is essential to quality assurance in the USA's universities (U.S. Department of Education, 2010). It is regarded as a very important part of a student's responsibilities. It can be used as a process and outcome of university and collegelevel courses. It is also a process to acknowledge the performance of the instructor and guide future plans for the course. This process not only guides the faculties to understand what is working but also points out the shortcomings of the course. This helps the institutions to check if the course goals are being achieved and align with expected outcomes from students' perspectives. In many courses, the faculties keep open space for adding new relevant topics based on students' interests and expectations that align with the goal of the course based on previous evaluation. This middleand end-of-course evaluation is a good way to be involved in transforming pedagogies by students.

#### **6. Comparative analysis of pedagogical approaches used in different countries**

See **Table 1**.


*Participatory Pedagogical Approaches in Higher Education: Understanding from the Practices… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114070*



*Participatory Pedagogical Approaches in Higher Education: Understanding from the Practices… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114070*



 *Characteristics of higher education systems in Bangladesh, the United Kingdom and the United State of America.*

**Table 1.**

*Participatory Pedagogical Approaches in Higher Education: Understanding from the Practices… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114070*

#### **7. Discussion**

#### **7.1 Teacher's pedagogical understanding**

Teachers play crucial roles in the process of developing human capabilities and shaping a nation's future citizens [151]. They can assist young people in achieving their full potential and preparing them for their future. The professional values that teachers uphold are the foundation of these human resource development and nation building roles. For instance, teachers recognise that knowledge is not confined to books but must be made relevant to the students' individual experiences. It is best learned through action and communication with others and is continuously developed through personal reflection and collaboration [152]. In contrast, traditional didactic teaching assumes that knowledge can be transferred from the teacher to the students through rote learning and repetition. Still, research shows that this approach is limited in developing the student's potential [153]. Effective teacher training is based on approaches that start with the students' current understanding and foster learning through activity and participation, peer interaction, and creative thinking [135]. Therefore, teachers must have proper understanding about the pedagogical approaches, philosophy behind them and the right way to engage students in the learning process. Thus, teacher education and training programmes are necessary to become a competent and helpful teacher.

Teaching is a highly skilled profession that requires proper training. This training should combine the knowledge of theories and the best understanding of teaching and learning processes with practical experience. Besides, the focus of teacher education and training is to strengthen the content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge of teachers [154, 155]. Teacher education programmes can be planned and provided to pre-service and in-service teachers through formal higher educational institutes like colleges and universities. Additionally, professional development training can be offered to in-service teachers, and it can also be a great opportunity for lifelong learning for teachers. However, teacher education and PD training are critical educational challenges faced by many countries for the twenty first century, especially in the Global South. The situation is more critical for countries like Bangladesh, where 'one in five teachers have no teaching qualification' ([156], p. 94). That means these teachers of Bangladesh neither had formal teacher education degrees nor had any PD training. They need access to formal teacher training courses and continuous professional development (CPD) training to improve their pedagogical skills.

The development of teacher expertise relies on the acquisition of skills in various areas, which can be broadly categorised as: professional knowledge (what the teacher knows about their profession), professional practice (what the teacher does), and professional values (what the teacher believes). Professional knowledge is often subdivided into three categories namely subject knowledge, contextual knowledge, and pedagogical knowledge [157]. Subject knowledge is about a particular academic subject or discipline that the teacher intends students to understand and develop. Pedagogic knowledge is the knowledge of how to teach [158]. Besides developing generic skills, techniques and activities, the teachers also develop knowledge in teaching particular subjects [159]. Teachers know the ways of introducing a new topic to arouse students' interest, how to break down a topic into learnable segments and the best order to present those segments in their progressively focussing teaching and learning activities. Finally, teachers need to have a very strong

#### *Participatory Pedagogical Approaches in Higher Education: Understanding from the Practices… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114070*

command of the curriculum, which outlines the essential information about the curriculum as prescribed.

The curriculum for teacher education and CPD training programmes needs to include issues like teachers' challenges related to pedagogy, curriculum implementation, content delivery, integration of technology and students' assessment, etc. [160]. In addition to content and technological knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) should also be given importance during teacher education and CPD programmes. PCK is a sort of knowledge that is specialised to teach since it blends subject-specific expertise with knowledge on how to teach that subject to students effectively. It entails comprehending how children learn, identifying misconceptions, and modifying instructional tactics to meet these shortcomings. PCK also incorporates knowledge of excellent teaching methods and tactics for assisting pupils in learning. PCK also covers values and attitudes about teaching and learning in addition to knowledge and skills. These beliefs include the teacher's position, the necessity of establishing a positive learning environment, and the need to be attentive to individual student needs and variances [161]. Shulman and Sykes [162] also claim that PCK is an important component of good teaching and that to be successful in the classroom, and teachers must have a thorough understanding of both subject matter and teaching methods.

By engaging in reflective inquiry, the teachers can learn theory in context as well as adapt it according to the needs of the children in rural, suburban and urban contexts, to create truly inclusive classrooms. For example, the developmental stages of learning in early year's education [163] are only meaningful for the teacher if they are allowed to observe different age groups of children interacting with each other, the teacher, and the learning materials. These interactions will vary according to the context, culture, and values practised by the teacher and the surrounding community.

The concept of 'teachers as facilitators of learning' implies that teachers can actively shape an inclusive learning environment that enables all students to develop an ownership of learning [164]. For example, exploratory activities based on specific learning outcomes can enhance a group of students understandings of a subject area through personal and collective experiences of constructing knowledge. The teacher's role in this process remains that of a guide or a facilitator who provides appropriate instructions to scaffold learning. This is not an easy task as the teacher is a learner in such contexts who is continuously building on past experience to investigate better ways of learning [165, 166]. At the same time, this is also an opportunity for the teacher to gain insights into understanding each student's needs, interests, and learning style, which arise from individual differences and factors of gender, ability, disability, ethnicity, culture, language, and socio-economic background. In the context of Bangladesh, where class sizes are large and lack of space and resources are common realities, experiences have shown that adopting this approach can be challenging, but certainly possible.

#### **7.2 Comparison in pedagogical practice in the Global North and Global South**

Before 2020, the global higher education sector began a radical shift, prioritising the creation of sustainable institutions and incorporating the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) into its practices. Due to the enormous disparities between the global North and South, it is challenging to compare pedagogical

approaches in higher education across the regions in detail. Nevertheless, here are some broad comparisons in some key aspects of pedagogical practices.

#### *7.2.1 Global North*

#### *7.2.1.1 Focuses on critical thinking*

Critical thinking, analysis, and problem-solving abilities are stressed more in the twenty first century at many higher education institutions in the Global North [167]. Students are frequently urged to challenge authority figures and exercise independent thought through writing and presentations. As a part of writing reflection assignments and developing presentations, students are asked to criticise the limitations of established theories, practices, and policies. Students are also encouraged to develop innovative ideas to solve scientific and social problems. This critical analysis in science, social science, and the business field helps students to develop intellectually and shapes them as individuals who are good at problem-solving skills rather than following the orders of authority. In other words, students are encouraged to work with their classmates and are given more responsibility for their own learning. Student-centred learning encourages students to take responsibility for their own learning and motivates them to engage in the learning process critically. These pedagogical practices enhance students' decision-making ability, communication skills, adaptability and flexibility, research literacy, and ethical reasoning.

#### *7.2.1.2 Technology-enhanced learning*

In the Global North, technology is used extensively in higher education. Online multimedia tools, digital resources, and online learning platforms are frequently used in the teaching and learning process. Using technology to provide resources and enhance engagement in class and in the assessment, process enhances students' learning experiences [168].

In the USA and the UK, using student ambassadors as positive role models has been explored to promote STEM subjects and careers among underrepresented groups [169]. The participatory approach, which involves collaboration with students as co-researchers, has been found to empower students' sense of meaning and belonging, reducing dropout rates [170].

#### *7.2.2 Global South*

#### *7.2.2.1 Rote learning and memorisation*

In some higher education institutions in the Global South, memorisation and rote learning are still valued. This implies that the fundamental principles are not always understood, yet students are still expected to memorise facts and information [171]. The curriculum indicates that teachers should apply the relevant pedagogical approaches to teach the content of different subjects.

#### *7.2.2.2 Insufficient teaching capacity development opportunities*

Teachers cannot apply relevant and appropriate pedagogical approaches in the classroom as they are not properly trained in learner-centred pedagogy. The

#### *Participatory Pedagogical Approaches in Higher Education: Understanding from the Practices… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114070*

concerned authority arranges several training sessions for school teachers as part of teachers' professional development. Still, they are not aware of integrating modern teaching approaches into their training packages [151]. Moreover, teacher educators are not properly trained in pedagogical practices. They usually train novice teachers about pedagogical issues using lecture methods. It is also observed that when teacher educators act as mentors, they are not quite confident and skilled enough to support classroom teachers when they face challenges in teaching. That is why there is a gap between theories and practices, eventually affecting students' learning.

Teachers become skilled and confident in applying modern teaching and learning approaches when they have ample opportunities to practise hands-on activities during professional training [172]. In the short training and long training courses for primary, secondary and tertiary teachers, it is found that there is limited scope for school placements and practice for applying the theories in the classroom. Besides, the teachers do not get proper pedagogical support from their mentors during practicum. Due to this insufficient practicum experience, the teachers are not confident enough to effectively use modern pedagogical approaches in their daily teaching.

#### *7.2.2.3 Teacher-centred learning*

The classic lecture style is still common in many higher education institutions in the Global South. This approach places the teacher at the centre of the classroom, where they assume their role as the knowledge provider, and students are viewed as passive recipients of information [173]. The traditional teacher-centred approach, which focuses on transmitting knowledge from the teacher to the student, is no longer effective today. However, this method has faced criticism due to its limitations in fostering critical thinking, problem-solving skills, and active engagement among students. Research supports the notion that teacher-centred teaching and learning hinders the development of higher-order thinking skills among higher-education students [174]. This study found that students often displayed a lack of initiative, independence, and creativity in their learning process. This can be attributed to the dominance of the teacher in the classroom, which limits students' opportunities to explore, question, and construct knowledge independently. While the teacher-centred teaching and learning approach may have some merits, higher education institutions in the Global South must embrace student-centred pedagogies to enhance the overall learning experience. By shifting the focus from the teacher to the students, educators can create an environment that nurtures students' creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills [175].

In some countries in the Global South, like Bangladesh, the higher education sector has undergone significant changes, and understanding the emerging realities is crucial for educational researchers [176]. However, it is important to note that these observations are generalisations and that both the Global North and the Global South exhibit significant diversity in higher education policy and practice. Additionally, both geographies have many instances of creative and successful teaching and learning practices.

#### **7.3 Culturally relevant pedagogies and contextual understanding for adoption**

Another important inclusion in the pedagogical practices in higher education is the cultural relevant pedagogies (CRP). Landson-Billings [177], an expert in CRP pointed out three key tenets for culturally relevant pedagogy, which are students' learning, cultural competence-fully acquiring students' own culture and critical consciousness

of teachers. By definition, culturally responsive pedagogy facilitates and supports all students' achievement regardless of their cultural background. In a culturally responsive classroom, effective teaching and learning occur in a culturally supported, learner-centred context, whereby the strength students bring to their learning are identified and nurtured and utilised to promote student achievement. In the twenty first century, because of heavy migration, the class population is becoming more and more diverse. As more and more students from diverse socio-economic backgrounds are populating the classroom, teachers need effective methods to teach diverse students. According to Zekarias and Zhao [178], today's classroom demands teachers to educate students who differ in language, culture, ability, and various other factors. Thus, along with content and pedagogical knowledge, teachers need to be knowledgeable about classroom diversity. For most of the students, school-appropriate behaviour like sitting steady, raising hands before talking, and speaking when called heavily contrast with home culture and linguistic practices. Furthermore, a culturally responsive educational setting reduces students' alienation as they attempt to acclimatise to a new 'world' of schooling [179]. CRP comprises three dimensions: institutional, personal, and instructional. The institutional dimension reflects administrative, logistical, policies, administrational, and values. Personal dimension refers to the cognitive and emotional process teachers engage in to become culturally responsive. The last instructional dimension refers to materials, strategies, and activities forming culturally relevant pedagogy. Institutional, personal and instructional dimensions interact with the teaching and learning process and are critical to understanding the effectiveness of culturally responsive pedagogy.

Self-reflection by teachers is a crucial aspect of the personal and professional dimension of teaching. Teachers can uncover the reasons why they are, who they are, and overcome prejudices that have shaped their sense of morality by honestly assessing their attitudes and beliefs regarding themselves and others [180]. Teachers must overcome negative attitudes towards cultural, linguistic, or racial backgrounds since their values influence connections with students and their families. Teachers are frequently averse to the idea that their ideals may reflect prejudices or even bigotry towards specific populations. When teachers can overcome such biases, they contribute to the creation of an atmosphere of trust and acceptance for children and their families, resulting in increased opportunities for student achievement.

Exploration is another key part of the personal and professional dimension of teaching. Teachers must investigate their own back stories and situations, as well as their pupils' and families' past and current experiences. Knowledge leads to a better understanding of oneself and others and a deeper appreciation for diversity. Teachers can better respond to the needs of all their students when they are neutral in their instruction and educated about themselves and their students. When the instructional materials (i.e., books, teaching methods, and activities) are incompatible with the students' cultural experiences, there is a high likelihood of disengagement from their learning [181]. For some students, giving up learning may take the shape of just underachieving; for others, rejection of the formal education system may vary from not performing at all to dropping out entirely. Culturally responsive pedagogy acknowledges and incorporates students' culture and language into training, eventually respecting students' personal and community identities.

Recognising differences and similarities among the students within a cohort is vital for teachers to identify their students' shared ideas and practices, it is also necessary for teachers to recognise their students' individual distinctions. Culture and language may influence student behaviours and attitudes. Certain

#### *Participatory Pedagogical Approaches in Higher Education: Understanding from the Practices… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114070*

cultures, for example, prevent children from making direct eye contact with adults; consequently, when these youngsters refuse to look at the teacher, they are not being disobedient but following their culture. Teachers who attribute specific attributes to a student merely because of his or her ethnic or racial group, on the other hand, exhibit just as much prejudice as expecting all students to conform to mainstream cultural customs. Furthermore, because each student is unique, their learning requirements will vary. Understanding these distinctions improves the teacher's capacity to address the particular requirements of the students. The goal is to respond to each student individually, based on his or her identified skills and shortcomings, rather than on preconceived notions about the student's group affiliation [182].

Classroom practices and instructional materials validate students' cultural identities. To the greatest extent possible, teachers should use culturally supportive texts, create bulletin boards, and perform classroom activities. When school-assigned textbooks and other instructional materials reinforce stereotypes (e.g., African Americans portrayed as athletes) or fail to adequately represent diverse groups (e.g., books with no images or perspectives of Native Americans, Latinos(as), and other non-Anglo Saxons), teachers must supplement instruction with resources rich in diversity and sensitive in portraying individuals from different backgrounds. Teachers can leverage on students' strengths by using imagery and techniques they are familiar with. The more students are exposed to familiar instructional approaches and are allowed to think differently, the greater their sense of inclusion and the likelihood of success. In certain communities, for example, members collaborate in a supportive manner to do numerous chores in their everyday lives. Incorporating these home practices in educational approaches, such as cooperative learning [183], boosts these students' chances to success.

Culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) and culturally responsive teaching (CRT) are two frameworks for teaching and learning that focus on incorporating students' cultural backgrounds into the learning process. Both approaches seek to create a more inclusive and equitable learning environment for all students, but they differ in some key ways. According to Ladson-Billings [184], culturally relevant pedagogy emphasises the integration of students' cultural backgrounds into experiences, values, and perspectives. This approach fosters student engagement and the curriculum, acknowledging the importance of incorporating students' cultural meaningful doing well academically and who come from more privileged communities. Ultimately, the best approach to teaching is the one that is most effective for the specific students in a particular classroom. Teachers should use a combination of CRP and CRT and other approaches to create an inclusive and equitable learning by connecting academic content to students' lived experiences. In contrast, Gay [185] suggests that culturally responsive pedagogy focuses on building positive relationships between teachers and students and creating an inclusive classroom environment. It prioritises understanding students' cultural identities and creating learning experiences that resonate with their backgrounds. Both pedagogical approaches share the common goal of promoting equity and inclusivity by valuing students' cultural identities. However, the difference lies in the specific emphasis placed on curriculum integration in culturally relevant pedagogy and relationship building in culturally responsive pedagogy.

Both CRP and CRT are effective approaches to teaching. However, CRP may be more appropriate for students struggling academically or from marginalised communities. CRT may be more appropriate for students who are already doing well

academically and who come from more privileged communities. Ultimately, the best approach to teaching is the one that is most effective for the specific students in a particular classroom. Teachers should use a combination of CRP and CRT and other approaches to create an inclusive and equitable learning environment for all higher education students. Both CRP and CRT will give students agency to contribute in learning at higher education level.

#### **7.4 Students as co-creators of knowledge in higher education**

The concept of students as co-creators of knowledge in higher education emphasises on the active collaboration between students and teachers in the teaching and learning process. This approach re-envisions the traditional roles of students and teachers, promoting a reciprocal partnership where students have an equal or even greater voice in shaping their educational experiences [36]. The literature highlights the importance of creating inclusive learning communities and providing opportunities for small-scale, extracurricular partnership activities that enhance teaching and learning [36]. Motivating students to engage in co-creation involves strategies such as participation, cognitive engagement, university affiliation, and emotional engagement [186]. This approach recognises the value of students' perspectives, experiences, and contributions in shaping the educational process, leading to more meaningful and effective learning outcomes.

#### **8. Conclusion**

Pedagogical approaches not only guide the teaching and learning process but also impact on the learning outcomes of students. These approaches also guide the design process of the learning experience and assist in defining the role of teachers and students in this process. They also directly impact the learning continuation, growth and completion of individual students. Furthermore, shifting teachers' roles from instructor to facilitator reduces teachers' workload. However, pedagogical approaches are based on available resources, teachers' teaching philosophy and understanding of the contexts, students, content and instructions, as teachers plan and design the teaching and learning activities. Globally, evidence showed that students' participation in the pedagogical process significantly increased over the years and teachers' teaching style shifted from teacher-centric to students-centric.

The higher education curriculum, resources, LMS, and pedagogy of the UK and the USA have a broader scope regarding students' participation and engagement in the teaching and learning compared to Bangladesh. Thus, by learning the best practices and effective lessons, Bangladesh and countries of similar contexts can take necessary measures to revise their higher education curricula, incorporating the participatory pedagogical approaches, setting-up collaborative learning facilities, ensuring students' active engagement as co-creators of knowledge and preparing students for the demands of the 21st-century workforce. Besides, low-resourced countries can follow Bangladeshi higher educational institutions' transformation in the last few years, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. Integrating participatory pedagogies into teaching and learning activities will provide opportunities to foster critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, and problem-solving skills in students and also enable them to become active contributors to society and agents of positive change.

*Participatory Pedagogical Approaches in Higher Education: Understanding from the Practices… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114070*

### **Author details**

M. Mahruf C. Shohel1 \*, Md. Ashrafuzzaman<sup>2</sup> , Sabrina Ahmed3 , Nazia Tasnim4 , Tahmina Akter<sup>5</sup> , G.M. Rakibul Islam6 , Mohammad Abu Bakar Siddik7 and Sumaya Rahman Mitu8

1 Faculty of Business and Law, University of Roehampton, London, United Kingdom

2 Department of Educational Technology, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Digital University (BDU), Gazipur, Bangladesh

3 Education Policy and Leadership Studies, University of Iowa, United States of America

4 Department of Curriculum and Instruction, College of Education, University of Texas, at Austin, United States of America

5 School of Education, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom

6 Department of Educational Administration, Noakhali Science and Technology University, Noakhali, Bangladesh

7 Primary Teacher's Training Institute, Dhaka, Bangladesh

8 Institute of Education and Research, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh

\*Address all correspondence to: muhammad.shohel@roehampton.ac.uk; mahruf.shohel@yahoo.co.uk

© 2024 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Section 2
