**2. Survey of previous research**

Kitai [16] states that there are two trends in organizational culture research: interest in cultural forms, which are 'expressive aspects that transmit ideologies and values', and interest in the impact on outcomes, which focuses on 'the technical and tool aspects of the organization', but a similar trend can be observed in studies of organizational culture of university. Representative studies of the former type include Clark [17], who focused on the function of 'myths' in integrating the boundaries between departments within a university organization and between inside and outside the organization, and Becher [18], who raised doubts about the uniformity found in market-based institutions and revealed the diversity of academic culture as a disciplinary community. Subcultural diversity is an organizational characteristic of universities, and De Zilwa [19] found that subcultures and values differ between groups according to their proactivity to adapt to the external environment, while Sporn [20], who examined subcultures in the Vienna University of Economics, found

the similar facts. In addition to these subcultures between disciplines, another problematic issue with regard to the integration of organizational goals is the difference in subcultures between faculty and staff, which is also related to the hybridisation on which this paper focuses. Swenk [21] identified a lack of recognition of contradictions between faculty and staff as a cause of conflict between them; Kuo [22] points out that conflicts between faculty and staff are more complex than in other organizations due to the existence of an organizational culture based on their academic nature.

As for the latter regarding the 'technical and tool aspects of the organization' that organizational culture provides, Cameron and Freeman [23], who examined the relationship between nine organizational outcomes and the congruence, strength and type of organizational culture, and Smart and John [24], who conducted a follow-up study of the same, are representative quantitative studies.

Representative qualitative studies of universities that refer to the instrumental functions of organizational culture include Tierney [25], who defined them by several sub-concepts such as leadership, trust, strategy and mission, and Kezar [26], who also noted that in universities, leadership, relationships and trust are more important than rules and procedures. Barkin and Collins [27] also point out that Audit Culture, based on neoliberal ideology, has led to a diversification of indicators for measuring educational outcomes in the field of international education. This has led to a situation referred to as 'rubric shopping', whereby convenient indicators are selected according to different educational objectives.

The above-mentioned previous studies were conducted in Europe and the USA, but hybridisation is also taking place in East Asia. Chan, Yang and Wai Lo [28] reveal the fact that there is a cultural clash with Chinese state control in university in Taiwan, where neoliberal ideals in the West are prevalent. In Japan, where the author has been studying organizational culture, university reforms have progressed, starting with the incorporation of national and public universities in 2004, but the incorporation of national universities, which was the main focus of reform, was a 'peculiar system' [29] in which authority was significantly more concentrated in the hands of university presidents than in other countries. Furthermore, since the 2010s, 'selection and concentration' in the strengthening of management systems and allocation of funds has progressed throughout the entire higher education sector, including private universities, but it is difficult to say that the university reform has been successful. In this context, an increasing number of studies have focused on organizational culture, but only a limited number of studies have focused on the types of organizational culture that are critically important for examining the situation of hybridisation. First, a previous study focusing on organizational values and ideologies [30] examined the characteristics of the organizational culture of national, private and public universities established by local governments, using the CVF scale. While in Japan, national universities have a particularly high prestige as research-oriented universities, private universities have university management in line with their founding principles, and public universities are strongly controlled by local governments; the results in this study showed that above characteristics in each founder.

Similarly, Maeda [31] focused on the instrumental aspects of organizational culture using the CVF scale. This study conducted a quantitative study using a multilevel model on faculty members at a private universities and revealed the mechanisms that generate and suppress conflict as a factor of opportunistic behaviour and revealed the fact that an organizational culture that emphasises research reduces conflict, while an organizational culture that emphasises competition between universities and centralisation of power in the university executive reinforces conflict.

#### *Organizational Culture as an Analytical Perspective on 'Organizational Failure' DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113154*

In addition, in order to clarify the degree to which organizations are able to prevent opportunity-based behaviour, it is necessary to focus on efficiency rather than on organizational effectiveness, which focuses on attainment. A review article focusing on efficiency in educational institutions is De Witte and López-Torres [32], but there are no previous studies internationally that have used CVF to identify the relationship between organizational culture and efficiency, such as Cameron and Freeman [23], mentioned above, and Smart and John [24] who have focused on organizational outcomes rather than on efficiency. Thus, the relationship between organizational culture and efficiency has not been clarified, but Maeda [33] examines two types of efficiency, short-term resource allocation and long-term management improvement performance, for private universities using the data envelopment analysis to identify private universities with high management capacity and suggests that a highly competitionoriented organizational culture has a strong influence on organizational efficiency.

In a knowledge-based economy, where responses to the external environment are required, a framework that integrates the relationship between cultural forms and performance is currently sought, but as noted above, previous studies focusing on organizational culture have found two separate trends. There is a lack of previous research focusing on a framework that integrates the two interests.
