Food Safety and Products

### **Chapter 6**

## Cultivation and Product Development Study of Commercially Important Seaweeds in South-Eastern Coast of Bangladesh

*Mohammad Khairul Alam Sobuj, Md. Mohidul Islam, Shafiqur Rahman and Yahia Mahmud*

#### **Abstract**

Seaweeds are predominantly macroscopic, multicellular, and photosynthetic marine algae that grow primarily in the ocean's rocky littoral zone. About 154 seaweed species are found in our coastal area, of which 34 belong to green (Chlorophyta), 38 brown (Phaeophyta), and 82 red (Rhodophyta). Among them, 26 species are considered economically important based on their availability, abundance, and use. Seaweeds are mainly available in St. Martin Island, Shaporir dip, Inani, Bakkhali, Kutubdia, Patowartek, Pecherdwip, Teknaf, Shaplapur, and Moheshkhali in Cox's Bazar region of Bangladesh. They are generally found on our Cox's Bazar coast from October to April, but the highest abundance occurs from January to March. However, in the case of mangrove forests, seaweeds are available throughout the year. Additionally, seven species are considered commercially cultivable species. Their culture techniques were developed in the long-line and net methods at different Cox's Bazar region sites. St. Martin Island had the highest biomass yield production of seaweed due to its favorable water quality parameters. Several value-added seaweed products were developed from dried seaweed powder. Industries based on seaweed can potentially contribute to the socioeconomic upliftment of the coastal inhabitants in Cox's Bazar.

**Keywords:** seaweed, inventory study, seaweed cultivation, value-added products, Bangladesh

#### **1. Introduction**

Seaweeds are an immense group of macroalgae, which refers to several macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae species. They are found in various habitats, from shallow rocky shores to deep oceanic waters [1]. Additionally, seaweed plays a vital role in marine ecosystems by providing food and habitat for many aquatic organisms. Seaweeds are the major thallophytic subdivided into three major classes: Chlorophyceae (green algae), Phaeophyceae (brown algae), and Rhodophyceae (red algae). Around 8000 different types of seaweed may be found throughout the world's coastlines [2]. Only 150 seaweed species are edible and commonly consumed as fresh, dried, or culinary components out of 250 economically used seaweeds [3]. Seaweed is not as widely consumed in Bangladesh as in Japan and China. Seaweed, which accounts for around 25% of all food consumed in Japan and is cooked and served in various ways, has become the primary source of income for the country's fishermen.

Natural abundances of seaweeds have been observed in Bangladesh from the south-eastern portion of the mainland and offshore islands, such as St. Martin Island, which has a stony substratum and is ideal for seaweed development. Although the seaweed floras of St. Martin's Island in Bangladesh are extensively found, they are relatively underutilized. Fishermen, women and their children are gathering seaweeds on the island of St. Martin. The collected seaweeds were dried in the sun spreading on the open beach, whereas the people of Bangladesh did not know that seaweeds can be used as human food. In Bangladesh, the diversity of seaweed is rich, and it reported that there are 193 seaweed species belonging to 88 red (Rhodophyta), 51 green (Chlorophyta), and 54 brown (Phaeophyta) groups occurring on the Bangladesh coast [4].

#### **2. Nutritional and medicinal values of seaweeds**

Food's nutritional value is primarily influenced by its protein content and carbohydrate reserve (or fats). Because they often include significant levels of proteins and carbohydrates, marine algae can be considered a potentially good source of nutrients. They also have a high iodine content, which explains why the population of the Asiatic Coast has a low prevalence of hypothyroidism and goiter. Additionally, some algae have high concentrations of vitamins A, B1 (thiamin), B2 (riboflavin), C, and B12, making them a valuable source of nutrition for both humans and animals.

Seaweed consumption as a diet staple has a long history in Southeast Asia, China, Japan, and Korea. In fact, seaweed has been a mainstay of some cultures' diets for centuries. As a sustainable and healthy ingredient, seaweed is now frequently used in salads, soups, and sushi rolls in Western cuisine. However, the most notable application of seaweed is in the pharmaceutical industry for developing drugs for Alzheimer's disease, cancer, and gastric ulcer, phycocolloid or hydrocolloid industry, cosmetic industry, biofuel industry, wastewater treatment industry, and bioremediation [5, 6] (**Figure 1**). Seaweed is a versatile resource that has the potential to revolutionize various industries due to its unique properties, such as high water-holding capacity, gelling ability, and bioactive compounds. Seaweeds are also valuable sources of protein, fiber, fatty acids, vitamins, macro, and trace elements, and essential bioactive compounds. Traditionally seaweeds are rich in bioactive compounds with potent anti-inflammatory, antipain, antibacterial, antifungal, and high antioxidant properties [7]. In addition, seaweed contains different phytochemical compositions in varying concentrations, such as phlobatannins, saponins, terpenoids, phenols, and flavonoids [8, 9]. As the demand for sustainable and eco-friendly products increases, seaweed becomes an attractive alternative to traditional materials and ingredients.

*Cultivation and Product Development Study of Commercially Important Seaweeds… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111937*

#### **3. Inventory of available seaweed species on the Bangladesh coast**

A detailed survey was conducted in and around Cox's Bazar (St. Martin Island, Shah Pori Dip, Teknaf, Moheshkhali, Kotubdia, Chokaria) and mangrove forest to find out the available seaweed species, their abundance, season, etc. The collection of seaweeds from the intertidal area was done during the low tide. This will give more time for collecting seaweed and observing seaweeds in their natural habitat. Description of the site location, associated flora and fauna, and other related parameters were also observed and recorded. A random sampling method was applied to assess the abundance of available seaweeds. Samples were selected at random as per requirement. This was done by selecting sampling points in the area and using a quadrant. Sampling points were chosen so that every species of the study area has a good chance of being selected. It was also employed for qualitative estimation of the seaweed.

#### **3.1 Availability of seaweeds on the Bangladesh coast**

The survey found that seaweeds are available in and around Cox's Bazar (St. Martin Island, Shaporir dip, Inani, Bakkhali, Kutubdia, Patowartek, Pecherdwip, Teknaf, Shaplapur, and Moheshkhali). Seaweeds are generally found attaching to the rocks or sandy bottom in mid-intertidal to subtidal zones along shorelines with calm to moderate wave activity and in tidal pools. Different species of seaweeds were collected randomly by hand-picking at the time of low tide (**Figure 2**). Fresh samples were taken into plastic jars and kept in an icebox for laboratory work. In the laboratory, samples were gently brushed under running seawater, rinsed with distilled water, dried with paper tissue, and finally preserved by open-air drying.

A survey was also conducted in different mangrove forests, i.e., Sundarbans mangrove, Sonadia mangrove, Nijhum dip mangrove, Fatrar chor mangrove, and Fakir hat mangrove area. The Sundarban mangrove forest is one of the renowned mangrove forests and a UNESCO heritage site in the Bay of Bengal. During our inventory, we observed that several seaweed species possess a decent association with mangrove species (**Figure 3**). Mangrove provides a substrate for the attachment of seaweed as

**Figure 2.**

*Seaweed species collected from Saint Martin's island.*

#### **Figure 3.**

*Seaweed species collected from mangrove forests.*

**Figure 4.** *Seaweed attachment in different mangrove areas.*

they were found to be attached to the roots and barks of the mangrove trees (**Figure 4**). Some seaweed species were also found in the aerial root of mangrove trees and even in the muddy bottom of the mangrove (**Figure 4**). These epiphytic mangrove seaweeds are available throughout the year and can survive in adverse conditions (zero salinity).

*Cultivation and Product Development Study of Commercially Important Seaweeds… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111937*

#### **3.2 Abundance and seasonality of identified seaweeds in Bangladesh**

A total of 154 seaweed samples were identified during the study period. Among them, 34 are Chlorophyta group, 38 are Phaeophyta group, and 82 are Rhodophyta group (**Figure 5**). Some photographs are attached in **Figures 2** and **3**. Seaweeds

**Figure 5.** *Classwise distribution of seaweed biodiversity in Bangladesh.*

**Figure 6.** *Commercially important seaweed species.* were abundant on St. Martin Island from October to April. However, from January to March, seaweeds were abundant in the St. Martin Island. Comparatively, more abundance of seaweeds was found on Saint Martin Island in the Western, Southern tip of Cheradip, and the Eastern part (surrounding the Coast-guard/Navy point). However, in the case of mangrove forests, seaweeds are available throughout the year, from January to December.

#### **3.3 Commercially important seaweeds**

Aside from the export potential, the development of seaweed cultivation in the country's coastal areas might provide an alternative source of income for the people. On the shore, there are a variety of edible seaweed species. Therefore, commercially important seaweed species were identified throughout the experimental period. Based on our country's abundance, availability, use, and culture potentiality, 26 seaweed species were identified as commercially important. Among them, 8 were Chlorophyta, 10 were Rhodophyta, and 8 were Phaeophyta group (**Figure 6**). These seaweeds have multiple uses, like fodder, fertilizer, human food, industrial, biofuel feedstock, heavy metal removal from wastewater, and pharmaceutical raw materials.

#### **4. Seaweed culture practices**

Seaweed farming can be described as strategically placing seaweed crops in water for growth. From there, farming ensures sustained photosynthesis at the optimal rate till harvest during the grow-out period. Though the availability of water, sunshine, and gases may typically be taken for granted when choosing a place for seaweed cultivation, appropriate nutrition supply may be a key factor. Furthermore, ropes and nets offer suitable substrates for seaweed growth; however, their performance in this capacity depends on the fabric type employed. Therefore, they are a modifiable component of farming infrastructure, allowing for altering plot lengths and widths in a range of conditions, both floating and submerged. Within collected and identified seaweed species, economically important *C. racemosa*, *H. musciformis*, *P. tetrastromatica*, *S. ilicifolium*, *S. oligocystum*, *U. intestinalis*, and *U. lactuca* were selected for culture experiments in Saint Martin Island and other suitable areas.

The younger pieces of seaweed were used for seeding with an average of 5 ± 0.4 grams of fresh weight in each knot and 5 cm in size in the rope twists. The density of seaweed seed was 25–28 seeds/m2 . The horizontal net (square net) and long-line methods were applied to cultivate seaweed when cultured between the intertidal zone. The floating raft method was applied when seaweed was cultured beyond the intertidal zone or open sea [10]. Bamboo poles anchored culture nets and kept afloat at the surface level with plastic floats. The frame was tied loosely to the poles and fixed in a submerged floating condition to facilitate it going vertically to the tide. The cultivation was attempted at slightly deeper water, i.e., 0.5–1.0 m depth on fish nets, to avoid the intensity of sedimentation and grazing by fish. No fertilizer, growth hormone, or other chemicals were used during the culture period. Partial harvesting was done after 15/20 days of seaweed reaching an average standard length. The culture period was 60/90 days. The partial harvesting took place by cutting off the algae hanging on the surface, allowing the base on the surface to expand further. Standard methods were also followed to measure different physicochemical parameters [11].

*Cultivation and Product Development Study of Commercially Important Seaweeds… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111937*

Seaweed biomass production was measured as the fresh weight of seaweed per unit culture area (kg m−2) and was calculated using the following formula [12]:

$$\mathbf{Y} = \left(\mathbf{W}\mathbf{n} - \mathbf{W}\_{\mathbf{o}}\right) / \mathbf{A} \tag{1}$$

Here, Y = seaweed biomass production; Wn = raw weight on day n; W0 = beginning raw weight; A = culture unit's area.

The daily growth rate (DGR %) was calculated using the following formula [13]:

$$DGR\% = \ln\left(W\_{\rm f} / Wo\right) / \text{t} \ge 100\tag{2}$$

Here, Wf = final raw weight (g) at t day; Wo = initial raw weight (g); t = cultivation period (days).

#### **4.1 Seaweeds biomass production**

Experimental culture sites of seaweeds were set up in sheltered intertidal zones of the Bakkhali river estuary at Nuniarchora, Chowfoldondi, Kutubdia, Pecherdwip, S.M. Para, and Saint Martin Island. Harvesting at the end of 60/90 days of the culture period in Saint Martin sites resulted in the maximum biomass yields for all seaweed species (**Figure 7**). Saint Martin Island has favorable environmental conditions, resulting in higher growth and maximum biomass yields for all seaweed species. Among the seven seaweed species, the most increased biomass production (30.61 ± 0.23 kg m−2) was observed in the case of *H. musciformis*, and the lowest biomass production (10.18 ± 0.45 kg m−2) was observed in the case of *P. tetrastromatica* (**Figure 8**). Here,

**Figure 7.** *Biomass productions of different cultured seaweed species.*

#### **Figure 8.**

*Maximum biomass production (kg m−2) of seaweed species at Saint Martin Island.*

total biomass production of seaweed descending sequentially as *H. musciformis* > *U. lactuca* > *U. intestinalis* > *S. oligocystum* > *S. ilicifolium* > *C. racemosa* > *P. tetrastromatica*, with an evident variation among them. The observed biomass yield of seaweeds was significantly higher in Saint Martin than in Nuniarchora, Chowfoldondi, S.M. Para, Kutubdia, Pecherdwip, and Inani. Generally, Bakkhali, Chowfoldondi, Nuniarchora, and Inani are allocated upstream, where water quality parameters do not remain stable like Saint Martin and have not had extensive substratum facilities to form an enormous colony of seaweeds. Again, in S.M. Para, the site was on a polyculture farm. There the surrounding water quality parameters were not satisfactory for seaweed culture. Additionally, in Pecherdwip, the site was near the Raju Khal estuary, where upstream runoff carrying heavy silt causes lower seaweed growth.

#### **4.2 Seaweed daily growth rate (% day−1)**

Saint Martin Island possesses the highest daily growth rate for all seaweed species. Among the seven seaweed species, the highest daily growth rate (5.99 ± 0.22% day−1) was observed in the case of *H. musciformis,* and the lowest daily growth rate (4.76 ± 0.19% day−1) was observed in the case of *P. tetrastromatica*. Here, the daily growth rate of seaweed is descending sequentially as *H. musciformis* > *U. lactuca* > *U. intestinalis* > *S. oligocystum* > *S. ilicifolium* > *C. racemosa* > *P. tetrastromatica*, with an apparent variation among them (**Figure 9**).

#### **4.3 Environmental parameters**

The cultivation of seaweed requires appropriate physicochemical conditions. The range values of different water quality variables during the culture period at different experimental sites at Cox's Bazar are described in **Table 1**. All parameters were measured every 15 days during the partial harvest following standard protocols. In our experiment, different water quality variables showed higher fluctuations throughout the culture due to the high rainfall and surface runoff.

*Cultivation and Product Development Study of Commercially Important Seaweeds… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111937*

#### **Figure 9.**

*Daily growth rate (% day−1) of seaweed species at Saint Martin Island.*


#### **Table 1.**

*Different water quality variables of the culture sites during the experimental period.*

The salinity of seawater is a very prudent and potential factor in growing seaweeds, as it is the crucial determinator of osmotic balance. The present study recorded salinity ranged from 28 to 36 ppt in Saint Martin. So, stable and moderate salinity is the critical factor of the highest biomass yield in Saint Martin. Moreover, water salinity had a strong positive correlation with water pH, DO, and transparency; that means salinity plays a vital and influential role in these water quality parameters. Water pH is the primary factor for animals and biota in aquatic environments. pH value of the present study was found favorable at Saint Martin compared to other sites. Dissolved oxygen concentration was found in this study favorable at Saint Martin than in other culture sites. That may be the cause of higher seaweed production from Saint Martin. Water transparency is the dormant factor to govern the growth rate of seaweeds. Transparent water allows adequate light intensity to facilitate the growth of algae. This study recorded the highest average light intensity from Saint Martin compared to other sites. So, water transparency was vital in getting the highest biomass yield from Saint Martin's.

### **5. Seaweed product development study**

To get raw seaweed in table form, repeated screening and washing were performed to isolate nontarget seaweed species and remove the sand and other undesirable particles. Harvested seaweeds were processed, dried, powdered, and preserved

#### **Figure 10.**

*Various food products are developed from seaweed powder. (A) Seaweed pizza, (B) seaweed soap, (C) seaweed pudding, (D) seaweed Papor, (E) seaweed Beguni, (F) seaweed mango juice, (G) seaweed Piyajo, (H) seaweed Jorda, (I) squid-seaweed masala, (J) seaweed barfi, (K) seaweed soap, (L) seaweed noodles, (M) seaweed valueadded product, (N) seaweed value-added product (Balachao), and (O) seaweed value-added product.*

*Cultivation and Product Development Study of Commercially Important Seaweeds… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111937*

for seaweed-based product development. Processed seaweeds were used to produce the products. Seaweed powder was used at different percentages to prepare Seaweed Papor (98% U*. lactuca*), Seaweed Piyajo (5% *U. lactuca*), Seaweed Beguni (5% *U. lactuca*), Seaweed Mango Juice (3% *U. intestinalis*), and Seaweed Jorda (5% *H. musciformis)* (**Figure 10**). Also seaweed soup, seaweed barfi, seaweed noodles, seaweed pizza, seaweed soap, seaweed pudding, and squid-seaweed masala were prepared. Several other value-added seaweed products were also prepared and marketed with the collaboration of local entrepreneurs Mahi Agro Industry and Jahanara Green Agro (**Figure 10**). The flavors and tests of these seaweed food products were good. The information about seaweed products' nutritional value was disseminated to different hotels, motels, restaurants, and local people to build awareness of seaweed utilization as a food item.

#### **6. Conclusions**

With nutritional and medicinal values, seaweeds have garnered attention for their rich content of vitamins, minerals, proteins, and fibers. These marine macroalgae also possess bioactive compounds that offer potential therapeutic benefits, such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties. Along the coast of Bangladesh, about 154 seaweed species exist, varying in availability and abundance throughout the year. Notably, 26 seaweeds have been identified as commercially important due to their high demand and economic value. Cultivating seaweeds involves practices aimed at optimizing growth and productivity, resulting in the production of seaweed biomass. Environmental parameters, including temperature, light intensity, salinity, and nutrient availability, play pivotal roles in seaweed culture practices, influencing growth and development. Understanding and controlling these parameters are crucial for successful seaweed cultivation. Additionally, studies on seaweed product development aim to explore diverse applications and potential uses, incorporating seaweed extracts or biomass to create value-added products across various industries. These studies contribute to expanding their utilization beyond traditional consumption by capitalizing on seaweed's nutritional and medicinal properties.

#### **Acknowledgements**

This research was funded by Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute (BFRI), Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Bangladesh.

#### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

*Food Safety – New Insights*

### **Author details**

Mohammad Khairul Alam Sobuj1 \*, Md. Mohidul Islam1 , Shafiqur Rahman1 and Yahia Mahmud2

1 Marine Fisheries and Technology Station, Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute, Bangladesh

2 Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute, Bangladesh

\*Address all correspondence to: khairulsobuj6@gmail.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Cultivation and Product Development Study of Commercially Important Seaweeds… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111937*

#### **References**

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[2] Luning K. Seaweeds. Their Environment, Biogeography and Ecophysiology. New York: Wiley; 1990. p. 527

[3] Kumari P, Kumar M, Gupta V, Reddy CR, Jha B. Tropical marine macroalgae as potential sources of nutritionally important PUFAs. Food Chemistry. 2010;**120**(3):749-757. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.11.006

[4] Sarkar MS, Kamal M, Hasan MM, Hossain MI. Present status of naturally occurring seaweed flora and their utilization in Bangladesh. Research in Agriculture Livestock and Fisheries. 2016;**3**(1):203-216. DOI: 10.3329/ralf. v3i1.27879

[5] Burtin P. Nutritional value of seaweeds. Electronic Journal of Environmental, Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2003;**2**(4):498-503

[6] Gade R, Tulasi MS, Bhai VA. Seaweeds: A novel biomaterial. International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2013;**5**(2):975-1491

[7] Rafiquzzaman SM, Ahmad MU, Lee JM, Kim EY, Kim YO, Kim DG, et al. Phytochemical composition and antioxidant activity of edible red alga *Hypnea musciformis* from Bangladesh. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation. 2016;**40**(5):1074-1083. DOI: 10.1111/jfpp.12688

[8] Sobuj MK, Islam MA, Haque MA, Islam MM, Alam MJ, Rafiquzzaman SM. Evaluation of bioactive chemical composition, phenolic, and antioxidant profiling of different crude extracts of *Sargassum coriifolium* and *Hypnea pannosa* seaweeds. Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization. 2021;**15**:1653-1665. DOI: 10.1007/s11694-020-00758-w

[9] Sobuj MK, Islam MA, Islam MS, Islam MM, Mahmud Y, Rafiquzzaman SM. Effect of solvents on bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity of *Padina tetrastromatica* and *Gracilaria tenuistipitata* seaweeds collected from Bangladesh. Scientific Reports. 2021;**11**(1):19082. DOI: 10.1038/ s41598-021-98461-3

[10] Sobuj MK, Mostofa MG, Islam Z, Rabby AF, Rahman T, Sonia SS, et al. Floating raft culture of *Gracilariopsis longissima* for optimum biomass yield performance on the coast of Cox's bazar, Bangladesh. Scientific Reports. 2023;**13**(1):2308. DOI: 10.1038/ s41598-023-28675-0

[11] Apha A. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater . Vol. 17. Washington: WPCF (American public Health association, American waterworks association, water pollution control federation); 1992

[12] Doty MS. Estimating returns from producing *Gracilaria* and *Eucheuma* on line farms. Monographiae Biologicae. 1986;**4**:45-62

[13] Dawes CJ, Kovach C, Friedlander M. Exposure of *Gracilaria* to various environmental conditions. II. The effect on fatty acid composition. Botanica Marina. 1993;**36**:289-296. DOI: 10.1515/ botm.1993.36.4.289

### **Chapter 7**

## The Role of Electrolytic Acidified Minerals (Prehydrated Microparticles, PMPs) in Food Safety: A Field Trial and Case Study at Breeders and Packers Uruguay (BPU)

*Donald J. Wagner II*

#### **Abstract**

Electrolytic acidified minerals (as "Prehydrated microparticles, or PMPs"), such as silicates, aluminum, calcium, sodium, magnesium, and sulfur, have been explored for beef preservation. PMPs are produced by combining organic acids (organic reference USDA National List of Allowed and Prohibited Substances, not necessarily organic chemistry), and natural minerals under controlled manufacturing conditions using Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) food-grade materials that are listed with the US Food and Drug Administration. The resulting mixture is odorless, colorless, and tasteless when diluted to RTU concentrations. When applied to the surface of beef through spraying or immersion techniques, at various dilutions, PMPs significantly inhibit the growth of microorganisms during cold storage, resulting in a longer shelf life and maintained quality. The PMPs control of pH and oxidation on the surface of the meat is safer effective technique than using more toxic preservatives and antimicrobials that can lead to mutations, adaptation, and resistant superbugs. The acids are supported through integration into microparticle minerals, which stabilize and enhance the effectiveness and longevity of the preservative effect. Lab studies were done on PMPs at Microchem in Round Rock TX, USA. A real-world case study was conducted with acidified PMPs at Breeders and Packers Uruguay (BPU), located in Durazno Uruguay.

**Keywords:** meat preservation, GRAS, organic, microparticles, acidified minerals, antimicrobial, food safety, shelf life

#### **1. Introduction**

The cost of meat spoilage on a global scale is staggering, affecting not only the economy but also food security and environmental sustainability. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, approximately onethird of all food produced globally goes to waste, and meat products are a significant part of this wastage. Here are some of the ramifications of meat spoilage on a global scale:


One of the primary problems caused by bacterial contamination in meat processing plants is the potential for widespread foodborne illness outbreaks. For instance, E. coli is known to cause severe gastroenteritis, which can be fatal in vulnerable populations

#### *The Role of Electrolytic Acidified Minerals (Prehydrated Microparticles, PMPs) in Food… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112349*

such as the elderly, children, and immunocompromised individuals. Similarly, Salmonella infections can cause salmonellosis, characterized by diarrhea, fever, and abdominal cramps. Listeria, on the other hand, can lead to listeriosis, which is particularly hazardous for pregnant women, as it can cause miscarriages or life-threatening infections in newborns.

Over the past decade, there have been several instances of outbreaks and recalls due to bacterial contamination in meat products. For example, in 2018, JBS Tolleson, a major meat processor in the United States, recalled approximately 6.9 million pounds of beef products linked to a Salmonella Newport outbreak. The outbreak resulted in 246 people being infected across 25 states, with 59 hospitalizations [1].

In another instance, in 2020, a Listeria outbreak linked to deli meats caused illnesses across three states in the United States. Ten people were infected, all of whom were hospitalized, and one person died [2].

In 2021, there was a recall of more than 2,000 lb of beef jerky products produced by Boyd Specialties, LLC, due to possible Listeria monocytogenes contamination [3].

These examples underscore the importance of rigorous food safety protocols and monitoring systems in meat processing plants to mitigate the risks posed by bacterial contamination. Ensuring the hygiene and sanitation of processing environments, proper handling of meat products, and timely testing for microbial contaminants are crucial steps in safeguarding public health.

#### **2. Prehydrated microparticle lab results**

A modified version of ASTM E1153 was performed at Microchem Laboratory in Round Rock, TX, USA. Microchem maintains ISO 17025 accreditation through ANSI National Accreditation Board (ANAB). Accreditation provides additional confidence in the laboratory's quality system and technical competence. In addition to ISO 17025 accreditation, Microchem maintains compliance with EPA and FDA Good Laboratory Practices (GLPs). In this study challenging PMPs, exemplary microorganisms were chosen, two bacteria (Gram-positive, Gram-negative) and a virus.

#### **2.1 Staphylococcus 6538**

This bacterium is a Gram-positive, spherical-shaped, facultative anaerobe. Staphylococcus species are known to demonstrate resistance to antibiotics such as methicillin. S. aureus pathogenicity can range from commensal skin colonization to more severe diseases such as pneumonia and toxic shock syndrome (TSS). S. aureus is commonly used in several test methods as a model for gram-positive bacteria. It can be difficult to disinfect but does demonstrate susceptibility to low-level disinfectants.

#### **2.2** *Pseudomonas aeruginosa*

This bacterium is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped microorganism with a single flagellum. It grows optimally under aerobic conditions; however, it can use a host of electron receptors to respire anaerobically. P. aeruginosa can be found almost anywhere in nature and it is an opportunistic pathogen. Like many other bacterial-related diseases, the ability to form resilient biofilms within human tissues under anaerobic conditions is thought to be the primary cause of pathogenicity.

#### **2.3 MS2 bacteriophage (MS2), ATCC 15597-Bl**

This virus is a non-enveloped positive-stranded RNA virus of the bacteriophage family Leviviridae. Bacterial cells are the hosts for bacteriophages, and E coli 15597 serves this purpose for MS2 bacteriophage. Its small size, icosahedral structure, and environmental resistance have made MS2 ideal for use as a surrogate virus (particularly in place of picornaviruses such as poliovirus and human norovirus) in water quality and disinfectant studies. Permissive Host Cell System for MS2: Escherichia coli 15597.

#### **2.4 Test material**

Prehydrated Microparticles (PMPs) of siliceous minerals were studied for their ability to trap and sequester microbial contaminants. Some specifications of the test materials were as follows (**Table 1**).

#### **2.5 Test method**

Bacterial/Viral Removal Study Based on ASTM E1153. To consider the study to be scientifically defensible, the following criteria were met:


The test microorganisms were prepared, by growth in liquid culture medium. Sterilized carriers were inoculated with a volume of the test culture. Inoculated slides were dried. Only completely dried carriers were used in the test. Test carriers were treated with the test substance and incubated for the predetermined contact time.

Two types of tests were performed:

• **Dry microparticles** (not prehydrated, less than 10% moisture) microparticles were added to the inoculated carrier for 15 s. The test substance was then removed by irrigating the carrier with sterile PBS prior to harvesting in extraction media.


#### **Table 1.**

*Physical properties of select porous microparticle minerals.*

*The Role of Electrolytic Acidified Minerals (Prehydrated Microparticles, PMPs) in Food… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112349*


#### **Table 2.**

*Procedural details of test method ASTM E1153.*

• **65% prehydrated microparticles** were added to the inoculated carrier for 15 s. The test substance was then removed by irrigating the carrier with sterile PBS prior to harvesting in extraction media.

Control carriers were harvested at appropriate intervals to accurately represent any reduction during the contact time. Numbers control carriers were inoculated and allowed to dry. The control carriers were directly harvested in extraction media (i.e. no irrigation with PBS performed). At the conclusion of the contact time, test and control carriers were chemically neutralized (despite there being no chemicals used in this test, only siliceous minerals, this is standard practice). Dilutions of the neutralized test substance were evaluated using appropriate growth media to determine the remaining microorganisms at the respective contact time.

The effect of test substance A and test substance B was compared with carriers exposed to no test substance to determine percent or log reduction of microorganism (**Table 3**).

The results of our lab study, conducted at Microchem Laboratory, Round Rock, TX, demonstrate the efficiency of Prehydrated Microparticles (PMPs) in trapping and sequestering bacterial and viral contaminants. The test microorganisms chosen, Staphylococcus aureus (Gram-positive bacteria), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Gramnegative bacteria), and MS2 Bacteriophage (virus), were exemplary representatives to assess the efficacy of PMPs.

These results indicate that the PMPs were consistently far more effective than dry microparticles in reducing the microbial load across all tested microorganisms. The


### **Table 3.**

*Results of ASTM E1153.*

65% Prehydrated Microparticles exhibited significant log reductions, indicating their exceptional ability to trap and sequester the pathogens effectively.

Notably, the 65% Prehydrated Microparticles demonstrated an impressive 99.13% reduction in MS2 Phage, a 99.99% reduction in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and a 99.85% reduction in Staphylococcus aureus. These findings underscore the performance of PMPs in combatting a wide range of microbial contaminants.

The results can be attributed to the unique properties of PMPs, including their high pore volume, pore size, shape, and distribution, extensive BET surface area, and significant absorption capacity. These features, coupled with their prehydrated state for enhanced capillary action, make them highly effective in attracting and retaining microorganisms.

#### **3. 150-day case study and field trial of acidified prehydrated mineral microparticles (PMPs) at breeders and packers Uruguay (BPU)**

Studying aerobic bacteria, Enterobacteria, and lactic acid bacteria is crucial for assessing the freshness of meat because these three groups of bacteria are significant indicators of the microbial population and shelf life of meat products.

1.**Aerobic bacteria**: Aerobic bacteria are microorganisms that thrive in the presence of oxygen. Meat, being rich in nutrients and water, provides an ideal environment for the growth of these bacteria when exposed to air. The total aerobic bacterial count, often referred to as the Total Viable Count (TVC), is a standard indicator of meat's microbial quality. As the meat begins to spoil, the number of aerobic bacteria increases significantly. Monitoring the TVC is a way to assess the freshness of meat; high counts indicate that the meat is no longer fresh and may be unfit for consumption.

*The Role of Electrolytic Acidified Minerals (Prehydrated Microparticles, PMPs) in Food… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112349*


The methodology used in research for swabbing and plating meat samples to test for aerobic bacteria, enterobacteria, and lactic acid bacteria is systematic and requires attention to detail to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the results. Below is an overview of the general steps involved:


#### 3.**Swabbing**:

	- a. Take 1 mL from the swab tube and add it to 9 mL of sterile diluent. This is a 1:10 dilution.
	- b. Perform additional serial dilutions as needed (1:100, 1:1000, etc.).

#### 5.**Plating**:


It is important to note that adherence to aseptic techniques is crucial throughout this process to avoid contamination and ensure the reliability of the results. Additionally, the methodology might vary slightly based on specific protocols or standards followed by different laboratories or regulatory bodies.

Studying aerobic bacteria provides an overview of the microbial load on the meat. Enterobacteria serve as indicators of hygiene and potential pathogenic contamination, and lactic acid bacteria are specific indicators of spoilage due to fermentation processes. Together, the analysis of these bacterial groups offers an indication of the meat's freshness and safety for consumption.

In this study, Acidified Prehydrated MicroParticles (PMPs) were used to not only trap and sequester microbes, but also to cause cell lysis of the microbes through pH and oxidative stress. Organic acids kill microorganisms by disrupting their internal pH balance, creating an acidic environment that impairs cellular functions and destabilizes the cell membrane. Additionally, organic acids induce oxidative stress by generating reactive oxygen species (ROS), which damage cellular components such as lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, leading to cell death. This dual mode of action makes organic acids potent antimicrobial agents, finding applications in various industries for food preservation and sanitation purposes. As the pre-storage treatment at Breeders and Packers Uruguay (BPU), a modern beef slaughterhouse facility in Durazno, Uruguay, acidified PMPs were applied to beef and studied from November

*The Role of Electrolytic Acidified Minerals (Prehydrated Microparticles, PMPs) in Food… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112349*

23, 2021, and April 22, 2022. The trial explored the benefits of using acidified PMPs as a GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe) preservative for beef, expanding our understanding of food preservation and safety. Researchers have published papers on the use of organic acids in meat preservation, but do not explore the use of mineral prehydrated microparticles as a stabilized delivery method, and studies typically run for hundreds of hours, not 150 days [4–6].

### **4. The role of acidified prehydrated microparticles (PMP's)**

PMPs can be composed of various minerals, including silicates of aluminum, calcium, sodium, and sulfur, combined with other acids under controlled conditions. Organic acids are chosen from those that are FDA Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) for food preservation, with consideration of their differences and attributes:

#### 1.**Citric acid**:


#### 2.**Lactic acid**:


### 3.**Acetic acid:**


#### 4.**Sorbic acid**:


#### 5.**Benzoic acid:**


#### 6.**Hypochlorous acid:**


It is important to note that while these organic acids are considered safe for food preservation when used within established regulatory guidelines, the concentration and application must comply with FDA regulations to ensure food safety and consumer health. All acids used are listed as GRAS materials by the US Food and Drug Administration. This results in an odorless, colorless, and tasteless mixture when diluted to RTU (ready-to-use) concentrations.

What are the proposed uses of acidified PMPs?


*The Role of Electrolytic Acidified Minerals (Prehydrated Microparticles, PMPs) in Food… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112349*

Benefits of the technology:


#### **5. Experimental procedure and variables**

During the trial, we analyzed two different beef cuts: Striploin and Oyster Blade.


We applied acidified PMPs at dilution ratios of 1/100, 1/50, 1/30, and 1/10 through electrostatic spraying and dipping (quick submersion). We then took swab samples for colony-forming unit (CFU) counts at intervals of 0, 30, 60, 90, 120, and 150 days. Upon analyzing the data, it was found that the two application methods, electrostatic spraying and immersion (dipping), had no statistically significant difference in terms of their efficacy in reducing microbial growth on the meat. This suggests that both methods were equally effective in distributing the PMPs across the surface of the meat, ensuring that the low pH environment and oxidative stress necessary for microbial inhibition were achieved, regardless of the application technique employed.


We focused on three bacterial classes for CFU counts: aerobic bacteria, enterobacteria, and lactic acid bacteria. Of the 238 samples taken, 13 data points were identified as outliers, attributed to random contamination from handling or equipment. The purpose of this study was to focus on the typical meat flora when in the standard cold storage environment, and not testing the active disinfection of the meat when contamination is introduced from an outside source.

### **6. Trial results and discussion**

The 150-day investigation demonstrated a substantial mean reduction in bacterial colonization on both Striploin and Oyster Blade cuts. The data presented in this

*The Role of Electrolytic Acidified Minerals (Prehydrated Microparticles, PMPs) in Food… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112349*

chapter pertain to the acidified PMPs at a dilution ratio of 100:1. As hypothesized, an improvement in bacterial reduction was observed with escalating concentrations of the acidified PMPs. Nonetheless, the economic feasibility achieved by the 100:1 dilution ratio renders this concentration pragmatically viable for large-scale integration within the food processing industry.

Oyster Blade steak showed an impressive average reduction of 98.21% in aerobes, 99.51% in Enterobacteria, and 99.99% in lactic acid bacteria at the 100:1 dilution ratio (**Table 4**).

For Striploin steak, an 88.06% reduction was observed in aerobes, 97.82% in Enterobacteria, and 99.92% in lactic acid bacteria at the same dilution ratio (**Table 5** and **Figure 1**).

Acidified PMPs, rather than simple aqueous acids, are an emerging innovation in the meat processing industry that represents a promising alternative for controlling microbial growth on raw meat. These minerals are typically inorganic substances, such as silicates of aluminum, calcium, sodium, or sulfur, which have been treated with organic acids to create acidified prehydrated microparticles (PMPs). The utilization of these acidified minerals can serve as a crucial advancement in ensuring food safety.

The mode of action of acidified PMPs is somewhat similar to that of simple aqueous acids, but with certain advantages. Acidified PMPs work primarily by lowering the pH and delivering oxidative stress on the surface of the meat, creating an environment that is unfavorable for microbial growth. The microparticles, when applied to the meat, release the acids slowly, ensuring a sustained low pH environment and oxidative stress. This controlled release is often more efficient compared to simple aqueous acids, which can be neutralized more quickly. Furthermore, the mineral component in the PMPs can also have an adsorbent effect, binding to microbial cells and further enhancing the antimicrobial action.

A significant advantage of using acidified PMPs is their safety and compatibility with food-grade requirements. The minerals are combined with organic acids that are Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) for use in food products. When applied at appropriate concentrations, acidified PMPs are odorless, colorless, and tasteless,


#### **Table 4.**

*Reduction of CFU Counts in Oyster Blade.*


**Table 5.**

*Reduction of CFU Counts in Striploin.*

**Figure 1.** *Images of Acidified Prehydrated MicroParticle (PMPs) trial in progress (2021).*

ensuring that there is no alteration in the sensory properties of the meat. This is essential for consumer acceptance.

The methods of application for acidified PMPs can include dipping or spraying. In dipping, the meat is immersed in the solution, ensuring complete coverage. Spraying involves applying a fine mist of the solution onto the meat surface. Both methods can effectively distribute the acidified PMPs on the meat, but the choice between them might be influenced by factors such as the scale of operation, existing manufacturing infrastructure, processing speed, and specific antimicrobial targets.

Acidified PMPs offer a novel and effective approach for microbial control on raw meat. Through the controlled release of acids and the adsorbent properties of the minerals, these microparticles create a sustained low pH and oxidative environment that is inhospitable to bacteria. Being formulated with food-grade ingredients, they ensure safety and leave the organoleptic properties of the meat intact. This makes acidified PMPs an exciting prospect for enhancing food safety and quality in the meat processing industry.

The utilization of low pH and oxidation technology for meat preservation, when applied judiciously above the minimum inhibitory concentration, ensures the effective control of microbial growth without any sensory alterations to the meat. This delicate balance is crucial for maintaining the product's appeal to consumers.

#### *The Role of Electrolytic Acidified Minerals (Prehydrated Microparticles, PMPs) in Food… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112349*

Aromatics, which are essential for the perception of flavor, remain unaltered, ensuring that the meat retains its characteristic smell. Feeling factors, such as the sensation of juiciness or tenderness, remain intact, providing the same mouthfeel as untreated meat. Basic tastes, including saltiness, sourness, bitterness, and sweetness, are unaffected, which is critical as these are fundamental attributes that consumers expect in meat products. There is no imparting of aftertastes, which could be off-putting to consumers and indicative of chemical preservatives. Texturally, the meat remains consistent with untreated counterparts, retaining its firmness or tenderness as is characteristic of the specific cut. In essence, by applying acidic PMPs above the minimum inhibitory concentration, the preservation is achieved with a stealth-like approach, where the invisible hand of preservation effectively curbs microbial growth while leaving the sensory tapestry of the meat untouched.

#### **7. Conclusion**

The BPU trial with acidified PMPs illuminates a path toward safer and more sustainable food preservation strategies. These results suggest that acidified PMPs can be a reliable and sustainable preservative technique, preventing spoilage and enhancing the shelf life of beef without the use of antibiotics or potentially toxic preservatives. The study lends credence to the hypothesis that controlling the pH and oxidative stress on meat surfaces via a non-toxic, safe, and effective technique, like our acidified minerals in the form of PMPs, could revolutionize meat preservation strategies, reducing food waste and enhancing global food safety. In conclusion, the demonstrated effectiveness of PMPs, supported by laboratory studies and real-world testing, underscores their safety and efficacy; this assurance is further solidified by their FDA recognition as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) and USDA organic status, which establishes a strong foundation in both science and regulatory approval. We aim for a healthier future for both our food systems and the consumers they nourish.

#### **8. Broader agricultural implications**

Echo Scientific has formed partnerships with experts in the agriculture industry to develop siliceous mineral and zeolite-based products, which incorporate stabilized organic acids derived from natural sources. These innovative combinations have demonstrated remarkable efficacy in laboratory studies and real-world environments. Targets for deploying the technology include additives for feed, and soil and plant adjuvants, improving animal health, soil health, and addressing methane and ammonia waste.

By incorporating mineral/acid formulations into animal feed and supplements, significant improvements in animal health have been observed. The synergistic combination of natural minerals, zeolites, and naturally derived organic acid enhances digestion, nutrient absorption, and fortifies the immune system in livestock. This results in accelerated growth rates, increased milk production, cleaner and healthier barn environments, and reduced reliance on antibiotics. Our products foster healthier and more productive animals, leading to improved profitability for farmers.

We are also targeting soil health. The inclusion of natural minerals, zeolites, and naturally derived organic acid in soil amendments has transformative effects. These combinations improve soil structure, water retention, and nutrient availability,

leading to increased crop yields and enhanced resilience against environmental stressors. Additionally, our products aid in pH balance, nutrient retention, and stimulate the growth of beneficial soil microorganisms. These benefits contribute to sustainable and regenerative farming practices, ensuring long-term soil fertility and productivity.

Addressing methane and ammonia waste is a critical challenge in agriculture. Our innovative formulations effectively mitigate these emissions from livestock waste by greater than 50%, and in most cases greater than 80%. The combination of natural minerals, zeolites, and naturally derived organic acid enables the binding and neutralization of ammonia, reducing its volatilization into the atmosphere. Furthermore, our products have demonstrated exceptional efficacy in capturing and mitigating methane emissions from livestock manure, minimizing their environmental impact.

By integrating our natural mineral and zeolite-based products, enriched with organic acid derived from natural minerals, farmers can unlock a range of benefits. These include improved animal health and feed conversion rates, reduced morbidity and mortality, reduced reliance on antibiotics, enhanced soil fertility, and the reduction of methane and ammonia, and increased fertilizer value from animal waste. Recent attention on these issues is leading to data acquisition from real-time sensors tracking the mitigation of ammonia, methane, and other noxious gas emissions in farming operations, which leads to the generation of valuable carbon credits, contributing to sustainable practices and environmental stewardship.

The net result is to optimize productivity, increase profitability, and contribute to a more sustainable future.

### **Author details**

Donald J. Wagner II Founder at Echo Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA, USA

\*Address all correspondence to: donnie@echoscientific.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*The Role of Electrolytic Acidified Minerals (Prehydrated Microparticles, PMPs) in Food… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.112349*

#### **References**

[1] CDC. Multistate Outbreak of Salmonella Newport Infections Linked to JBS Tolleson, Inc. Ground Beef (Final Update). 2018. Available at: https:// www.cdc.gov/salmonella/newport-10-18/index.html

[2] CDC. Outbreak of Listeria Infections Linked to Deli Meats (Final Update). 2020. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/ listeria/outbreaks/delimeats-10-20/index. html

[3] USDA. Boyd Specialties, LLC Recalls Jerky Products due to Possible Listeria Contamination. 2021. Available at: https://www.fsis.usda.gov/recalls-alerts/ boyd-specialties-llc-recalls-jerky-produc ts-due-possible-listeria-contamination

[4] Nkosi D, Bekker, et al. The use of organic acids (lactic and acetic) as a microbial decontaminant during the slaughter of meat animal species: A review. Foods. 2021;**10**:2293. DOI: 10.3390/foods10102293

[5] Castillo R et al. Lactic acid sprays reduce bacterial pathogens on cold beef carcass surfaces and in subsequently produced ground beef. Journal of Food Protection. 2001;**64**:58-62. DOI: 10.4315/ 0362-028X-64.1.58

[6] Wolf M, Miller, et al. Validation comparing the effectiveness of a lactic acid dip with a lactic acid spray for reducing *Escherichia coli* O157:H7, *Salmonell*a, and non-O157 Shiga toxigenic *Escherichia coli* on beef trim and ground beef. Journal of Food Protection. 2012;**75**(11):1968-1973. DOI: 10.4315/0362-028X.JFP-12-038

**Chapter 8**

## Magnesium Intake in the Mediterranean Diet

*Pierre-Anne Robbin Laird, Noah Stallard, Yasmin Momenian, Katherine Oshirak and Stella Lucia Volpe*

#### **Abstract**

The Mediterranean Diet (MedDiet) is a nutritional pattern native to many cultures within the Mediterranean Basin. The diet is composed of fruits, vegetables, fish, eggs, fermented dairy, grains, poultry, and minimal consumption of red meats such as lamb and beef. The diet encourages the consumption of extra virgin olive oil and moderate red wine for those who consume alcohol. The diet does not incorporate processed foods and sugary beverages. The MedDiet is rich in many micronutrients and has a healthful fatty acid profile (primarily mono- and polyunsaturated fats, with low amounts of saturated fats). The diet is rich in foods with high magnesium content, such as leafy green vegetables, nuts, seeds, and some lesser magnesium-rich foods (e.g., fish). The MedDiet is associated with reduced incidence of several diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular disease, neurodegenerative disease, metabolic syndrome, and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Magnesium intake has been shown to play a prominent role in the prevention and management of many of these diseases, with some of the disease-preventing capacity of the MedDiet likely caused by its high magnesium content. Those making nutritional recommendations in line with the concepts of MedDiet should particularly encourage the consumption of foods high in magnesium.

**Keywords:** Mediterranean diet, magnesium, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes mellitus, neurodegenerative disease

#### **1. Introduction**

The Mediterranean diet (MedDiet) was a term coined by Dr. Ancel Keys following his "Seven Countries Study" in the 1960s [1]. The MedDiet is an eating pattern classically associated with the populations habituating the region of the Mediterranean Basin in the 1950s and 1960s, but less so in the present day [2, 3]. The MedDiet is the result of several millennia of cultural and culinary developments, nutritionally founded on the food cultivated in Mediterranean agriculture [4]. Unfortunately, due to the increased urbanization of the region and increasingly globalized food production, the consumption of foods traditionally associated with the MedDiet has significantly decreased [4].

The MedDiet emphasizes consumption of traditional foods and local seasonal produce, helping ensure a solid variety of fruits and vegetables [5]. Cultural vitality, vivacious and amicable culinary settings, adequate physical activity, and appropriate periods of rest are several lifestyle elements related to the MedDiet [4, 6]. Nutritionally, the diet incorporates seasonal fruits and vegetables, fresh seafood, bread, some dairy products, monounsaturated fats from olives (the fruit and the oil) and nuts, and moderate wine intake [4]. The consumption of red and processed meats, as well as sugary and fatty foods, is discouraged [4].

One of the potential benefits of MedDiet is its magnesium content. Magnesium is one of the most productive minerals in the body (second most prominent intracellular cation), implicated as a cofactor in more than 300 enzymatic processes in the body [7–9]. The most prominent sources of magnesium in the MedDiet are generally nuts, seeds, and leafy green vegetables (e.g., spinach). Magnesium consumption is implicated in the prevention of several chronic conditions. The MedDiet provides adequate amounts of magnesium, resulting in more favorable health outcomes. In the following chapter, we will explore the benefits of the MedDiet, potentially explained by its magnesium content.

#### **2. The composition of the Mediterranean Diet**

The MedDiet encourages significant consumption of locally grown and minimally processed fruits and vegetables, with sustainability and seasonality highly emphasized [6]. Furthermore, significant consumption of nuts, legumes, and unrefined grains (e.g., unprocessed cereals) is emphasized in the MedDiet [10]. The MedDiet is also characterized by minimal consumption of red and processed meats [2, 3]. This dietary pattern also excludes some dairy products, such as butter and ice cream, while including the consumption of fermented dairy products (e.g., yogurt and cheese) [2, 3, 10]. The primary sources of protein in the diet come from fish and shellfish, moderate poultry consumption, and occasional inclusion of beef, pork, and lamb (in traditional Mediterranean settings these meats are saved for celebrations) [2, 10]. Inconsistencies exist with egg consumption; some regard moderate egg consumption as a reasonable inclusion in the diet, while others do not include them in the MedDiet [4, 11]. Desserts consist of fresh fruit consumption, and not sugary cakes, pies, etc. [11]. Furthermore, beverage consumption is usually limited to water and red wine for those of age, avoiding sugar-sweetened beverages [11].

The MedDiet is extremely abundant in the consumption of extra virgin olive oil (EVOO), the recommended primary culinary oil and source of dietary fat (besides nuts and fish) [4]. Extra virgin olive oil is the oil produced from the first pressing of olives, which contains several antioxidants and bioactive polyphenols that do not present in more processed olive oil [2, 12, 13]. It has been postulated that EVOO may have antiatherogenic properties due to high concentrations of monounsaturated fatty acid and oleic acid [2, 14]. However, EVOO's high concentration of bioactive polyphenols is likely important in EVOO's cardioprotective and anti-inflammatory effects [2, 12, 15]. One specific polyphenol, oleocanthal, has been shown to have mechanistic effects similar to the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medication ibuprofen, inhibiting the same cyclooxygenase enzymes in the prostaglandin-biosynthesis pathway [12]. Oleocanthal has been reported to stimulate a tingling sensation in the throat [13], thus it may be possible that this sensation could be a simple method to confirm the polyphenol content of EVOO.

#### *Magnesium Intake in the Mediterranean Diet DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106719*

The MedDiet is known to traditionally include moderate consumption of red wine with meals [10]. Red wine also contains bioactive polyphenols that may have antiatherogenic and cardioprotective properties [2, 12]. There are several polyphenols present in red wine including resveratrol, catechin, epicatechin, and anthocyanin, with resveratrol considered the most prominent polyphenol in red wine [16]. Resveratrol may be the main reason for many of the potential benefits of red wine, potentially leading to improved blood lipid concentrations, reduced insulin resistance, and attenuated oxidative stress of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) [16]. Furthermore, red wine consumption has been associated with increased concentrations of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) [16]. Thus, moderate red wine consumption may provide some health benefits when consumed in moderation. However, it is not recommended that individuals who do not drink, or those who are not of proper age, begin drinking red wine or other alcoholic beverages, despite its prevalence in the traditional MedDiet [2].

The MedDiet boasts an impressive nutritional profile with a higher monounsaturated fatty acid to saturated fatty acid ratio than other diets [6, 17, 18]. The MedDiet provides foods with high amounts of fiber, antioxidants, and anti-inflammatory compounds [6, 19–22]. Castiglione et al. evaluated the dietary habits and nutritional adequacy of a Sicilian cohort and reported that their dietary pattern allowed for adequate thiamine and biotin intake in the entire sample. Furthermore, greater than 50% of the participants consumed adequate iron, magnesium, selenium, zinc, and vitamins A, B2, B6, B9, B12, and C [23]. With respect to magnesium specifically, 66.9% and 90.4% of the study population met the European and Italian recommendations for magnesium of 363 mg/day and 240 mg/day, respectively [23–25].

A number of researchers have demonstrated the capacity of the MedDiet to reduce the incidence of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), peripheral artery disease, atrial fibrillation, breast cancer, neurodegenerative disease, cerebrovascular disease, and cognitive decline [2, 6, 26–29]. Furthermore, the MedDiet has been implicated in reducing the risk of metabolic syndrome by targeting risk factors and aspects of the syndrome such as reducing waist circumference, blood pressure, and glucose concentrations, while subsequently increasing HDL-C concentrations [30]. Andreoli et al. implemented the MedDiet with a moderate energy deficit and exercise, which resulted in significant reductions in body weight, body mass index (BMI), fat mass, diastolic blood pressure, and total serum cholesterol, LDL-C, triglyceride, and fasting blood glucose concentrations, while simultaneously increasing HDL-C concentrations in women who were obese [31]. The MedDiet has also been found to reduce all-cause mortality [6, 28, 29, 32]. Thus, significant evidence demonstrates the potential for MedDiet to be a reasonable lifestyle intervention for disease prevention and management.

The MedDiet has potential for adoption in non-Mediterranean settings, providing that some flexibility is allotted and that the foods that are the central elements of the MedDiet are maintained [11]. The MedDiet has historically been a nutritional pattern shared among various cultural, religious, and ethnic groups, indicating a reasonable capacity for adoption among differing populations [11]. However, education regarding the many aspects of the MedDiet likely would be required [11]. This could be a potential barrier to the widespread adaptation of the diet.

As previously mentioned, some of the health benefits of the MedDiet may be due to the high prevalence of EVOO and red wine consumption, because the bioactive polyphenols present in these foods may have anti-inflammatory properties [12]. Furthermore, the potential benefits of MedDiet may be explained by the micronutrient density of the foods. Specifically, the MedDiet provides substantial magnesium, a crucial mineral (the fourth most abundant in the body), functioning in a large variety of metabolic processes [9]. Some foods in the MedDiet that may provide the greatest quantity of magnesium are nuts, seeds, chickpeas, and spinach [33].

#### **3. Magnesium and health outcomes**

The vast majority of magnesium in the human body is located within the mineral structures of the osseous tissues, with some residing intracellularly [23]. An extreme deficiency in magnesium can manifest as hypomagnesemia, defined as when the concentration of serum magnesium is less than 0.75 mmol/L. Symptoms associated with hypomagnesemia include tremors, spasms, muscle cramps, or general weakness [34]. Chronic low concentrations of magnesium have been implicated in the development of diseases with an inflammatory element such as Alzheimer's disease, asthma, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, insulin resistance, T2DM, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular disease, migraine headaches, and osteoporosis [8, 34, 35].

Magnesium functions primarily as a structural or enzymatic cofactor, helping to maintain protein structure and/or enzyme function. The presence of this mineral in the diet is crucial for normal biological functions because magnesium is required for adenosine triphosphate (ATP) metabolism, overall cellular energy production and storage, reproductive functions, stabilization of mitochondrial membranes, and the synthesis of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA), and proteins [8, 34, 36–39]. Magnesium is implicated in protein, nucleotide, and mitochondrial structure [34]. Via maintenance of this protein structure and function, magnesium aids in the formation of enzyme complexes, mitochondria, nucleic acids, bone, and polyribosomes [34]. Approximately 50% to 60% of magnesium in the body serves a structural role as hydroxyapatite within bone [34].

Magnesium also plays an integral role in oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis, either via its role in the ATP complex (the principal form of biochemical energy in the body) or as a fundamental cofactor of key enzymes [34]. Magnesium is also involved in normal membrane functioning, assisting in the active processes required for potassium and calcium ion transport across the membrane. Proper ion transport is imperative for muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, normal cardiac rhythm, and vasomotor tone [34].

Magnesium is crucial for the proper absorption and utilization of certain vitamins such as cholecalciferol (vitamin D) and thiamine [34]. Magnesium is necessary for the binding of vitamin D to its binding protein, which is essential for proper transport of the vitamin throughout the body [34]. In addition, magnesium is necessary for the proper functioning of hepatic 25-hydroxylase and renal 1-alpha hydroxylase, the enzymes necessary for the conversion of cholecalciferol to 25-hydroxyvitamin D (calcidiol) in the liver, and then to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25-(OH)2 vitamin D3 or calcitriol) in the kidneys, respectively [34]. Calcitriol or 1,25-(OH)2 vitamin D3 is the most active form of vitamin D, necessary for the proper exertion of vitamin D's effects on gene expression [34]. A magnesium deficiency could result in reduced calcitriol and parathyroid hormone response, implicating it in the development of osteomalacia (magnesium-dependent vitamin-D-resistant rickets) [34].

#### *Magnesium Intake in the Mediterranean Diet DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106719*

In addition, magnesium may have an important function in blocking calcium binding to the N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor [34]. The NMDA receptor binds glutamate primarily (an excitatory neurotransmitter) and is ubiquitous throughout the central nervous system (CNS), with approximately 80% of cortical neurons having NMDA receptors [40]. The NMDA receptor plays an important role in neural plasticity and memory formation and may be implicated in a process called excitotoxicity, a potential element of pathologies in epilepsy and Alzheimer's disease [40]. Specifically, during states of epilepsy, stroke, or traumatic brain injury, damage to the brain may occur via calcium-mediated excitotoxicity [40]. In fact, magnesium's ability to prevent migraines, preeclamptic seizures, and protect against premature neonatal neural injury is mediated via the ability of magnesium to bind to the NMDA receptor and block calcium's entry into the neuron and cause depolarization [40, 41]. Thus, it is possible that by blocking calcium binding, magnesium reduces the excitability of the NMDA receptor, indicating a role of magnesium in altering CNS function, and perhaps even reducing disease risk.

Magnesium supplementation has the potential to be an effective and affordable therapy for migraine headaches, demonstrating a high safety profile [42]. In addition to its possible role in mitigating migraine headaches, magnesium may play a role in individuals with Alzheimer's disease. Barbagallo et al. compared older individuals with Alzheimer's disease to age-matched controls and reported that those with Alzheimer's disease had reduced serum magnesium concentrations [43]. Furthermore, the researchers reported a significant relationship between serum magnesium concentrations and cognitive function, demonstrating that magnesium intake may play a role in supporting cognitive performance. Ozawa et al. found higher self-reported intakes of calcium, magnesium, and potassium in a Japanese population; however, no associations between these minerals and Alzheimer's disease risk were found [44].

Furthermore, magnesium is an essential cofactor for the synthesis of glutathione due to its importance in ATP function [45]. Glutathione is one of the primary antioxidants in the body, and it is important for nutrient metabolism, as well as the regulation of many cellular processes such as gene expression, DNA and protein synthesis, cellular proliferation and apoptosis, signal transduction, cytokine production, immune response, and protein glutathionylation [46]. Inadequate production of glutathione results in increased oxidative stress, and the development of several pathologies such as kwashiorkor, seizures, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, liver dysfunction, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), cancer, myocardial infarction, cerebrovascular disease, and T2DM [46]. Magnesium deficiency could reduce the body's capacity for endogenous glutathione synthesis and lead to the development of disease states associated with excessive oxidative stress.

Magnesium is instrumental in attenuating chronic inflammation. Song et al. investigated the relationship between magnesium intake, C-Reactive Protein (CRP) (a standard marker of systemic inflammation), and the incidence of metabolic syndrome in a cohort of middle-aged and older American women. The researchers presented evidence demonstrating an inverse relationship between magnesium intake and CRP concentrations [35]. This relationship was especially prominent in women with a BMI exceeding 25 kg/m2 and those who had ever smoked in their lifetime [35], indicating the potential role of magnesium status in the development of systemic

inflammation. Because metabolic syndrome is known to have a chronic inflammatory component, it is not surprising that magnesium intake was inversely associated with the risk of metabolic syndrome [35, 47].

Magnesium is particularly important as an electrolyte functioning in the cardiovascular system, contributing to normal potassium transport in the myocardium, vasodilation of coronary and peripheral arteries, and reducing the aggregation of platelets [34]. Magnesium assists in the maintenance of normal cardiac function via electrophysiological processes such as nerve transmission, muscle contraction, and gland secretions [23]. Magnesium may also be protective against cardiovascular disease due to its capacity to aid in endothelium-mediated vasodilation [23, 34]. Thus, ensuring adequate magnesium consumption could contribute to a lowered risk of developing cardiovascular disease due to the relationship between abnormal vasoconstriction and the platelet production implicated in blood clotting in the development of myocardial infarction and other cardiovascular events [34].

Magnesium is also essential to proper blood pressure regulation because it decreases the excitability of smooth muscle cells in response to depolarizing stimuli by activating calcium-dependent potassium channels [48]. Thus, via the promotion of vasodilation in vessels and reducing blood pressure, magnesium may be cardioprotective. This may be the mechanism by which magnesium may help prevent cerebrovascular diseases such as strokes, a disease commonly associated with chronic hypertension. Hypertension can lead to vasoconstriction of arteries adjacent to the cerebrum, potentially leading to an aneurysm or other endothelial damage that may lead to ischemic stroke. Larsson et al. conducted a meta-analysis where they examined the relationship between magnesium status and stroke risk. The researchers reported that magnesium intake of greater than 100 mg/day was correlated with an 8% reduced risk of total stroke incidence [49].

Magnesium is implicated in the prevention of T2DM, likely due to its importance in glucose metabolism and insulin function. Magnesium is important for transferring phosphates from ATP to protein, via tyrosine kinases [8]. Tyrosine kinases are involved in the transfer of phosphate of ATP to tyrosine residues on receptors or downstream proteins, which result in the altered activity of various enzymes and the creation of binding sites of various signaling proteins (such as insulin) [50]. Magnesium is implicated in the breakdown of glycogen and the release of glucose-1-phosphate, resulting in altered phosphorylase b kinase activity [8]. Phosphorylase b kinase is important for the activation of glycogen phosphorylase, the primary enzyme responsible for glycogenolysis [51]. Magnesium may also be involved in the translocation of the glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT4), essential for the uptake of blood glucose into cells [8], a process implicated in the prevention and management of diabetes mellitus. Guerrero-Romero et al. reported that magnesium supplementation and higher magnesium intakes improved insulin sensitivity in individuals without diabetes mellitus, but with insulin resistance [52].

#### **4. The Mediterranean Diet as a source of magnesium**

As previously mentioned, the MedDiet is characterized by the consumption of foods high in mono- and polyunsaturated fats, seafood, vegetables, fruits, grains, nuts, legumes, EVOO, and fermented dairy products [4]. Some specific fruits that may be incorporated include apples, bananas, oranges, pears, berries, and tomatoes [4].

#### *Magnesium Intake in the Mediterranean Diet DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106719*

Vegetables such as broccoli, kale, and spinach are likely to be included, as well [4]. Many of these foods vary in their magnesium content and are listed in **Tables 1**–**3**.

We chose to define the United States Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for magnesium as 355 mg/day because it represents the mean RDA for women and men, 19 to 51 years of age. **Tables 1**–**3** list foods with high, medium, or low amounts of magnesium, considered to be 20%, 10% to 20%, or less than 10% of the mean RDA, respectively. Standard serving size of 100 grams was used as a realistic portion for the


#### **Table 1.**

*Common Foods in the Mediterranean Diet with High Magnesium Concentrations per 100 Grams (defined as being greater than 20% of the average United States Recommended Dietary Allowance for women and men, 19 to 51 years of age [355 mg]).*


#### **Table 2.**

*Common Foods in the Mediterranean Diet with Moderate Magnesium Concentrations per 100 Grams (defined as 10% to 20% of the average United States Recommended Dietary Allowance for women and men, 19 to 51 years of age [355 mg]).*


#### **Table 3.**

*Common Foods in the Mediterranean Diet with Low Magnesium Concentrations per 100 Grams (defined as being less than 10% of the average United States Recommended Dietary Allowance for women and men, 19 to 51 years of age [355 mg]).*

vast majority of foods; however, for some foods, this may not be the case. Although the tables represent foods with varying amounts of magnesium, some factors that may potentially inhibit the absorption of magnesium are the presence of phytates, oxalates, and to a lesser extent, potassium and zinc [53].

#### **5. Potential health outcomes of the Mediterranean Diet mediated by magnesium intake**

Several benefits of the MedDiet may be partially explained by the physiological benefits of magnesium. As previously discussed, the MedDiet has been shown to reduce the incidence of cardiovascular disease, T2DM, peripheral artery disease, atrial fibrillation, certain cancers, cerebrovascular disease, neurodegenerative disease, metabolic syndrome, and improve blood lipid concentrations and glucose metabolism [2, 6, 26–30]. Magnesium, via its several prominent roles in the body, may be implicated in most, if not all of these positive changes.

Several of the aforementioned pathologies are associated with excessive inflammation and oxidative stress, which can be attenuated by processes associated with magnesium. Magnesium intake has been negatively associated with CRP concentrations [35]. Magnesium is also implicated in the production of glutathione (via its importance as an ATP/adenosine diphosphate [ADP] bridge) [45]. Glutathione is the primary antioxidant in human physiology and serves many other functions in cellular processes [46]. Low concentrations of this endogenous antioxidant are associated with many disease states such as neurodegenerative diseases, liver disease, cancer, and T2DM [46].

Magnesium may also contribute to MedDiet's prominent reductions in cardiovascular disease. Magnesium serves an important role as an electrolyte, necessary for potassium transport within the myocardium [34]. Magnesium is also essential in proper cardiac function via its role in electrophysiological processes [23]. Magnesium may also be beneficial in preventing and protecting against hypertension and other cardiovascular diseases via its ability to increase vasodilation of blood vessels, by reducing the excitability of smooth muscle cells, and regulating the endothelium [23, 34, 48]. Estruch et al. compared a MedDiet supplemented with mixed nuts or EVOO to a standard low-fat diet. The group who consumed mixed nuts demonstrated a small reduction in cardiac events compared to the group who consumed EVOO (3.8% vs. 3.4%, respectively) [54]. Nuts are a good source of magnesium, providing some potential evidence that increased magnesium intake within the context of the MedDiet may further enhance its cardioprotective potential.

Magnesium content of the MedDiet may also help partially explain the benefits of the diet on risk of T2DM. Adequate magnesium status may reduce the risk of T2DM, due to its role in glucose and insulin metabolism. As mentioned, magnesium is important as an ATP/ADP bridge, which influences tyrosine kinase activity [8]. Magnesium is important for glycogenolysis and the subsequent release of glucose-1-phosphate, causing changes in phosphorylase b kinase activity. Magnesium is also implicated in GLUT4 translocation, a process essential for glucose uptake into the cell [8]. Magnesium supplementation has also been shown to improve insulin sensitivity [52]. Furthermore, it is possible that MedDiet's potential to reduce neurodegenerative disease may be partly due to magnesium's capacity to bind to the NMDA receptor and block calcium from entering and triggering depolarization [34]. This is important for neurological health because overexcitability of the NMDA receptor is damaging to the brain and implicated in several cerebral pathologies [40].

There is reasonable evidence to support the notion that magnesium intake in the MedDiet may be one of the vectors by which many of the physiological and diseasepreventing benefits of the MedDiet are enacted. Therefore, it is important to promote the consumption of foods within the context of MedDiet that are high in magnesium. Magnesium is present in water, consisting of approximately 10% of daily magnesium intake in some estimations [34, 55]. Magnesium is essential for the structure of

chlorophyll, the green pigment in plants, which is why leafy green vegetables such as spinach and kale have high magnesium content [23]. However, it is important to keep in mind that some of these sources, such as spinach, also contain some phytochemicals, namely oxalates, that may impair magnesium absorption [53]. Considering the aforementioned information, it is likely beneficial to obtain magnesium from other sources, as well.

#### **6. Comparing magnesium intake with different nutritional strategies**

Because many of the benefits of the MedDiet may be attributable to its magnesium content, it is relevant to examine the magnesium intake in the MedDiet compared to other dietary strategies. The standard American diet is lacking in many micronutrients, with magnesium being prominent among these. The United States RDA for magnesium ranges from 310 to 420 mg per day for adults, 19 to 51 years of age, with most of the population failing to meet this recommendation [56]. It is estimated that 60% of the United States population does not meet the RDA for magnesium intake [8]. Castiglione et al. reported that, in a Sicilian cohort, 66.9% of the population met the European recommendations for magnesium intake of around 363 mg of magnesium per day, and 90.4% met the Italian recommendation of approximately 240 mg per day [23–25]. These data indicate that MedDiet is a superior source of magnesiumrich foods compared to the standard American diet.

Other dietary approaches may contain similar amounts of magnesium. The Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet, which is composed predominantly of vegetables, nuts, and fish [57, 58], has been shown to reduce the incidence of T2DM similarly to the MedDiet [59]. Magnesium intake has been shown to be a relevant micronutrient for T2DM prevention in the Mediterranean and DASH diets [59]. One nutritional intervention that attempts to incorporate principles of both the Mediterranean and DASH diets is called the Mediterranean-DASH Intervention for Neurodegenerative Delay, or the MIND Diet [60]. Because the MIND Diet is somewhat of a fusion of the two dietary interventions, the nutritional adequacy of the intervention is comparable to the Mediterranean and DASH diets.

Morris et al. reported that adherence to the MIND diet resulted in significant reductions in the temporal progression of neurodegeneration in 960 participants, about 81 years of age, resulting in a difference equivalent to a reduction of 7.5 years in mental age [61]. Berendsen et al. reported that, in a cohort of 16,000 women, 70 years of age and greater, the MIND Diet attenuated declines in verbal memory, but not overall cognitive decline, over a period of six years [62]. Thus, the MIND Diet may be potentially protective against neurodegenerative disease, but more research comparing it to the Mediterranean and DASH diets separately is needed. This is especially the case for other facets of health such as cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease risk, insulin sensitivity, quality of life, etc.

#### **7. Conclusion and future perspectives**

Overall, the Mediterranean Diet demonstrates incredible potential as a nutritional and lifestyle intervention to help reduce disease risk. The Mediterranean Diet is associated with reduced incidence of several diseases such as cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes mellitus, peripheral artery disease, atrial fibrillation, certain

#### *Magnesium Intake in the Mediterranean Diet DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106719*

cancers, cerebrovascular disease, neurodegenerative disease, metabolic syndrome, improved blood lipid concentrations, and glucose metabolism [2, 6, 26–30]. Due to the Mediterranean Diet's inclusion of foods such as leafy green vegetables, nuts, fish, etc., provides a magnesium-rich nutritional pattern. This high magnesium content may be related to the disease-preventing health effects of the Mediterranean Diet. This is potentially due to the role of magnesium in glucose and insulin metabolism, vasomotor tone regulation, glutathione synthesis, its activity as a calcium blocker on the N-methyl D-aspartate receptor, and its importance in nutrient metabolism [8, 34, 45]. Thus, the consumption of magnesium-rich foods should be highly encouraged in Mediterranean Diet nutritional recommendations.

However, some considerations do exist in widespread adoption of the Mediterranean Diet, such as the required culinary education necessary to work with the foods comprising the diet. Furthermore, some of the qualitative lifestyle factors associated with Mediterranean culture might be more difficult to transfer to non-Mediterranean regions (such as longer meal duration, rest, etc.). However, many of the foods of the Mediterranean Diet fall within the nutritional considerations of many cultures, religions, ethnicities, etc. Thus, overall, the Mediterranean Diet is a promising nutritional intervention for widespread disease prevention, possibly mediated by its magnesium content.

This chapter provides a unique insight into the currently established health effects of the Mediterranean Diet by emphasizing the relevance of magnesium as mediator of these effects. The vast majority of research emphasizes the role of the favorable fatty acid profile and antioxidant content of the Mediterranean Diet as the primary mechanisms by which it exerts its beneficial health outcomes. While this avenue of research is certainly relevant, it is also important to examine the micronutrient density of the Mediterranean Diet as a potential vector for its positive role in the prevention of chronic disease. Due to magnesium's importance in a plethora of physiological activities, many of the widespread health effects of the Mediterranean Diet are likely mediated via the metabolic effects of this micronutrient. Further research is necessary to elucidate the micronutrient density of the Mediterranean Diet. In addition, it would be highly relevant to examine whether some of the health effects of the Mediterranean Diet may be attributable to specific micronutrient concentrations or ratios present in the diet. While significant research exists affirming the benefits of the Mediterranean Diet, some of the mechanisms by which it may exert its effects still remain somewhat unknown. This emphasizes the need for further understanding of the relative importance of differing factors such as fatty acid profile, antioxidant content, micronutrient density, and the macronutrient breakdown of the diet in contributing to the varied health effects of the Mediterranean Diet. This information would also help contribute to designing other nutritional interventions for targeted health outcomes.

*Food Safety – New Insights*

### **Author details**

Pierre-Anne Robbin Laird\*, Noah Stallard, Yasmin Momenian, Katherine Oshirak and Stella Lucia Volpe Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia, United States

\*Address all correspondence to: pierre18@vt.edu

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Magnesium Intake in the Mediterranean Diet DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106719*

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### *Edited by Rabia Shabir Ahmad*

Access to safe and nutritious food is key to keeping communities healthy and improving individual well-being. *Food Safety - New Insights* brings awareness to food safety practices. It includes eight chapters organized into five sections that discuss the safety of food, various types of safety hazards and food safety systems, the effect of changing climate on food safety, and food safety in restaurants.

> *Maria Rosário Bronze, Food Science and Nutrition Series Editor*

> > ISBN 978-1-83769-156-2 ISSN 2977-8174 ISBN 978-1-83769-158-6

Food Safety - New Insights

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Food Safety

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*Edited by Rabia Shabir Ahmad*

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