Restoration of Mountain Ecosystems under Global Climate Change

#### **Chapter 5**

## Perspective Chapter: Ways to Improve the Ecological State of Abandoned Quarries in Countries with Mountainous Terrain

*John Asatryan*

#### **Abstract**

The wall stone of a correct form is one of the main construction materials used in Armenia and other countries with mountainous terrain. The current technology of stone cutting using rail-mounted machines is ineffective due to various reasons. These include excessive cutting forces, vibrations, formation of chips and cracks, incomplete cutting of benches resulting in remnants left at the quarry bottoms, and significant accumulation of waste. These problems have severe environmental consequences. In countries with mountainous regions and limited quarry lengths, the problem of inefficient stone cutting is even more pronounced. Over the past few decades, and particularly after the devastating earthquake of 1988, stone quarries have been operated without considering environmental regulations. Many quarries have been abandoned as well. The author proposes two approaches to improve the mountain ecosystem: the conversion of abandoned quarries into a connected network of small reservoirs and the development of new trackless stone-mining machines equipped with wheels instead of rails. These innovations enable the extraction of the wall stones minimizing waste and reducing harm to the ecosystem. The addition of forest zones around the reservoirs can further mitigate the environmental impact of quarries by reducing stone dust release into the atmosphere.

**Keywords:** stone quarry, abandoned quarry, stone quarrying machine, wheeled machine, circular saw

#### **1. Introduction**

The wall stone of a correct form is one of the main construction materials used in Armenia and other countries with mountainous terrain.

For decades in the Countries of the Independent States (CIS) of the former Soviet Union and neighboring countries, the extraction of wall stone of the correct form with cross dimensions of 200 × 300 mm was carried out by rail machines CMP-026/1.

#### **1.1 Problems**

The efficiency of these machines is quite low because their design, tooling and technology of stone extraction have exhausted all their technical possibilities for improvement. High cutting forces during the extraction of rocks with a strength of up to 40 MPa, lead to vibrations in the multi-ton machines, causing formation of chips and cracks and large mining waste causing significant environmental damage. Quarry saws emit clouds of stone dust into the air, especially in quarries located in windy areas, posing severe natural hazards for nearby settlements. The installation of rails at different heights creates underused stepped sections within the quarry. The saw blades of the machine have insufficient durability due to the increased strength of the lower layers of the quarry.

These issues are particularly challenging for countries with mountainous landscapes, where quarry lengths are relatively small. Therefore, improving the efficiency of stone extraction becomes a complex and demanding task. **Figure 1** provides a typical illustration of the stone extraction process using a CMP-026/1 rail machine.

**Figure 2** depicts an abandoned quarry, which highlights the issue of accumulated waste mountains resulting from stone extraction. These waste piles, along with the abandoned quarries, pose a significant environmental threat and the risk of a potential catastrophe for future generations. Therefore, it is crucial to address and resolve the challenges related to the protection, utilization, and restoration of mountain ecosystems. Immediate solutions are needed to tackle these pressing issues.

Given the small land area of the Republic of Armenia and other comparable countries, it is essential to formulate a well-defined strategy for the development of the stone industry. This strategy should be built upon the utilization of modern scientific and engineering advancements that prioritize minimizing environmental harm.

**Figure 1.** *View of machine and quarry when extracting a stone of the correct form.* *Perspective Chapter: Ways to Improve the Ecological State of Abandoned Quarries in Countries… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113156*

**Figure 2.** *Landscape view of an abandoned quarry in a country with mountainous terrain.*

### **2. Solution**

The author proposes two approaches to address the conservation, exploitation, and restoration of ecosystems in countries with mountainous terrain:


#### **2.1 Transformation of abandoned quarries**

Research and development efforts have been undertaken in the first approach, focusing on the Shirak region of Armenia. The following steps have been taken:


is based on several parameters, including their location, altitude, contour, dimensions, depth, type of stone, composition, and physical and mechanical properties.


The map of the Shirak region shows the places of stone quarries (**Figure 3**). There are two designated zones. The first zone covers the quarries located below the level of the Caps reservoir. Total area of those quarries, along with the surrounding forest zones covers about a third of the area of the region.

Out of the quarries assessed, approximately 50% are currently in operation. A network of small reservoirs has been established, incorporating 17 abandoned quarries. The central water supply channel, represented by a dotted line, is still undergoing refinements as the project continues to develop.

#### **Figure 3.**

*Map of stone quarries in the Shirak region: Δ – quarries included in the zone of the network of reservoirs; Δ – quarries of high mountain zones.*

*Perspective Chapter: Ways to Improve the Ecological State of Abandoned Quarries in Countries… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113156*

The second area focuses on the quarries located in highland regions. Efforts to preserve, utilize, and restore highland ecosystems are partially being addressed through the pilot grant program called "Waste Management of Closed Stone Quarries and Flooding of the City of Artik." This program is initiated by the Ministry of the Environment and funded by the United Nations Adaptation Fund. As part of this initiative, forest parks and recreational areas are being established on closed quarries, and efforts are being made to restore cultivated lands.

The overall outcome of the aforementioned initiatives will involve conducting research and assessing the environmental impact of the entire network of reservoirs once the project is completed. It is anticipated that the system of small reservoirs will have a substantial positive influence on improving the regional environment. The emission of stone dust into the atmosphere will notably decrease, the climate will become milder, the water basin of the Akhuryan River will improve, and there will be an expansion of recreational areas for the local population, among other benefits. These effects will be examined and evaluated as part of the post-project assessment.

#### **2.2 Replacement of the machinery**

The author sees the second approach for the cardinal improvement of the ecosystems of mountainous regions, which involves moving away from the utilization of rail-based stone mining machines in the extraction wall and facing stones. Presently, various countries, including Armenia, Russia, China, and Italy, produce and employ different rail-mounted stone mining machines. However, these machines suffer from similar drawbacks as mentioned earlier.

The solution of this problem is in the development of the new wheeled trackless stone mining machines and technologies that ensure the extraction of wall stone of the correct form with minimal waste, without harming the ecosystem. Patent solutions to these problems and preliminary results of engineering developments and tests confirm the correctness of the chosen direction [1–5].

Analysis of the dimensions of stones of the correct form showed that currently, the stones are predominantly mined with cross dimensions of H × B generally not exceeding 200(250) × 250(300) mm, with the lengths ranging from10 to 400 mm. Moreover, the purpose of the wall stone also has changed. They are now primarily utilized for decorative exterior cladding with beautiful "rock" relief rather than serving as load-bearing elements.

To extract stones with the aforementioned parameters, a special wheeled machine has been developed. This machine aims to significantly reduce cutting forces, minimize vibrations, eliminate the formation of chips and cracks, and enable operation at higher cutting speeds and feeds. These improvements are achieved through the optimization of operational parameters and instrumental characteristics of the machine.

Transitioning from the conventional rail-based machine design to a wheeled and highly maneuverable design opens up opportunities for applying new and more efficient technological processes. The development of new stone cutting machines offers significant prospects for incorporating modern hydraulic units of the latest generation. These hydraulic units can be utilized not only in the drives of the stone-cutting heads but also in the hydrostatic transmissions of the machine for feed motion.

The new machine features saw blades positioned at the edges of the machine, with their cutting surfaces covering the transverse width Lm of the machine. In this prototype machine, the distance lp between adjacent saws is set to be twice the length L of the stone being cut, taking into account the width bp of the cut, i.e. lp = 2(L + bp). This configuration is preferable since lp is a multiple of the Lm width of the machine. As a result, the machine undergoes a periodic displacement/offset by the length of the stone before each new transverse passage.

The primary data used for designing the new machine were as follows:


The project was conducted collaboratively between the Gyumri branch of the National Polytechnic University of Armenia and the Open Joint Stock Company "Karatmekena". Their efforts led to the development of a completely innovative machine capable of performing both transverse and longitudinal technological operations, as well as their combinations. The hydraulic units utilized in the machines were sourced from *Poclain Hydraulics*. A prototype of the new machine, featuring combined operations, was created using the forklift model 4014 from the Lvov plant "Avtopogruzchik," which has a load capacity of 5 tons. The selection of hydraulic units was made in consultation with a representative from Poclain Hydraulics.

**Figure 4** showcases the newly developed combined machine designed specifically for extracting a stone block of the correct form with cross dimensions of 200 × 300 mm. The machine follows a sequence of operations that involve:


An important aspect of the new wheeled machine is its ability to maintain straightline movement, despite potential deviations caused by solid inclusions in the rock or external factors. To address this, the machine is equipped with an electronic control system comprising a three-axis gyroscopic servo system, a servo amplifier, an electromagnetic hydraulic distributor, and a parallel-connected reverse portioner to the power steering mechanism. This system, along with an external device responsible for adjusting straight-line movement, continuously monitors the machine's motion and intervenes promptly in case of any deviations.

The flexibility offered by this machine in performing various technological operations presents a wide range of opportunities for repurposing abandoned quarries. Such machines will prove highly efficient for the secondary utilization of these quarries, which are numerous and have been environmentally harmful. The elimination of such residues will significantly contribute to the improvement of mountainous ecosystems.

*Perspective Chapter: Ways to Improve the Ecological State of Abandoned Quarries in Countries… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113156*

#### **Figure 4.**

*Combined machine for the extraction of regular shape rock-stone.*

The technology of stone extraction by the new machine addresses an important issue in quarrying: the formation of residual stepped protrusions. By utilizing edge saw blades covering the transverse width of the machine, it is able to create smooth, vertical walls without protrusions as it moves along in successive longitudinal passes.

**Figure 5** depicts the cross-sectional profile of an abandoned quarry formed after the extraction of stone by the CMP-026/1 rail machine. This profile exhibits a stepped formation along the quarry's perimeter, extending down to the lower layers. The

**Figure 5.** *Cross profile of an abandoned quarry and a usage scheme.*

steps have dimensions of 420 × 1000 mm. Approximately 30–40% of the original stone volume remains in the quarry. The image showcases the profile of the quarry after mining several layers using the new machine, resulting in a vertical wall with no remaining residues. The stone extraction process follows the same technology described earlier.

The comparison between the productivity of the new machine and the CMP-026/1 machine for extracting wall stone of the correct form has been conducted. The calculation has resulted in a relationship that determines the actual productivity of the new machine, which features four vertical saws and one horizontal saw. It has been determined that the actual productivity of the new machine will range from 2.2 to 3 cubic meters per hour. On average, this is 1.2 to 1.8 times higher than the productivity of the CMP-026/1 machine. The increased productivity is achieved through the optimization of stone cutting modes, a higher percentage of usable output, enhanced machine utilization over time, and reduced time spent on auxiliary operations.

### **3. Conclusion**


### **Author details**

John Asatryan National Polytechnic University of Armenia, Gyumri, Armenia

\*Address all correspondence to: eaagb@yandex.ru

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Perspective Chapter: Ways to Improve the Ecological State of Abandoned Quarries in Countries… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113156*

#### **References**

[1] Asatryan J, Mkttchyan N, Msryan F, Arutyunyan S. Stone extraction machine. Patent RA 2841 A. 2014

[2] Asatryan J, Mkttchyan N, Msryan F, Arutyunyan S. Stone extraction machine. Patent RA 2861 A. 2014

[3] Asatryan J, Harutyunyan S. Optimal Transmissions for Wheeled Sone Mining Machines. Mechanical Engineering Solutions. Vol. 2. Yerevan: NPUA (National Polytechnic University of Armenia), AUA (American University of Armenia); 2018. pp. 20-26

[4] Asatryan J, Harutyunyan S. Machine and technology of cutting regular-shape face stone in mountainous countries. Gornyy Informatsionno-Analiticheskiy Byulleten. 2018;**7**:89-98

[5] Asatryan J, Harutyunyan S. Technology and a wheel machine for surplus quarrying wall stone of a correct form. In: Proceedings of the RA NAS and NPUA. Vol. 68. Yerevan; 2015

#### **Chapter 6**

## Protection, Development, and Restoration of Mountain Ecosystems: Taking the Wugong Mountain Meadow Ecosystem as a Study

*Zhi Li, Yanmei Wang, Xiaodong Geng, Qifei Cai, Zhen Liu, Ling Zhang and Xiaomin Guo*

#### **Abstract**

In this comprehensive chapter, we focus on the case study of a typical mountain meadow ecosystem within Wugong Mountain; and provide imperative aspects of protection, development, and restoration of such ecosystems. Firstly, the importance of protecting mountain meadow ecosystems was introduced. Mountain meadow ecosystems are an important component of global life support systems and ecosystems and are crucial to the global ecosystem. Secondly, the various challenges faced by mountain meadow ecosystems, including environmental degradation and disaster risks, were discussed, and special measures were also needed to adapt and mitigate climate change. Subsequently, a review was conducted on the research and protection of mountain meadow ecosystems, including research on vegetation biodiversity and the relationship between mountain soil and plant growth. In addition, the restoration of mountain meadow ecosystems was also discussed, including determining restoration goals, conducting comprehensive investigations of soil and environmental conditions, and determining vegetation planting methods. Finally, we explored the research on environmental carrying capacity in the process of sustainable development, including limiting development and developing sustainable tourism. In summary, we have systematically summarized the protection, development, and restoration of mountain meadow ecosystems, providing reference and inspiration for relevant research.

**Keywords:** ecology, mountain areas, meadow, soil, plant, protection, sustainable development

#### **1. Introduction**

Mountain ecosystems are characterized by rich biodiversity and unique geographical environments, which play a crucial role in preserving water, conserving soil and

water, regulating climate, and protecting biodiversity [1]. Thus, safeguarding these ecosystems is of significant ecological, social, and economic importance [2]. In recent years, researchers have conducted extensive research on these aspects and proposed many protection strategies and measures, such as establishing natural reserves, ecological restoration, ecological sand fixation, vegetation restoration, and so forth [3–5]. The development of these ecosystems must adhere to the principles of sustainable development and focus on the unity of ecological, social, and economic benefits. The development direction mainly includes ecotourism, ecological agriculture, forestry, clean energy, etc. Throughout the development process, prioritizing ecological protection, judicious resource utilization, and industrial structure optimization is crucial. Scholars have further delved into the development of these ecosystems, examining various models, strategies, and policy suggestions [6, 7]. Ecosystem restoration involves actions like ecological and vegetation restoration, and soil enhancement to return the ecosystem to its near-natural state. Restoration efforts must concentrate on reviving species diversity, ecosystem function, and stability. Researchers have conducted extensive research on the restoration of mountain ecosystems and proposed many restoration technologies and methods, such as ecological sand fixation, vegetation restoration, and soil improvement. The intertwined processes of protecting, developing, and restoring these ecosystems are long term and complex, spanning multiple disciplines such as ecology, geography, and environmental science [8, 9].

The Earth's three primary carbon reservoirs are its grasslands, forests, and oceans. Mountainous meadows are a larger form of terrestrial ecosystem with significant carbon storage capacity, they play a significant role in the global carbon cycle [10]. These meadows predominantly occupy flat terrains and are known for their rich organic matter and fertile soils. Recently, grassland research has emerged as a key area of interest to scientists. Exploring grassland mountain ecosystems represents an interdisciplinary research endeavor, encompassing fields such as ecology, botany, soil science, and meteorology [11]. In-depth exploration and comprehension of these ecosystems' characteristics and principles can furnish the scientific foundation and theoretical guidance necessary for their protection and restoration.

Wugong Mountain in southern China has been widely known in recent years due to its beautiful alpine meadow landscape, and it also has rich historical and cultural connotations [12]. Wugong Mountain's strategic location and orientation significantly influence the vegetation zoning across East China, serving as a natural demarcation for the central and northern subzones of evergreen broad-leaved forests in China's humid subtropical east [13]. The mountain's high elevation and steep terrain lead to a pronounced differentiation in the vertical zoning of both soil and vegetation, especially the widely distributed mountain meadows around the main peak, making it a rare natural museum of vegetation vertical zonality. Within Jiangxi, Wugong Mountain stands out as the only one with typical mountain meadow vegetation, unlike Lushan Mountain, Jinggang Mountain, and similar others [14]. Our colleagues have engaged in comprehensive studies here, including investigating and analyzing the occurrence conditions, nutrient characteristics, soil carbon, nitrogen, and soil microbial characteristics of mountain meadow soils at different elevations, to explore the nutrient characteristics, biological activity, and limiting factors of mountain meadow soils [15–18]. Utilizing advanced international methods for soil nutrient analysis, they have conducted experiments on mountain meadow soil, determining nutrient limiting factors and spatial variability in different degradation stages and elevation meadow soil. They have uncovered the varying traits of nutrients, structure, morphology, microorganisms, and soil fertility in grassland soils across different times and spaces,

*Protection, Development, and Restoration of Mountain Ecosystems: Taking the Wugong… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114949*

along with the underlying mechanisms [19, 20]. These efforts foster environmental sustainability in grassland ecosystems, and aid in the restoration and enhancement of degraded grassland soils. They provide preliminary experience for the evaluation system and methods of the health status of grasslands in Wugong Mountain.

Hence, we utilize Wugong Mountain as a representative case study to examine research on the conservation, development, and restoration of mountain ecosystems, in order to provide a theoretical basis for the protection and sustainable development of mountain ecosystems.

#### **2. Overview of the research area**

#### **2.1 Geographical location and location characteristics**

Positioned in the northern part of the Luoxiao Mountains, Wugong Mountain marks the divide between the Xiang and Gan River systems (114°10′ ~ 114°17′ E, 27°25′ ~ 27°35′ N), encompassing around 260 km2 , it's an average elevation exceeds 1500 m (**Figure 1**). Baihe Peak, also known as the Jinding, reaches the highest elevation of 1918.3 m [21]. The mountain experiences an annual average temperature of 14–16°C, with humidity levels ranging from 70 to 80%, and an annual rainfall of 1350–1570 mm. Wugong Mountain is predominantly formed of granite and gneiss. Wugong Mountain significantly influences the vegetation zoning across eastern China. Its steep, highelevation terrain creates pronounced vertical zonation in climate, soil, and vegetation [22].

#### **2.2 Natural resources**

Wugong Mountain has beautiful scenery, with an elevation difference of 1600 m. Its main vein mainly runs in a southwest-northeast direction. The geological structure is mainly composed of granite core complex and peak cliff landforms, with an elevation generally exceeding 1000 m, and many mountain peaks reaching over 1500 m. It is a unique landscape of granite and mixed rock landforms, with the main types of

#### **Figure 1.**

*The geographical location and scope of Wugong Mountain (within the yellow circle). A: Map of China, B: Map of Jiangxi Province, and C: Satellite map of Wugong Mountain area.*

landforms being middle and low mountains. Red soil, yellow soil, yellow-brown soil, and plateau meadow soil are distributed in a gradient pattern along the elevation [23].

Wugong Mountain belongs to a subtropical monsoon humid climate with distinct four seasons, mild climate, abundant rainfall, and large clouds and mist. The annual average temperature is 14–16°C, and the summer is cool and pleasant. At the same time, the temperature is lower than that of Mount Lushan and Mount Huangshan, which is a good place for summer vacation. The annual precipitation of Wugong Mountain is about 1700 mm, with abundant precipitation, forming numerous waterfalls, streams, and pools.

The zonal vegetation of Wugong Mountain belongs to the typical subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest. The vegetation zone on the southern slope of the mountain range has strong tropical characteristics, while the northern slope has strong temperate characteristics. Vertical zonal vegetation types include mixed evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved forests, evergreen broad-leaved forests, coniferous forests, mountain dwarf forests, bamboo forests, and meadows. The forest coverage rate of Wugong Mountain reaches 88.1%, which is higher than the average level in China and even the world. There are 37 ancient trees and over 150 precious, rare, and endangered tree species preserved in Wugong Mountain [24]. In the current vegetation, there is a very rich variety of plant species. According to vascular plant statistics, there are 49 families, 114 genera, 403 species, 28 varieties, and 4 forms of ferns; 8 families, 22 genera, 29 species, and 2 varieties of gymnosperms (**Table 1**). There are more than 210 families and 1340 genera of angiosperms, accounting for about 60% of the total families and 38% of the total genera of angiosperms in China. *Ginkgo biloba* L is a relic plant from the Jurassic period of the Mesozoic era; *Cryptomeria fortunei* is a coniferous tree that continued from the Jurassic period to the present day. There is currently a species called *Cryptomeria fortunei*, which is distributed in primitive forests on Wugong Mountain. *Glyphostrobus penilis*, *Cephalotaxaceae*, and *Taxaceae*, which appeared as early as the Cretaceous 100 million years ago, have continued to this day and become a component of mixed coniferous and broad-leaved forests, or companion species in evergreen broad-leaved forests. *Taxus chinensis*, a shallow-rooted plant with an inconspicuous main root and well-developed lateral roots, is recognized as an endangered natural rare anti-cancer plant worldwide. It is an ancient tree species left over from the Quaternary glaciers and has a history of 2.5 million years on the Earth.

#### **2.3 Social humanities**

Wugong Mountain has a long history and a rich cultural heritage. Since the Han (202–220 BC) and Jin (266–420 AD) dynasties, it has been chosen by both Taoism and Buddhism as a blessed place for self-cultivation. During the Song and Ming dynasties, when incense was at its peak, there were more than 30 nunneries of arhat halls, buddhist temples, and taoist temples built in the south and north of the mountain.


**Table 1.**

*Statistics on the number of vascular plants in Wugong Mountain.*

#### *Protection, Development, and Restoration of Mountain Ecosystems: Taking the Wugong… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114949*

To this day, there is a continuous stream of worshippers of good men and women, as well as famous scholars who appreciate mountaineering, recite poetry, and write poems, leaving countless precious ink marks. After Xu Xiake, a great Ming Dynasty traveler and geographer, visited Wugong Mountain, leaving behind the timeless quatrain of "Thousand peaks and towering jade hairpins, the five ridges are comparable to Wugong Mountain" [25]. According to research, more than a hundred ancient poems, plaques, and articles praising Wugong Mountain have been left behind. The altar community of southern China at the Jinding of Wugong Mountain, with a history of over 1700 years, is known as a unique feature of China; there are currently ten ancient pagodas in Jiulong Mountain, all of which were built in the Ming Dynasty and are considered the only group of ancient pagodas in the province. After restoration, they can recreate the scenery of the past.

#### **3. Problems with mountain meadow ecosystems**

Mountain meadows are a rare landscape type in the composition of mountainous tourist attractions. For a long time, Pingxiang City, Anfu County, and Yichun City around Wugong Mountain have all focused their attention on the unique resources of Wugong Mountain in the process of resource development and promoting rapid local socio-economic development [26]. In 1985, Wugong Mountain was approved by the People's Government of Jiangxi Province as the first batch of provincial-level key scenic spots. In 2005, it was successfully declared as a national key scenic spot. With the completion of the high-speed railway from Shanghai to Ruili, the railway from Zhejiang to Jiangxi has increased in speed, and the expansion of the tourism road from Luxi to Wugong Mountain has been carried out, especially the construction of the road network in the scenic area and the opening of the two-level mountain climbing cableway, the range of tourist sources that come with admiration has significantly expanded. At present, the customer source market has expanded to the Nanchang, Changsha, and the border areas between Jiangxi and Hunan provinces. In the medium and long term, a tourism radiation area can be formed in the East China region centered around Shanghai, the Central China region centered around Wuhan, and the South China region centered around Guangzhou. Since 2004, the Wugong Mountain has received 450,000 visitors. Since 2008, the annual Wugong Mountain International Tent Festival has also attracted more and more tourists from all over the country to climb, explore, and camp [27]. It is worth noting that with the expansion of tourism scale and the extension of tourist travel range, the negative impact on various vegetation and special landscapes, including mountain meadows, is also increasing day by day. The arbitrary trampling by tourists and the discharge of waste have largely led to the degradation of meadow community composition and productivity, and the gradual fragmentation of about 4000 hm2 of mountain meadows is becoming increasingly apparent [28].

Overcultivation and overgrazing are some of the main causes of ecological and environmental problems in mountain meadows. Excessive cultivation can lead to intensified soil erosion, which in turn affects the safety of water sources. Overgrazing can lead to meadow vegetation degradation, and reduced biodiversity, and thus affect the stability of ecosystems. Therefore, limiting excessive cultivation and grazing is one of the important measures to protect the ecological environment of mountain meadows. Soil erosion is another important aspect of the ecological environmental problem in mountainous meadows. In addition, factors such as climate change may also lead

to intensified soil erosion [29]. Therefore, taking measures to prevent soil erosion is one of the important measures to protect the ecological environment of mountain meadows. The reduction of biodiversity is another important aspect of the ecological environment of mountain meadows [30]. Besides to the above factors, other human disturbances also may lead to a gradual decrease in biodiversity, and some species may be endangered. Therefore, taking measures to protect biodiversity is one of the important measures to protect the ecological environment of mountain meadows.

#### **4. Research on mountain meadow ecosystem**

#### **4.1 Research on plant biodiversity**

Originating from the 1940s, biodiversity has become a crucial research domain within ecology and global change, presently commanding international ecological attention. Based on the hierarchy of life systems, different scholars divided biodiversity into four levels: genetic diversity, species diversity, ecosystem diversity, and landscape diversity [31].

The variation of biodiversity along environmental gradients is an important research topic in this field. Wang et al. [32] research shows that species diversity and evenness are highest in mid-elevation areas, and species evenness and diversity first increase and then decrease with increasing elevation. Among the currently rare diverse personality traits are: α diversity index increases with elevation, and there is no clear pattern in the species richness index of coastal gradient changes. Therefore, it is necessary to study the biodiversity of various important mountains in nature to accumulate a foundation for the pattern of mountain diversity.

Studying population spatial patterns has always been the most important research field in community ecology. Community pattern analysis is the process of studying the mosaic structure between small communities and small community gaps, or between community patches and community patch gaps. It is an important means of studying plant community structure. At present, common spatial distribution patterns include three types: random distribution, clustered distribution, and uniform distribution. Some scholars believe that spatial distribution patterns should be divided into four types: random distribution, clustered distribution, uniform distribution, and mosaic distribution [33]. The community environment is composed of biotic and abiotic factors. The spatial pattern often reflects the relationship between its dynamic environment and individual survival and growth, as well as indicates the ecological adaptation strategies of plants.

Based on the survey data of 115 sample plots in the distribution area of Wugong Mountain meadow, in previous studies, we analyzed the characteristics and distribution types of vascular plant flora, plant community diversity, spatial distribution patterns of small communities, and human interference effects in the meadow [34]. Through field investigations and specimen identification in the research area over the past 2 years, it was found that within the survey elevation range of 1500 to 1900 m, the meadow plant resources in Wugong Mountain are relatively abundant, including 44 families, 90 genera, and 108 species of ferns, gymnosperms, and angiosperms. Among them, there are 6 families, 6 genera, and 6 species of ferns; 1 family, 2 genera, and 2 species of gymnosperms; 37 families, 82 genera, and 100 species of angiosperms (31 families, 63 genera, and 81 species of dicotyledonous plants; 6 families, 19 genera, and 19 species of monocotyledonous plants). Through investigation and

#### *Protection, Development, and Restoration of Mountain Ecosystems: Taking the Wugong… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114949*

analysis of plant community species at different elevations and slopes in the Wugong Mountain meadow, it was found that *Miscanthus* occupies a dominant position in the entire plant community, followed by the wild ancient grass as a subdominant species. In addition, there are some accompanying species such as *Hypericum ascyron* and *Selaginella*.

We analyzed the spatial distribution pattern of the surveyed plant communities and found that *Miscanthus*, as the main community, has a relatively large distribution area, with 23 types of small communities. The dominant and constructive species in each small community are different, and they all exist as separate small areas in the surrounding large communities. These small communities are mostly distributed on both sides or near the main walkway, with small areas, and some are sporadically embedded in the large communities, a part of them is distributed in an island-like pattern on a mountain slope and is not universal. They are all unique to large communities. Similarly, in the vertical distribution pattern, it can be observed that there are more small communities distributed at elevations of 1650 and 1700 m compared to other elevations, with only one community found at an elevation of 1900 m. As the elevation gradient increases, the α diversity index changes in a wavy pattern (**Table 2**). Analyzing the changing trends of the five indices of the β diversity index shows that as elevation increases, all indices exhibit irregular jumping changes, which may be related to changes in factors such as temperature, water, soil, and light at elevation and changes in the degree of human interference.

The main tourist trail and meadows on both sides of Wugong Mountain's main peak (Jinding) have been deeply affected by tourism activities, especially the main peak, which has been seriously disturbed by human activities, and even several exposed plots have appeared. In response to these phenomena, a study was carried out on the effects of human interference on the meadow of Wugong Mountain. From the main peak of Wugong Mountain at 1900 to 1500 m (the lower limit of the meadow), sample plots were selected from the edge on the same side of the main trail that was most affected by tourism interference. A small sample plot of 1 m x 1 m was set up every 50 m above sea level, with each sample plot being 0 m, 4 m, 8 m, and 12 m away from the main track. Thus, four parallel transects were formed along the main track, totaling 36 small plots. During the investigation, record the plant name, abundance,


#### **Table 2.**

*The changes of plant community diversity in different elevation gradient.*

coverage, frequency, and height of each small plot, as well as environmental factors such as longitude, latitude, and slope.

Tourism activities have had an impact on the community structure and species composition of the Wugong Mountain meadow to a certain extent. The farther away from the main walkway, the greater the total coverage of the transect, and the smaller the degree of tourism interference. In addition, the composition and structure of plant species in the meadow have also changed. Along the main trail, plants that were originally dominant in the meadow, such as *Miscanthus* and *Arundinella hirta*, have become companion species due to poor anti-interference ability. However, plants that were originally companion species, such as *Gerbera delavayi* Franch, *Elsholtzia stachyodes* (Link) C. Y. Wu, and *Senecio latouchei* J. F. Jeffrey, have become dominant species. These plants have strong competitiveness, wide adaptability, and certain antiinterference abilities under the interference of human tourism activities. This may be due to interference that can regulate the ratio of plant species and plant numbers between local and non-local species, thereby affecting the species composition of plant communities. With the vigorous development of the tourism industry, frequent human activities have had a certain impact on the vegetation growth and plant community structure of the Wugong Mountain meadow.

The species richness index of Wugong Mountain meadow shows a decreasing trend with the decrease of tourism disturbance. Research has shown that a significant decrease in species richness index can be observed from the first parallel transect to the second, indicating that tourism interference causes changes in the internal composition structure of plant communities. However, there is no significant change in the richness indexes in the second parallel transect to the fourth, and the intensity of tourism interference does not have a substantial impact on the structure of plant communities. The first parallel is located at the edge of the main trail, which is most disturbed by tourism activities. Human activities have led to the invasion of some companion plants, damaging the original plant community and increasing the species richness index at the edge of the main trail.

The higher the elevation areas, the lower the coverage and the greater the degree of grazing disturbance. The species richness index shows an increasing trend with the degree of interference, and both the diversity index and evenness index show a trend of "first increasing, then decreasing, and then increasing". The evenness index is highest for mild interference and lowest for moderate interference; the diversity index of undisturbed plants is the lowest, while the diversity index of heavily disturbed plants is the highest, indicating that the strength of grazing disturbance has a certain degree of impact on plant community diversity.

#### **4.2 Research on soil characteristics of mountain meadows**

Soil is an important component of the Earth's biosphere and the material foundation on which humans and other animals and plants rely for survival. Soil permeability is one of the important factors affecting soil erosion and an important indicator reflecting the function of soil water conservation and regulation. As a sensitive indicator for stabilizing ecosystems and monitoring changes in soil quality, the diversity of soil microorganisms has played a huge role in evaluating ecosystems and maintaining ecological balance. Therefore, more and more scholars are turning their attention to the research and protection of soil microbial diversity. Soil microorganisms are not only an important component of soil, but also the main drivers of soil nutrient cycling. Changes in soil microbial communities can to some extent reflect the trend

#### *Protection, Development, and Restoration of Mountain Ecosystems: Taking the Wugong… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114949*

of soil quality changes [35]. Among soil microorganisms, bacteria and fungi have the most types and quantities. Bacteria and fungi play an extremely important role in soil nutrient cycling, organic matter formation and decomposition, soil structural composition formation, ecological environment improvement, plant growth and development, and crop pest control [36]. Therefore, research on the characteristics of microorganisms dominated by bacteria and fungi has received widespread attention. Soil nutrients are essential nutrients for plant growth provided by the soil. Soil available nitrogen (AN), available phosphorus (AP), and available potassium (AK) nutrients are the direct sources of the three essential basic elements for crop growth and development [37–39]. Elevation is an important ecological factor that affects crop layout and growth and development, and also has a significant impact on the content of various nutrients in the soil [40, 41]. Natural meadow vegetation is the largest green vegetation layer on the Earth's land surface and an important component of terrestrial ecosystems [42, 43].

The Wugong Mountain meadow in Jiangxi province is a typical representative of subtropical mountain meadows, which have typicality and specificity in the vertical vegetation spectrum of east China due to its wide area and low distribution benchmark elevation. Due to the sharp increase in the number of tourists, the meadow ecosystem has undergone varying degrees of degradation due to human trampling, plant populations have evolved, age structures have changed, biodiversity has decreased, and productivity has declined. Meadow plants exhibit characteristics such as dwarfism, inferiority, and sparsity, some of which even become exposed to the surface, leading to a decrease in fragile ecosystem functions and a weakened ability to recover. Li et al. [44] studied the hyperspectral characteristics of several vegetation in the region and found that the spectral reflectance of the vegetation was as follows: *Carex chinensis* > Arundinella anomala>*Miscanthus sinensis* > *Sinarinaria nitida* > *Fimbristylis wukunnshanensis*; Zhao et al. [21] research showed that the total amount of inorganic phosphorus in meadow soil significantly increased with increasing elevation; Deng et al. [45] believe that as the elevation increases, there is no significant change in the content of available Fe, Cu, Zn, B, and other elements in the meadow soil. However, as the degree of degradation increases, the content of available Cu shows an enrichment phenomenon; Yuan et al. [46] found that the alkaline nitrogen content in the 0–20 cm soil layer of the meadow in the region was higher than that in the 20–40 cm soil layer.

We also found that there is variation in the soil water conservation function of meadows at different elevations in Wugong Mountain, but the variation characteristics are not completely consistent with the changes in elevation [47]. The best water conservation capacity is observed within a range of 1600 m, followed by 1800 and 1700 m, while the water conservation capacity is weak within a range of 1900 m. The soil permeability ranges from 1600 to 1800 m and gradually decreases with increasing elevation, while it increases again in the high-elevation range of 1900 m. As meadow degradation intensifies, soil permeability gradually decreases. The universal empirical model can better fit the soil infiltration process in this study area. The variation characteristics of soil pH show an increase with elevation, an increase in soil activity with the degree of meadow degradation, and a decrease in pH value; soil organic matter remains consistent across varying elevations and degraded meadows; soil potassium concentration rises with elevation, whereas both total phosphate and available phosphate quantities augment with meadow degradation; available sulfur diminishes with elevation ascent and goes up with meadow degeneration; available manganese quantity exhibits a drop with elevation and degradation increment.

At different elevation ranges, the variation characteristics of soil microbial distribution mainly come from the 1900 or 1800 m range of high-elevation areas, while the variation characteristics of soil microbial distribution in mountain meadows with different degrees of degradation mainly come from areas with severe meadow degradation. As the elevation increases and the degree of meadow degradation intensifies, the biomass per unit area of meadows generally shows a decreasing trend. There is a significant positive correlation between bacterial diversity index and leaf biomass, while the number of bacterial OUTs (Operational Taxonomic Units) is positively and negatively correlated with leaf biomass ratio and root biomass ratio, respectively. There is a certain negative correlation between *Cyanobacteria, Archaea*, Nitrifying spirochetes, and biomass. The *Saccharomycota* is positively correlated with total vegetation biomass, while the *Chlamydomonas* is negatively correlated with aboveground vegetation biomass. Soil catalase is positively correlated with both underground and total biomass of vegetation, while sucrase is negatively correlated with aboveground biomass. There is a negative correlation between total potassium and available phosphorus in soil and aboveground biomass of vegetation [18].

#### **4.3 Response of mountain meadow ecosystem to climate change**

Climate change is one of the important issues facing the world today, among which rising atmospheric CO2 concentration and temperature are the main characteristics of future climate change. These changes have a significant impact on the soil nitrogen mineralization process, which in turn affects crop growth and soil quality. After crop residues enter the soil, the content of available nitrogen in the soil is influenced by the dynamic changes of microbial fixation and organic nitrogen mineralization. On the one hand, under high atmospheric CO2 concentration, the C/N content of crop residues is higher. Soil microorganisms not only obtain rich carbon sources but also increase the fixation of inorganic nitrogen in the soil. Although microorganisms may promote the mineralization of soil organic nitrogen to utilize more inorganic nitrogen, it is manifested overall as a net biological fixation of mineral nitrogen, resulting in a decrease in effective nitrogen content in the soil. On the other hand, C/N in soil decreases with organic decomposition and CO2 release, and the rate of nitrogen fixation by microorganisms gradually decreases compared to the mineralization rate of organic nitrogen, resulting in net mineralization of organic nitrogen. Therefore, under the condition of elevated CO2, although crop residues strengthen microbial nitrogen fixation in the short term, they may ultimately promote soil organic nitrogen mineralization, increase the available nitrogen content in the soil, and facilitate crop absorption and utilization. Climate change has a significant impact on soil nitrogen mineralization, mainly manifested in the increase of atmospheric CO2 concentration and temperature, as well as the impact of crop residues on soil nitrogen mineralization [48].

Nitrogen is an important nutrient element in living organisms, one of the main components of proteins, and a key factor in regulating the production, structure, and function of terrestrial ecosystems. It can limit the primary and secondary productivity of communities. The disruption of the balance of nitrogen cycling will inevitably affect the ecological balance of other important physical, chemical, and biological properties, leading to changes in the global environment. The core problem of meadow degradation is soil degradation, which has a certain buffering and complexity. Nitrogen is the most abundant element in the atmosphere and an essential element for plant growth and development. It is crucial in the global carbon and nitrogen cycle. The nitrogen absorbed by plant growth and development mainly comes from

*Protection, Development, and Restoration of Mountain Ecosystems: Taking the Wugong… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114949*

the soil; therefore, the chemical form and transformation of soil nitrogen restrict the absorption and utilization of nitrogen by plants. The detection of soil nitrogen usually selects total nitrogen (TN), alkaline nitrogen (AN), nitrate nitrogen (NO3−N), and ammonium nitrogen (NH4 + −N).

Our research starts with the response of the soil nitrogen pool in the Wugong Mountain meadow to ecosystem degradation and simulated warming, exploring the changes in soil physicochemical properties with meadow degradation, as well as the impact of climate change on meadows. With nitrogen as the breakthrough point, we accurately grasp the impact of meadow degradation on soil nutrients. There are many reasons that can cause meadow degradation, such as overgrazing, climate change, outbreaks of herbivorous small mammal populations, and interference from tourism behavior. The degradation of meadows leads to soil degradation, and the two are mutually causal and cyclical. The mountainous meadow ecosystem has important ecological functions such as improving soil, regulating climate, purifying air, and conserving water sources and its nitrogen storage is enormous. However, due to excessive tourism development, the degradation of Wugong Mountain meadow is becoming increasingly serious. This not only leads to the destruction of soil structure, soil fertility, and vegetation diversity in the meadow ecosystem but also causes significant changes in the composition and structure of its meadow vegetation; the regional ecological environment is facing severe challenges. Therefore, maintaining the stability of meadow ecosystems is of great significance for the development of the regional ecological environment and nitrogen balance. A study on nitrogen mineralization in the meadow soil of Wugong Mountain found that under the same temperature cultivation, as degradation intensifies, the net nitrogen mineralization rate will gradually increase. Under the same elevation and degree of degradation, the net nitrogen mineralization rate of soil will significantly increase from 15 to 25°C (P < 0.05), and slightly decrease from 25 to 35°C, with an overall performance of 25°C > 35°C > 15°C. Therefore, it is predicted that the peak of soil net mineralization in Wugong Mountain meadow may occur between 25 and 30°C [22, 48].

#### **5. Research on the protection and restoration of mountain ecosystems**

The protection of mountain ecosystems mainly relies on legal, policy, scientific research, and educational means to reduce the damage of human activities to the ecosystem, promote the restoration of the ecosystem, and protect biodiversity. Governments of various countries protect mountain ecosystems by formulating relevant laws and regulations. For example, regulations such as the Regulations on Nature Reserves of the People's Republic of China and the Wildlife Protection Law of the People's Republic of China have played an important role in protecting mountain ecosystems and wildlife. The government protects mountain ecosystems by formulating various policies and plans. The Chinese Government has implemented policies such as natural forest protection projects and land conversion projects to protect mountain forest ecosystems. Chinese scientists want to understand the ecological processes and biodiversity of mountain ecosystems through scientific research, they have discovered many unique plant and animal species on the Qinghai Tibet Plateau, which provided a scientific basis for protecting these species. The Chinese government want to enhance public awareness and awareness of mountain ecosystem protection through educational and promotional activities, some education departments

has added content related to nature conservation in primary and secondary school textbooks to enhance young people's awareness of nature conservation.

The restoration of mountain ecosystems is mainly promoted through vegetation restoration, soil restoration, and water resource management to promote the restoration of ecosystems and improve the ecological environment. Through measures such as aforestation and returning farmland to forests, the vegetation of mountain ecosystems can be restored, and the biodiversity and stability of the ecosystem can be improved. China's Grain for Green project improves the stability and disaster resistance of mountain ecosystems by gradually restoring steep slope farmland to forest vegetation. By taking physical, chemical, and biological measures to repair damaged soil, the quality and productivity of the soil can be improved. Some regions in China have adopted measures such as returning straw to the field and applying organic fertilizers to improve soil structure and enhance soil fertility. By rational allocation and effective management of water resources, we can ensure the normal operation of mountain ecosystems and the full play of ecological service functions. Other regions in China have adopted measures such as rainwater collection and water-saving irrigation to improve the efficiency and management level of water resources.

The Wugong Mountain Meadow in Jiangxi Province is a typical representative of subtropical mountain meadows. Currently, human interference and excessive tourism development have led to serious degradation and fragmentation of the fragile meadow ecosystem in the region. It is urgent to carry out reasonable vegetation restoration to prevent further deterioration of the ecological environment [49]. Bai et al. [50] summarized the theoretical and practical work of early degraded ecosystem restoration and reconstruction, and believed that plant measures are the primary step and preferred solution in restoration measures. Yang et al. [51] used ryegrass (*Lolium perenne* L.), *Poa annua* L., and creeping purple fescue (*Festuca rubra* L.) as sowing grass seeds, plant paper, and non-woven fabric as auxiliary materials, and conducted fertilization treatment experiments. It was found that non-woven fabric and plant paper have similar auxiliary effects on vegetation growth, and an increase in fertilization will actually reduce the emergence rate. Ge et al. [52] restored the degraded areas of alpine meadows in Maqu County, Gansu Province through measures such as fertilization, supplementary sowing, and soil plowing, and believed that several measures were effective. Yang et al. [53] conducted a study on the vegetation restoration of the slopes of the Yuexi to Wuhan expressway in the western Anhui region and found that using plant fiber blankets as auxiliary materials has better effects.

The research team led by the author has currently conducted research on soil nutrient distribution [17, 20], vegetation hyperspectral characteristics [44], and mountain meadow tourism marketing [54] in the Wugong Mountain meadow, enriching the scientific research achievements of the vegetation ecosystem in the region. The degradation of meadows can generally be attributed to two major factors: natural and human factors [43]. The vegetation degradation of Wugong Mountain meadows is mainly caused by tourism development and human trampling. How to adapt to the environmental requirements of the region and have good tolerance to the trampling behavior of tourists, while quickly repairing the current ecological degradation situation, is an important issue faced by scientific research and business planning personnel. We take the severely degraded area of Wugong Mountain meadow as the research object and analyze the vegetation growth effect and adaptability characteristics under different treatment methods by sowing different grass species, covering different auxiliary materials, and conducting turf transplantation and enclosure. We explore excellent measures suitable for vegetation restoration in

#### *Protection, Development, and Restoration of Mountain Ecosystems: Taking the Wugong… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114949*

the area, providing theoretical guidance for the ecological restoration of degraded meadows, providing a reference basis for the management planning and sustainable development of subtropical mountain meadows. Among several vegetation restoration measures, direct sowing of awns has the best growth effect, followed by dogtooth root, tall fescue, ryegrass, thrush grass, and enclosed vegetation have poor growth effects. Covering non-woven fabric as an auxiliary measure has a better vegetation growth effect than covering grass curtains and non-covering measures. Grass transplantation has the best growth effect among all vegetation restoration measures, and the grass transplantation effect of local grass species such as *Miscanthus*, *Carex chinensis*, and *Fimbristylis wukungshanensis* is better than that of imported grass species such as *Cynodon dactylon*. In the process of vegetation restoration, it is recommended to use measures such as grass transplantation based on the premise that it does not cause significant damage to the original vegetation environment; in addition, it is recommended to use *Miscanthus* as the main grass species for restoration, *Cynodon dactylon* as an auxiliary grass species, and cover it with non-woven fabric for vegetation restoration [55].

#### **6. Development and utilization of sustainable mountain ecosystems**

The development of mountain ecosystems mainly utilizes resources through sustainable ecotourism, agriculture, and forestry to promote economic development and reduce poverty [56]. Some local governments and tourism companies utilize the natural landscapes and cultural heritage resources of mountainous ecosystems to develop the ecotourism industry and provide support for local economic development. China's Jiuzhaigou Valley Scenic and Historic Interest Area, Zhangjiajie, and other tourist attractions have attracted a large number of tourists to come for sightseeing and vacation by using their unique natural landscape and cultural heritage resources. There are also some local governments and business operators utilize the agricultural resources of mountainous ecosystems to develop characteristic agriculture and improve the income and living standards of farmers. The province of Guizhou and Yunnan in China have utilized their abundant agricultural resources to develop characteristic agricultural industries such as tea and flowers. If there are mountains within the administrative area, government departments and tourism enterprises Utilize the forestry resources of mountainous ecosystems to develop the forestry industry and provide support for local economic development. China's Changbai Mountain and Huang Mountain have used their rich forestry resources to develop forestry industries such as wood processing and undergrowth economy [57].

The tourism industry is affected by the environment. In a certain sense, it can be said that tourism is developed based on the environment. Only a beautiful environment can make people feel relaxed and happy, leaving them lingering and immersed in the beautiful atmosphere. At the same time, it can cultivate sentiments, stimulate enthusiasm, achieve spiritual satisfaction, and discover, enjoy, and spread beauty in the beautiful scenery. On the contrary, if there is no high-quality environment or the environment is damaged, it cannot attract tourists to travel. Protecting the environment is the fundamental guarantee for the sustainable development of tourism, and it is the most basic condition for the sustainable development of a country or region's tourism industry. At the same time, good tourism development can also promote the protection of the tourism environment and provide local environmental investment, which complement each other [54].

However, in recent years, with the rapid development of the tourism industry and the arrival of the era of mass tourism, a large number of tourists have flooded into tourist destinations, putting enormous pressure on the sustainable development of tourist destinations. Some problems such as resource destruction, declining landscape quality, and environmental pollution are becoming increasingly serious, mainly manifested in (1) endogenous destruction, which is the damage caused by tourism activities themselves, there are mainly constructive damages to tourist attractions and pollution of the tourism environment caused by household waste. (2) Exogenous damage, namely the damage caused by economic activities in the surrounding areas, mainly includes pollution of the tourism environment caused by waste gases and water, and unreasonable layout of infrastructure, which damages the tourism environment. However, the traditional tourism environment management in our country still remains at a low level due to the emergence of diverse policies and chaotic management. (3) Without new breakthroughs, the sustainable development of scenic spots is greatly threatened. Based on this, tourist attractions must seek more suitable sustainable development strategies and scenic area tourism environment management methods. Experts in the tourism and natural ecology fields are also actively considering how to protect tourism resources, prevent environmental pollution and damage, and achieve an organic unity of economic, social, and environmental benefits [58].

Wugong Mountain is a mountainous scenic area with natural scenery as its main feature. The mountainous meadows are a rare landscape type in the composition of mountainous tourist attractions. By comprehensive and systematic investigation, analysis, and evaluation of the tourism resources, a survey and analysis were conducted on the recreational behavior of tourists; previous researchers conducted an analysis and evaluation of various recreational activities' impact on the tourism environment factors of Wugong Mountain's scenic area. We considered tourist experience and resource conservation aspects to construct a range of mountain grassland recreation opportunities, calculate the tourism environmental carrying capacity, and offer pertinent suggestions for environment management, including national park establishment, waste management, greenway development, and ancient tree cultural restoration [57, 59–61].

#### **6.1 Analysis and evaluation of tourism resources**

The Wugong Mountain Scenic Area has a wide variety of tourism resources with complex structures and abundant individual resources. The overall evaluation score for tourism resources is 80 points, including 9 fifth-level tourism resources. The score for typical landscapes (mountain meadow landscapes, celestial wonders, and ancient tree landscapes) is 85 points, indicating a high score and high overall development value.

#### **6.2 Analysis of recreational behavior characteristics of tourists**

Based on first-hand data obtained from questionnaire surveys and in-depth interviews, this study focuses on mountain tourists and analyzes the general characteristics of the Wugong Mountain recreational market and tourist recreational behavior. The results indicate that the recreational behavior of tourists in Wugong Mountain has the following obvious characteristics:

1.In terms of demographic characteristics, the gender structure is dominated by male tourists, with middle-aged and young tourists as the main group. Among

#### *Protection, Development, and Restoration of Mountain Ecosystems: Taking the Wugong… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114949*

them, the proportion of male and female tourists is 60.7 and 39.3%, and tourists between the ages of 18 and 40 account for 89.3%. In terms of occupation and education, student tourists account for 38.2%. In addition, company employees and enterprises and institutions account for 17.1 and 13.2%, respectively, with a higher proportion. From the perspective of educational background, tourists have the characteristic of high education, with 70.4% having a bachelor's degree and 5.3% having a graduate degree. Therefore, young students also as the main group, with high educational qualifications. However, the proportion of high-end outdoor recreational tourists is relatively small.


#### **6.3 Analysis of the impact of the recreational behavior of tourists in Wugong Mountain on tourism environment**

The impact of recreational behavior of tourists in Wugong Mountain on the meadow environment was analyzed from the aspects of trampling behavior, camping activities, tourism waste, and hiking, mainly using on-site experiments and investigations. The results indicate that:


of the meadow vegetation on both sides of the road increases gradually from 1 to 5 m, and the types and associated species of meadow vegetation at 1 m are more affected by human activities than at 5 m.

4.The tourism waste in Wugong Mountain Scenic Area presents a large amount, wide coverage, and concentrated types, while the existing disposal methods are still simple and crude, which has a significant negative impact on the environment, image, and tourist satisfaction of the scenic area.

#### **6.4 Research on the carrying capacity of tourism environment**

Twenty evaluation indicators were selected from three aspects: elasticity, support, and resistance, and a bearing capacity evaluation index system for the recreational environment of Wugong Mountain meadow was constructed. The threshold range of each indicator and bearing capacity index was determined, and a corresponding bearing capacity index model was constructed.

The comprehensive index (LO) of the carrying capacity of the recreational environment in the Wugong mountain meadow during peak season is 0.4263, and it presents a carrying pattern of "high elasticity-low support-low resistance". The elasticity index (LA), support index (LB), and resistance index (LC) are 0.0644, 0.2066, and 0.1553, respectively. In the off-season, its comprehensive bearing capacity index (LO) is 0.5661, showing a bearing pattern of "high elasticity full support high resistance". The elasticity index (LA), support index (LB), and resistance index (LC) are 0.0656, 0.2513, and 0.2492, respectively.

From a single indicator perspective, the recreational environment of the Wugong Mountain meadow is significantly overloaded during peak season, with 65% of indicators in an overloaded state, 25% in a fully loaded state, and only 10% in a low-loaded state. During the off-season, the indicator carrying capacity is diverse, with 35% in the "overloaded" and 35% in the "fully loaded" states, and 30% in the "low-loaded" state.

#### **6.5 A tourism environment management strategy for Wugong Mountain based on tourist recreation behavior**

Based on the laws and characteristics of tourist recreational behavior, this study attempts to strengthen and improve the management of the tourism environment in Wugong Mountain through strategies such as introducing national park management system pilot construction, constructing recreational opportunity spectrum, garbage management, greenway construction, and ancient tree culture production.

#### 1.Pilot construction of national park management system.

Wugong Mountain stretches for 120 km with a total area of over 260 km<sup>2</sup> . It is a complete ecosystem that integrates cultural and natural landscapes, fully in compliance with the national park standards recognized by the International Union for Conservation of Natural Resources (IUCN). Given the current situation of the management committees for one mountain and three scenic spots, and against the backdrop of the country actively promoting the pilot construction of national parks, it is necessary and appropriate for Wugong Mountain to promote the pilot construction of the national park management system.

2.Building a recreation opportunity spectrum for Wugong Mountain.

Based on the characteristics of the recreational environment of the Wugong Mountain meadow and the comprehensive consideration of the environmental recreational possibilities of the mountain meadow tourist area, and based on the questionnaire survey of the recreational activities and experiences expected by tourists in three different environmental types, and the analysis of the importance and preference of the comprehensive recreational environmental factors, a mountain meadow ecological recreational opportunity spectrum is determined based on three aspects: environmental type, recreational activities, and recreational experiences.

3.Wugong Mountain tourism garbage management model.

The reason for the problem of tourism waste is the result of the joint action of relevant stakeholders, and the existing governance methods mainly rely on technical and management level governance led by a single entity, which has not been effective. Stakeholder theory should be introduced to construct a tourism waste management model for mountainous scenic areas, which involves a collaborative approach of multiple stakeholders to implement full process management from source control before tourism waste generation to maintenance after cleaning, achieving effective management of tourism waste in mountainous scenic areas.

4.Wugong Mountain Greenway construction.

The Wugong Mountain Greenway, also known as the Wugong Mountain Ecological Trail or Scenic Trail, has important practical significance for achieving sustainable development of the Wugong Mountain meadow. It helps to improve the ecological system, increase cultural charm, improve reception facilities, and enhance safety management. The construction of greenways in the Wugong Mountain meadow should choose ecological, cultural, humane, and safe approaches.

5.The production mechanism of ancient tree culture in Wugong Mountain.

There are over 100 ancient trees and 37 varieties, which are relatively concentrated. Firstly, in the inheritance and protection of ancient tree culture, we should actively maintain the individuality of ancient trees and selectively inherit and utilize ancient tree culture; secondly, efforts should be made to shape the image of ancient trees and reconstruct their landscapes, striving to amplify the cultural value of the trees themselves and expand the cultural space for their survival; thirdly, cultural transplantation should be carried out on unnamed and storyless ancient trees, borrowing foreign cultural resources to make them important tourism resources.

#### **7. Conclusion**

The Wugong Mountain meadow ecosystem is a typical alpine meadow in southern China, with important ecological value and unique tourism resources. The core of protecting and restoring the meadow ecosystem of Wugong Mountain lies in establishing and implementing strict management systems. In the process of protecting and restoring the meadow ecosystem of Wugong Mountain, we need to pay attention

*Protection, Development, and Restoration of Mountain Ecosystems: Taking the Wugong… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114949*

to the balance between ecological protection, resource utilization, and economic development. Only through scientific management and protection measures can the sustainable utilization and development of mountain meadow ecosystems be achieved.

Protecting, developing, and restoring mountain ecosystems are a long-term and arduous task that requires the joint efforts of the government, enterprises, and the public. In recent years, researchers have achieved rich research results in this field. However, further research is still needed in this field, including improving protection measures, development models, restoration technologies, and policy regulations, in order to better achieve sustainable development of mountain ecosystems. In addition, it is necessary to strengthen scientific research and technical support to provide a theoretical basis for the protection, development, and restoration of mountain ecosystems.

#### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **Author details**

Zhi Li1,2,3, Yanmei Wang1,2,3, Xiaodong Geng1,2,3, Qifei Cai1,2,3, Zhen Liu1,2,3, Ling Zhang4 \* and Xiaomin Guo4

1 College of Forestry, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China

2 Henan Province Engineering Technology Research Center for Idesia, Zhengzhou, China

3 National Forestry and Grassland Administration Key Laboratory for Central Plains Forest Resources Cultivation, Zhengzhou, China

4 College of Forestry, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang, China

\*Address all correspondence to: lingzhang09@126.com

© 2024 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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#### **Chapter 7**

## Restoration of Uranium Tailings in the Mountains: A Perspective from the State of the Skin in Persons Living in the Vicinity

*Alena Isupova*

#### **Abstract**

In our work, for the first time, the problem of long-term exposure (more than 50 years) to low doses of radiation to the human body was touched upon. Comprehensive studies of the content of radionuclides in water, soil, meat of cattle, and small cattle, carried out within the framework of the ISTC; prove the entry of radionuclides into the human body through food chains. For the period from 2003 to 2023, studies were conducted on the skin of people living in various regions of Kyrgyzstan. A total of 3650 people were examined. The main group (600 people) is represented by people living near uranium tailings. Analysis of the features of the course and manifestation of dermatoses showed the features of the course of skin pathology. The mean age of stigma manifestation was 32.7 ± 7.5 years compared to the control group 45.2 ± 10.3 years.

**Keywords:** radionuclides, internal exposure, skin, stigmas of age-related skin changes, body aging, skin aging, uranium tailings, skin microbiome, skin diseases, immunity, pyoderma, diagnosis of skin neoplasms, epiluminescence microscopy, dermatoscopy, uranium tailings, 25(oh)D, skin microbiota

#### **1. Introduction**

Problems of environmental safety and public health in technogenic zones located in the mountains are of great scientific and practical importance.

Radiation safety is the main issue of environmental safety and public health in Kyrgyzstan. The legacy of past activities in the mining and processing of uranium remains relevant in connection with the spread of industrial waste throughout the territory of the republic and border countries [1]. Depleted uranium (DU) obtained as a result of processing natural uranium makes a large contribution to environmental pollution [2].

On the territory of Kyrgyzstan (199,951 km2 ) there are 49 tailings and 80 rock dumps, where 70 million m3 of uranium production waste is buried. In industrial tailing waste, in addition to uranium, there are radioactive elements in high

concentrations, such as radium - 226, thorium - 230, and radon - 222, as well as elements that were used as reagents in the processing of ore: Ca, Si, Pb, Cr, Mn, V, Ni [3]. Most of the tailings are located in the mountain ecosystem, above settlements, near river mouths, or seasonal water flows. The lack of control over the movement of industrial waste has a negative impact on individual components of the mountain ecosystem, including plants, animals, and humans [4, 5]. Climate change is possible under the influence of anthropogenic factors; projected global warming can increase the number and severity of natural disasters in the mountain ecosystem [6]. In emergency situations, there is a danger of transferring industrial waste to the territory of neighboring states. The peculiarities of the spread of industrial waste are largely related to the high mountainous relief of the republic, seismic activity, seasonal melting of glaciers and mudflows, and wind erosion of soils. An analysis of the situation shows that more than 26,000 people are in the zone of ecological catastrophe in Kyrgyzstan, about 2 million people in Uzbekistan, 900,000 people in Kazakhstan, and 700,000 people in Tajikistan [7].

According to studies, drinking water from artesian wells was characterized by an increased content of U (up to 10 μg/l) and some microelements (for example, As, Se, Cr, V, and F), especially arsenic. In the drainage waters of the tailings, uranium concentrations exceeded those recommended by WHO by more than 200 times, and a large scatter was observed in the change in the (234)U/(238)U isotope ratios. Another study showed that the ingestion dose of radioactive radiation for members of the critical group is from 10 to 30 mSv, and in an emergency scenario - 45 and 77 mSv for an adult and a child, respectively [8].

The concentrations of radionuclides and chemical elements in the water of Lake Issyk-Kul were generally low but unexpectedly high for arsenic. Uranium (U), As, and Ni were mostly present in all samples as low molecular weight particles (<10 kDa), indicating that these elements are mobile and potentially bioavailable. Soils at mining sites are enriched with uranium, arsenic, and other elements. In Kaji-Sai, hotspots with increased levels of radioactivity were easily found, where accumulations of radioactive particles were observed. The presence of particles carrying a significant amount of radioactivity and toxic microelements can be dangerous during strong wind events (wind erosion) [9]. According to Salbu B., Burkitbaev M. et al. field expeditions to the Kurdai mine (border of Kazakhstan, 23 km from Bishkek) showed a high content of man-made waste in water and soil. Uranium, As, Mo, and Ni were predominantly present in waters in the form of mobile low molecular weight forms, while a significant part of Cr, Mn, and Fe was associated with colloids and particles. It was noted that, due to the oxidation of ferrous iron in artesian groundwater, upon contact with air, iron serves as a sink of other elements, peak concentrations of uranium, radium, arsenic, and manganese isotopes are observed, and based on successive extractions, a significant part of U, Pb, and Cd can be considered mobile [10]. A similar situation with the impact of radionuclides and metals on the environment is observed at the former U-Taboshar and Digmay test sites in the neighboring republic [11].

Insufficient security associated with free access to uranium tailings can pose a serious threat to the spread and use of radioactive components of former enterprises [12]. In many technogenic zones, cattle grazing was noted near burial grounds (Figure). Local residents visit open adits (**Figure 3**) and extract building materials and coal for the needs of the family.

Today in Central Asia there is a problem of limited data on water quality [13], taking into account climate change and the man-made introduction of humans into the mountain ecosystem. Climate change entails a change in the quantity and quality *Restoration of Uranium Tailings in the Mountains: A Perspective from the State of the Skin… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113915*

of water resources in the Central Asian republics [14]. On a global scale, the flow of rivers originating in the mountains increases in response to climate warming and the depletion of glaciers [15]. Large uncertainties in meteorological datasets remain a major obstacle to understanding the processes that cause changes at the interface between climate, glaciers, runoff, and mountain ecosystems as a whole [16].

A study by Hao et al. [17] proposes a new analytical framework for assessing the security of water, energy, and food (WEF) and the factors influencing them in five countries of Central Asia: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan; Tajikistan. At the same time, four dimensions of security indicators are proposed: availability, self-sufficiency, productivity, and accessibility [17]. It is hoped that radiobiology and radioecology will be included in the study of factors affecting the safety of WEF. There is no better opportunity to study in detail the mechanisms of action, biological effects, kinetics in the body, and ways of excretion of radionuclides, as their wide application in medicine. Beta-particle emitters are used, however, a large radius of action (≥1 mm) can cause nonspecific irradiation of healthy cells [18]. Radionuclides emitting predominantly alpha particles have a narrowed exposure range to 50–100 μm [19]. Although it is known that the emitters of alpha particles decay along the decay chain, which leads to the appearance of several daughter particles, causing additional biological effects [20]. Auger electrons are very lowenergy electrons emitted by radionuclides that decay by electron capture. This energy is transferred over distances ranging from nanometers to micrometers, resulting in a highly linear energy transfer capable of causing lethal cell damage. These high-energy deposits produce local dense ionizations that are highly destructive when the radionuclide is incorporated into nuclear DNA, the cell nucleus, or the cell membrane [21].

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) plays an important role in controlling the quality and mechanisms of action of radionuclides on a living organism. The Agency is pursuing the issue of "Preclinical testing of radiopharmaceuticals" to minimize the risk of unknown and undesirable effects [22]. Such work could make a great contribution to the problem of the health of people living in the zone of technogenic pollution for a long time, taking into account the cross-understanding of research topics and the symbiosis of sciences [23]. It is known that radionuclides penetrate into the internal environment of the human body with water, food, and also by inhalation of aerosols [24]. The clinical effects of exposure to DU, like other heavy metals, are manifested by nephrotoxicity [25], neurological symptoms, immunotoxicity, embryotoxicity [26], and hepatotoxicity [27]. Epidemiological [28] and experimental studies confirm an increased risk of neoplasms [29].

Assessment of radiological doses due to endogenous intake of radionuclides is calculated using biokinetic and dosimetric models [30]. IMBA is a set of software modules that implement current ICRP (International Commission on Radiation Protection) biokinetic and dosimetric models for intake and dose assessment. When calculating, IMBA applies the truncation rule for progeny in radioactive series [31], which limits the results of the study. There are recommendations of the ICRP in case of nuclear accidents, taking into account the scale and necessary radiological protection and, in the long term, the development of measures to restore the living conditions, working conditions, and quality of life of the affected communities. To achieve this goal, the ICRP emphasizes the critical importance of bringing all stakeholders together [32]. In our opinion, following this example, monitoring the situation at uranium tailings dumps and the safety of the population in technogenic zones should also become a priority for stakeholders and the state.

It is known that the incorporation of radionuclides into the internal environment of the body will not cause acute radiation sickness, but it can cause long-term internal exposure, leading to health consequences after several years or even decades. In this variant of exposure, the harmful biological effects of radiation do not have a dose threshold of occurrence and are stochastic. With increasing doses, it is not the severity of these effects that increases, but the likelihood (risk) of their occurrence [33]. The health risk can be quantified by the committed effective dose, which is defined as the cumulative effective dose from internal exposure 50 years (for adults) after the incorporation of the radionuclide [34]. In addition, uranium is a heavy metal (19.1 g/ cm3 ) and therefore may have chemically induced toxic effects [34]. The mechanisms of heavy metal toxicity are quite complex [34]. The toxicity and absorption of uranium (concentration in the target tissue) depends on its soluble and insoluble forms [35]. The mechanisms underlying the toxicological effects of uranium on the human body are being studied [36].

Thus, active technogenic pollution of the environment as a result of the mining and processing of uranium, as well as the disposal of uranium waste, significantly disrupts the existing balance of the abiotic part of the mountain ecosystem and the biocenosis, which consists of the exchange of matter and energy. Our scientific research is devoted to studying the influence of "low doses of radiation", "toxicological profile" of radionuclides on the state of the integumentary system, immunological status, and skin microbiota of communities living for a long time (more than 50 years) near uranium tailings in a mountain ecosystem.

#### **2. Research results**

#### **2.1 Territorial living conditions of a cohort of Kyrgyz in a mountain ecosystem**

The research was carried out within the framework of the scientific project KR766 of the International Science and Technology Center (ISTC). To record the radiation level, the participants of the ISTC KR766 project expedition used a domestic radiometer SRP-68-01 type RPTU-01 with a BTGI-01 sensor, which allows recording gamma radiation at a discrimination energy level of 20 ± 5 keV and with a measurement range of exposure dose rate up to 3000 μR/h [5].

Scientific research covered the territories of the geochemical provinces of Min-Kush, Mailu-Suu, and Kadzhi-Sai of the Republic of Kyrgyzstan. The country's territory is located within two mountain ecosystems. Its northeastern part lies within the Tien Shan, and the southwestern part lies within the Pamir-Alai. Kyrgyzstan is 93% mountainous and mostly lies on land, located at an altitude of 1000–7400 m. The average altitude above sea level is 2750 m. More than 40 percent of the country's territory is at an altitude of more than 3000 m, and three-quarters of this is covered by permanent snow or glaciers, with 600 glaciers covering an area of 6578 km<sup>2</sup> [37].

The geochemical province Min-Kush ("thousand birds") is located in the spurs of the Moldo-Too ridge in the geographical zone of the Central Tien Shan, at an altitude of 2200 to 2500 m above sea level (**Figure 1**). The figure shows a mountain ecosystem, where a settlement is located in a gorge along the river, and uranium tailings are located in the upper reaches of the mountains. Background radiation levels in the urban area of Min-Kush compared to ecologically "clean" areas of the republic (18–22 μR/h) are increased: three times higher (60–61 μR/h). Thus, at the gates of the Tuyuk-Suu tailings dump, the background radiation level was 60–61 μR/h, on

*Restoration of Uranium Tailings in the Mountains: A Perspective from the State of the Skin… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113915*

**Figure 1.** *The geochemical province of Min-Kush.*

the territory of the Rudnik hotel - 60 to 61 μR/h, in the water flowing from the adit. No. 8–61-61.5 μR/h.

Geochemical province Kadzhi-Sai (**Figure 2**) on the southern shore of Lake Issyk-Kul, at an altitude of 1750–1978.9 m above sea level. **Figure 2** shows a populated area with uranium tailings and rock dumps located above it.

On the right of the photo, you can see the entrance part of the adit. It is important to note that the adits remained unguarded for a long time. The entrance to the adits is open (**Figure 3**) and accessible to animals, residents, including children.

**Figure 2.** *Geochemical province of Kaji-Sai located near the mountain lake Issyk-Kul.*

**Figure 3.** *The entrance to the mine adits is open.*

**Figure 4.** *The rock dumps and uranium tailings.*

**Figure 5.** *Mudflow passing through the territory of the uranium tailing dump toward residential areas and the lake.*

*Restoration of Uranium Tailings in the Mountains: A Perspective from the State of the Skin… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113915*

**Figure 4** shows rock dumps, and on the right is a fragment of wastewater from a uranium tailings pond. Our expedition vehicle is visible in the background. The radiation level here is from 600 to 1000 μR/h.

**Figure 5** shows a large wastewater flow from a uranium waste disposal site toward a populated area and mountain lake in this mountain ecosystem.

Mountain rivers and mudflows violate the integrity of uranium tailings and thereby spread man-made pollutants throughout residential areas, fields, gardens, and pastures, and these waters end up in Lake Issyk-Kul.

In 1948, there was a uranium ore processing plant here. Uranium oxide was extracted from the ash of brown uranium-containing coals of the Sogutinsky deposit after their combustion (uranium oxide was extracted by leaching from the ash). In the Kadzhi-Say geochemical province, the radiation level is relatively low and ranges from 18 to 40 μR/h, but the uranium content in the surface waters of the Kadzhi-Say tailings pond, as well as on the southern shore of Lake. Issyk-Kul, adjacent to the province, is 1–2 orders of magnitude higher than on the opposite shore of the lake. If in the water of the northern shore of Lake Issyk-Kul the uranium content is about 0.3–4.94 × 10–5 g/l, then in the region of the Kadzhi-Sai province this figure is 2–60 times higher. A total of 11.7 × 10–<sup>5</sup> g/l of uranium was found in tap water from the well of the Khan-Saray boarding house, compared to tap water in the village of Komsomolsky, Chui region, where the radioecological laboratory is located, containing uranium 1.3 × 10–<sup>5</sup> g/l.

The geochemical province Mailu-Suu (**Figure 6**) is located in the Jalal-Abat region on the slopes of the Fergana Range at an altitude of 1100–1200 m above sea level. This is the largest uranium province, in which a uranium processing plant operated from 1946 to 1967, and its waste was stored along the right and left banks of the Mailu-Suu River. After the closure of the mining plant, 23 uranium tailings and 18 dumps of substandard uranium ores remained in the region. 1.9 million m3 of spent uranium ore are buried in this area.

The radiation background of gamma radiation in the geochemical province of Mailu-Suu ranged from 16 to 600 μR/h, and according to the regional department of the Ministry of Emergency Situations of the Kyrgyz Republic, in some areas, it reached up to 1000 μR/h, i.e. exceeded the radiation levels existing in clean zones by 2–4 times, and in anomalous points by 20–50 times.

**Figure 6.** *Former uranium mining site of Mailuu-Suu [38].*

**Figure 7.** *Pastures and hayfields in the mountain ecosystem of Kyrgyzstan.*

#### **2.2 Analysis of food products obtained from livestock farming in a mountain ecosystem near uranium tailings**

The expedition members examined the organs of large and small livestock in the three main uranium provinces of the republic. Uranium content in the organs of Min-Kush cows: 0.001–5.54 mg/kg wet weight. In the city of Mailu-Suu, it is 0.002– 0.212 mg/kg and in the city of Kadzhi-Sai - 0.002-0.537 mg/kg wet weight.

The uranium content in the organs of small ruminants (lambs) in the city of Min-Kush ranges from 0.005 to 2.44 mg/kg, in the city of Mailu-Suu - 0.03- 0.107 mg/kg, in the city of Kadzhi-Sai - 0.001–0.048 mg/kg. The uranium content in integumentary tissues (skin, horns, hooves) ranges from 0.003 to 0.18 mg/kg wet weight.

**Figure 7** shows the grazing of large and small livestock on natural pastures, part of the territory of which includes unprotected tailings ponds and mountain dumps. On the right, you can see grazing animals among the rock dumps. In the center of this figure, the water flow passing through the rock dumps is clearly visible.

Thus, the material we obtained convincingly proves that radionuclides enter the body of animals and humans through food chains.

#### **2.3 General characteristics of uranium burial sites in the mountain ecosystem of Kyrgyzstan**

Thus, waste from production and industrial equipment with a total volume of about 400,000 m3 is buried on the territory of the republic. After the cessation of the activities of mining enterprises for the extraction and processing of uranium, 35 of the 49 tailings dumps that formed turned out to be ownerless. Of the 80 dumps of substandard uranium ores, 25 are abandoned.

Mountain rivers and mudflows violate the integrity of uranium tailings and thereby spread man-made pollutants throughout residential areas, fields, gardens, pastures, and these waters end up in rivers and lakes, which causes enormous damage to the mountain ecosystem as a whole. Foothills and mountain settlements suffer from the presence of uranium tailings and rock dumps.

*Restoration of Uranium Tailings in the Mountains: A Perspective from the State of the Skin… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113915*

#### **2.4 Methods for studying communities living near uranium tailings in a mountain ecosystem**

During the period from 2003 to 2023, 3650 people living in various regions of Kyrgyzstan were examined. The risk group is people living near uranium tailings in the mountains; the comparison group – people living in radionuclide-free areas.

The skin was examined using standard methods. Initially, the condition of externally unchanged areas of the skin was assessed, and then the lesions were described. Skin color and the presence of de- and hyper-pigmentation were determined, indicating the place where these changes were most pronounced; elasticity, turgor, and hydration (normal, dry, moist skin). If rashes were present, their nature (inflammatory or non-inflammatory), symmetry, extent of the process, localization of the rash, and damage to open or closed areas of the skin were assessed.

To analyze clinical and epidemiological studies, a specially designed card was filled out based on information obtained from the study of outpatient records, clinical and instrumental methods for studying the skin of selected groups. During the interview, a questionnaire consisting of 54 questions was filled out. Clinical assessment of pigmented skin lesions was carried out according to the ABCD rule (R. Friedman) [39].

Epiluminescence microscopy of skin neoplasms was performed using a Heine Delta 20 dermatoscope (K-256.27.376, Heine Optotechnik, Germany), an emersion medium (Dermatoscopy Oil, K-00.34.005, Heine Optotechnik, Germany), a recording device - a Nicon 5300 digital camera (Japan); photo adapter designed for contact with a HEINE DELTA 20/Nikon Coolpix writing device (K-00.34.235, Heine Optotechnik, Germany). A dermoscopic assessment of melanocytic pigmented skin lesions was performed using "pattern analysis" [40]. Panoramic skin scans were taken under standard conditions.

#### *2.4.1 Immunological studies*

Immunological studies included the study of T- and B-links of immunity, the phagocytic activity of neutrophils, and the system of mononuclear phagocytes. The content of T- and B-lymphocytes and subpopulations of T-cells in the blood was determined by the method of indirect surface immunofluorescence with monoclonal antibodies of the IKO series, a "shortened" panel was used to identify CD markers: CD3+ (T-lymphocytes); CD4+ (helper T-lymphocytes); CD8+ (cytotoxic lymphocytes); CD20+ (B-lymphocytes). The study of mononuclear phagocytes was carried out using the following methods: (1) Determination of the phagocytic activity of monocytes in a test with monodisperse latex particles with a diameter of 1.0–2.0 μm; (2) Nitroblue tetrazolium test in monocytes (NBT-test); (3) Adhesion of monocytes; (4) Spreading of monocytes; (5) Determination of the total luminescence index (SIL) of monocyte lysosomes; (6) In some cases, lipid inclusions were detected in the cytoplasm of monocytes using a luminescent probe 3-MBA (3-methoxybenzanthrone). In parallel, the phagocytic activity of neutrophils and the intensity of their reduction of nitroblue tetrazolium were studied. (7) The calculation of the relative and absolute content of monocytes in the peripheral blood was carried out according to the generally accepted method.

#### *2.4.2 Study of skin microflora*

To study the quantitative and qualitative composition of the skin microflora, 67 skin samples were studied on Korostelev's medium, and 53 samples were taken by washing. The respondents were conditionally divided into three groups: (1) residents of the clean zone (28 people); (2) residents of the technogenic zone (30 people); (3) ormer miners of a uranium mine (28 people).

When studying the ecology of the skin of the examined groups, appropriate methods of material selection were used. The isolation of microorganisms from their natural habitat - human skin - was carried out by washing and imprinting, which made it possible to count viable microcolonies or clusters of bacteria located on the surface of the skin (a quantitative method for studying surface microflora). This method refers to direct methods of collecting material and is convenient and easy to perform. When using the direct method, slides with Korostelev's medium (per 100 ml of meat peptone agar, 0.5 ml of a 1.5% alcohol solution of bromothymol blue) were tightly placed for 2 seconds on the surface of the skin of the shoulder, placed in petri dishes and incubated in a thermostat at a temperature of 37°C 24 hours. One cup of medium not in contact with the skin was left in each dish to control airborne flora that may enter when the lid is opened (usually airborne flora does not grow on this medium for 24 hours at 37°C). To differentiate bacteria by biological properties, 1% mannitol was added to Korostelev's medium with bromothymol blue solution.

Microbes that did not decompose mannitol formed colonies colored in the color of the medium—dark green (**Figure 8**), and those capable of fermenting it— bright yellow. (Fermentation of mannitol is one of the signs of microbial virulence.)

**Figure 8** shows preparations with colonies of skin microflora of examined individuals living near uranium tailings dumps and in the "clean zone". The appearance of plates of Korostelev's medium with colonies of skin microflora (yellow colonies mannitol-positive, green colonies - non-fermenting mannitol).

A washing method in which dispersion of aggregates is achieved and individual cell counting is subsequently possible, which makes it possible to study the deep microflora of human skin. In this method, a rod was placed in 1 ml of 0.85% saline solution, and a stencil with an area of 1 cm<sup>2</sup> was applied to a sterile cotton swab. Further seeding of the material was carried out on artificial nutrient media. To study microbes from the skin of subjects, cultures were obtained in the form of homogeneous populations (pure cultures) by dispersing mixtures onto other media of varying consistency, both to isolate the colony and to preserve the culture or to study its enzymatic properties. Isolated microbial cultures were identified by studying the morphological characteristics of bacterial colonies and the nature of growth on solid and liquid nutrient media. Biochemical features include the ability of microorganisms to ferment glucose, lactose, sucrose, maltose, and hexahydric alcohol mannitol. The pure culture was sown in a loop onto the "variegated row" media. The results of the work to identify the isolated culture based on morphological and physiological characteristics were presented in a standard form.

#### **Figure 8.**

*Microbiological studies were carried out in the laboratory of the Department of Microbiology of KSMA.*

*Restoration of Uranium Tailings in the Mountains: A Perspective from the State of the Skin… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113915*

#### *2.4.3 Serum 25(OH)D level testing*

The level of 25(OH)D in nmol/l was studied on a Cobos e-801 analyzer (Roshe, Italy) using the enzyme immunoassay method. Coefficients of variation for 25(OH) D ranged from 4.0% to 6.1%, indicating the validity and reliability of the measurements. Internal quality control is confirmed by the program (TIQCON) of Roshe, Italy.

#### *2.4.4 Data collection and use of variables*

All subjects signed informed consent to participate in the study. All ethical standards and principles of confidentiality were maintained during the study in accordance with the principles of the World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki, as amended in 2000, "Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects."

#### *2.4.5 Statistical analysis*

Statistical analysis was performed using PASW Statistics 21.0 (SPSS Inc., IBM, Chicago, USA). Descriptive statistics are presented as mean, standard deviation (SD), and standard error (SE). The statistical significance of the variables was determined using Pearson's chi-squared test. All tests are two-tailed, and *p* < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. The contingency coefficient phi Cramer̕ s V was used to assess the relationship of nominal data, where the value varies between 0 and 1, with "0" indicating no relationship between the row and column variables, and a value close to 1 indicating a high degree of relationship between these variables. To assess the effect of exposure to a risk factor, attributable risk (AtR), risk ratio (RR), and potential harm index (NNT) were calculated for each variable. For all variables, a 95% confidence interval (95% Cl) was calculated. Statistical significance was determined using the Cochran and Mentel-Henzel test, where *p* < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. After the Bonferroni correction (when >2 groups were set), the significance level would be *p* < 0.01.

#### **2.5 Health indicators**

#### *2.5.1 Incidence analysis*

In children of the geochemical uranium provinces of the cities of Kaji-Sai, the cities of Min-Kush, the cities of Mailu-Suu up to 14 years old (650 people), based on the diagnoses made in outpatient cards and annual reports according to the data for formation No. 12, it can be seen that in the first place are respiratory diseases - 58% (of which 48% are acute respiratory infections); in second place - diseases of the oral cavity and teeth, then blood, skin, endocrine system. In the adult population (800 people), diseases of the digestive system (52%), and respiratory organs (47%) are in the first place, then, in combination with the previous nosological groups, diseases of the cardiovascular and genitourinary systems. Comorbidity in the adult population was noted in 38% of cases. Complaints. In children, in the first place are frequent colds, dryness, peeling and redness of the skin, itching, aggravated after water procedures, and the presence of pigmentation. In adults, asthenic conditions, especially in the afternoon, pain in muscles and joints for no apparent reason, frequent headaches, and aching in nature. On the part of the skin, there are complaints of early graying of hair, in some from the age of 13–14 years, severe dryness of the skin, itching, aggravated after the use of soap and detergents, poor wound healing, the presence of neoplasms.

#### *2.5.2 Skin condition of residents of technogenic zones and former miners of a uranium enterprise*

In children of younger preschool age, viral diseases of the skin and mucous membranes, superficial pyoderma, and nonspecific hand dermatitis were more often recorded; in middle and older preschool age in 36% of cases, a combination of signs was revealed: xerosis and peeling of the skin; itching of the skin of varying severity, aggravated by sweating; erythematous-squamous rashes on the skin of the elbows and in the popliteal fossae; in school-age children, the following combination of symptoms was revealed in 27% of cases: erythematous-squamous rashes with lichenification, severe dryness, peeling and itching of the skin, forehead peteriasis, cheilitis, nonspecific hand dermatitis in spring and summer, nonspecific dermatitis of the feet in winter. In 18.6% of cases, a bacterial infection joins the violation of the epidermal barrier. Many children have a reaction from the mucous membranes of the nose, larynx, and cornea of the eye to the flowering of plants, especially wormwood. This is manifested by redness of the eyes, tearing, sneezing, a sensation of scratch in the throat, and in some cases a dry cough.

In the adult population, a bacterial infection of the skin comes to the fore, dyschromia is in second place, then benign neoplasms, and photodermatosis, as one of the common causes of skin pigmentation disorders in the examined individuals; in the future - atrophic changes in the skin and its appendages, fungal skin lesions, vascular atrophic poikiloderma.

A feature of bacterial infections of the skin in residents of technogenic zones and miners is the torpidity of the course with a predominance of the hemorrhagic component and mild infiltration. Chronic ulcerative pyoderma is present in 3.1% of cases; miners in 43% of cases with deep pyoderma did not have a pronounced pain syndrome. In 10% of patients, the course of the disease exceeded 15 years, relapses were observed 3–5 times a year. Among fungal infections, infiltrative-purulent forms of the beard area (in men) and pubis, onychomycosis, candidiasis, and multi-colored lichen prevail. In some patients (15.7%), the course of multi-colored lichen was of a generalized nature. Usually, multi-colored lichen occurs against the background of increased sweating, which was not observed in the examined individuals. When examining the integumentary system of a person, increased dryness of the skin (xerosis) was noted, the hair of 48% of the inhabitants of technogenic zones and 78.2% of the miners were dry, dystrophic, and 8.3% had diffuse alopecia. Patients. In 39% of cases, various types of nail dystrophy were noted. At a young age, koilonychia, onychomadesis, micronychia are more often observed; in 3%, canal-like dystrophy of the nail plates of the thumbs is detected. Onycholysis, onychoshisis, and onychogryphosis are more often observed in people over 30 years old in 4.1% of residents of technogenic zones and 13.9% of former miners. Thinning of the skin and the presence of a pronounced vascular pattern of the skin were noted. In 9% of cases, in combination with skin dyschromia. In Bishkek residents, such skin changes are sporadic. It is interesting to note that against the background of dry and atrophic skin, hyperplastic processes were observed in the form of warts, papillomas, and seborrheic keratomas.

*Restoration of Uranium Tailings in the Mountains: A Perspective from the State of the Skin… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113915*

#### *2.5.3 Bacterial contamination of the skin in residents of uranium geochemical provinces and former miners of a uranium enterprise*

Violation of the epidermal barrier under conditions of environmental instability leads to quantitative and qualitative changes in the commensal flora of the skin (**Table 1**). Violation of skin microbiocinosis entails a more severe course of skin diseases due to contamination with pathogenic flora (**Figure 9**).

Continuous growth was observed in 23.1 ± 1.9 and 35.7 ± 2.5 with a predominance of mannitol-positive flora in 53.8 ± 3.4 and 57.1 ± 2.2 in the demonstration group and in the group of miners, respectively, which indicates a violation of skin microbiocinosis (**Table 1**).

Healthy skin is characterized by a high population of commensal flora and low species diversity (**Figure 9**); a shift in species diversity of the skin flora is one of the signs of a violation of microbiocenosis.


#### **Table 1.**

*Level of bacterial contamination of the skin in residents of uranium geochemical provinces and former miners of a uranium enterprise (M ± m).*

#### **Figure 9.**

*Species composition of skin microflora in residents of the uranium geochemical province and former miners of the uranium enterprise.*

#### *2.5.4 Immune system*

Normally, the ratio of T- and B-lymphocytes is 70–80%/10–15% of blood lymphocytes. In residents of the clean zone, this ratio changes from normal values toward a decrease in T-lymphocytes. Similar changes are occurring with the residents of the geochemical province. It is known that the phenotype of the subpopulation of T-helper cells (helpers) is represented by antigens CD3, CD4, and T-cell receptor antigens HLA class II. These lymphocytes recognize foreign antigens processed by macrophages, activate the mechanisms of activation of B lymphocytes, and produce antibodies (Th2). At the same time, the population of CD3 cells decreases, which leads to a decrease in the activity of T-cell immunity (**Figure 10**).

A simultaneous increase in the number of cytotoxic blood lymphocytes (CD8) leads to inhibition of the activation function of T- and B-lymphocytes and their reactions. Our observations show a tendency toward a decrease in the functional activity of B-lymphocytes and a decrease in the CEC in the studied groups (**Figure 10**). The population of B lymphocytes is the precursor of plasma cells that form protective antibodies of an immunoglobulin nature. Once activated by an antigen, B lymphocytes form memory cells, which allows the body to quickly synthesize large quantities of antibodies when repeated immunization with the same type of antigen.

A distinctive feature of the decrease in humoral immunity in residents of geochemical provinces in the mountain ecosystem and former miners was a characteristic decrease in the concentration of serum IgM and IgG, apparently associated with the depletion of the function of B-lymphocytes at the final stage of their differentiation stage, i.e. plasma cells (**Figure 11**). Circulating immune complexes and immunoglobulins in residents of a uranium geochemical province in a mountain ecosystem and former miners of a uranium enterprise in comparison with the control group.

The indicator of the nitroblue tetrazolium test (**Table 2**) decreases, which reflects the state of the bactericidal peroxidase systems of the cell and correlates with the formation of superoxide radicals, which is distorted by the relative lack of O2 in the inhaled air.

#### **Figure 10.**

*Indicators of cellular immunity in residents of a uranium geochemical province located in a mountain ecosystem and former miners of a uranium enterprise in comparison with the control group.*

*Restoration of Uranium Tailings in the Mountains: A Perspective from the State of the Skin… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113915*

#### **Figure 11.**

*Circulating immunoglobulins (Ig) in residents of a uranium geochemical province located in a mountain ecosystem and former miners of a uranium enterprise in comparison with the control group.*

The lysosomal apparatus of mononuclear phagocytes is closely related to the processes of catabolism, the work of which is enhanced by radiation (**Table 2**). At the same time, we took into account that the content of lysosomes in the cytoplasm of monocytes is a reflection of oxygen-independent mechanisms for the destruction


#### **Table 2.**

*Functional indicators of blood monocytes and neutrophils in residents of the uranium geochemical province and former miners of a uranium enterprise (M ± m).*

of microorganisms, which also indicates a deterioration in the functional activity of monocytes. Thus, among residents of technogenic zones and former miners of a uranium plant, both mechanisms of bactericidal activity—oxygen-dependent and oxygen-independent—function at an extremely low level, not completely protecting the body from infection. Both indicators—"adhesion" and "spreading" are significantly reduced, which once again confirms the low functional activity of monocytes (**Table 2**).

We have established a clear connection between skin barrier disorders and skin microbiome dysbiosis with immune dysregulation and high sensitization to environmental allergens, which is manifested by a variety of skin symptoms characteristic of residents of technogenic zones.

#### *2.5.5 Skin tumors in the risk group*

Epidermal tumors - 58.2% (95% CI 56.5–59.9); melanocytic formations - 4.51% (95% CI 3.8–5.24); non-tumor pigmentation - 10.7% (95% CI 9.6–11.7); vascular tumors 17.7% (95% CI 15.8–18.5); fibrous formations 5.2% (95% CI 4.4–6.0); from nervous, muscular and adipose tissue 3.3% (95% CI 2.6–3.9). Melanoma and nonmelanoma cancer 1.5% (95% CI 1.06–1.93) [41].

Calculation of Pearson's chi-square coefficient showed the existence of a relationship between the risk factor and the frequency of occurrence of the main stigmas of geranthogenesis in people living near uranium tailings. The calculation of the contingency coefficient phi Cramer̕ s V showed the strongest relationship with the risk factor for seborrheic keratoses - 0.627. For other statistically significant variables, the association strength is moderate (from 0.3 to 0.6). This gives grounds to assert that these signs can serve as criteria for assessing the influence of a risk factor on agerelated skin changes. The NNH calculation indicates that 1 out of 3 residents of the risk group may develop early age-related stigmas [42].

#### *2.5.6 Study of serum 25(OH)D level using enzyme immunoassay*

The average level of 25(OH)D in the blood serum of the examined was 38.7 ± 1.0 nmol/l (95% CI 36.6–40.7 nmol/l), and there were no statistically significant gender differences (*p* = 0.066). Seasonal fluctuations were established - from 30.2 ± 1.9 nmol/l (95% CI 26.3–34.1 nmol/l) in winter to 46.6 ± 1.9 nmol/l (95% CI 42.8–50.3 nmol/l) in autumn (p = 0.0001). The level of 25(OH)D less than 50 nmol/l was detected in 71.3 ± 2.6% (95% CI 66.1–76.5%) of cases, 50–75 nmol/l — in 24.6 ± 2, 5% (95% CI 19.7–24.5%) of cases, more than 75 nmol/l in 4.1 ± 1.2% (95% CI 1.8–6.4%) of cases [43].

#### *2.5.7 Discussion*

Communities living for a long time (more than 50 years) in conditions of technogenic pollution are characterized by daily endogenous intake of increased amounts of toxic and radioactive substances (radionuclides) through the food tract, transdermally and aerogenously. Arguing about the pathogenetic mechanisms of the emergence of features of a number of skin pathologies of people living near uranium tailings in a mountain ecosystem, we assume that the endogenous intake and gradual removal of radionuclides from the body does not lead to a rapid onset of effect, but over time causes a number of epigenetic effects that manifest themselves

*Restoration of Uranium Tailings in the Mountains: A Perspective from the State of the Skin… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113915*

phenotypically. Our assumptions are confirmed by a number of works in the field of environmental epigenetics [44–47].

A significant role in the development of the "effect" is played by the characteristics of the barometric pressure of the atmosphere in the conditions of a mountain ecosystem. Thus, the combined effect of ionizing radiation and natural hypoxia in a mountain ecosystem modifies the radiosensitivity and radioresistance of the body, changing oxidative metabolism. When studying this issue, it is necessary to take into account a number of provisions of classical radiobiology, one of which is the "oxygen effect" [48]. This effect has been known to science for a long time, but recently it has been studied in more detail not for protection, but, on the contrary, for a more effective effect on tumor cells during treatment with ionizing radiation at high partial pressure of oxygen [48].

Thus, it is important to take into account the modifying effect of hypoxia in mountainous areas when developing algorithms for carrying out therapeutic and preventive measures among people exposed to endogenous exposure to low doses of radiation.

The identified severe deficiency of vitamin D in people living in geochemical provinces in the mountain ecosystem maintains the pathological condition of the skin. The hormonal form of vitamin D, in addition to regulating calcium homeostasis, has important pleiotropic effects mediated through the vitamin D receptor (VDR) and affects almost all body functions [49]. Its regulatory ability influences the proliferation and differentiation of keratinocytes [50], as well as innate and adaptive immunity [51], thereby helping to restore the epidermal barrier and protective properties of the skin.

The next important component of the skin that we studied in our work is the skin microbiome. The health of the human integumentary system largely depends on its quantitative and qualitative characteristics [52]. It should be noted that the skin microbiome is very sensitive to changes in environmental factors. Its changes lead to damage to the skin. But, on the other hand, thanks to increased adaptive abilities, the skin microbiota is able to positively influence the immunological mechanisms in the skin and have a regulatory role aimed at the protective properties of the skin under normal conditions [52, 53].

Under conditions of technogenic pollution, a damaged epidermal barrier cannot be a favorable habitat for saprophytic microbiota. Such conditions close the "pathological circle" by promoting the colonization of the skin by pathogenic flora. Thus, in our study, we prove that damage to the epidermal barrier under conditions of technogenic pollution determines the characteristics of the manifestation of dermatoses, their course, frequency of occurrence, and the presence of comorbidity. At the same time, depletion of the skin's reserve capabilities and disruption of its regenerative abilities lead to premature aging of the skin and the development of skin tumors.

When creating an algorithm for the treatment of skin diseases, it is necessary to take into account the influence of technogenic impacts and the specific living conditions in the mountain ecosystem of Kyrgyzstan.

#### **3. Conclusions**

Analysis of the structure, prevalence, clinical and anamnestic features of the course, and manifestations of dermatoses showed a high frequency of infectious dermatoses with a deeper protracted course, especially in former miners of uranium enterprises. The current situation is a reflection of immunodeficiency states, as indicated by our immunological studies, where the inhibition of the activation function of T- and B-lymphocytes clearly correlates with a decrease in the production of immunoglobulins, as well as with a decrease in the number and functional activity of mononuclear phagocytes and neutrophils (**Figure 11**, **Table 2**)**.** This situation is exacerbated by a change in the microbiological profile of the skin (**Table 1**) toward the predominance of pathogenic flora (**Figure 10**). The average age of manifestation of gerantogenesis stigmas (steatosis, keratoderma of the palms and soles, dyschromia, diffuse hair thinning, early graying, senile lentigo, seborrheic keratosis, senile angiomas) was 32.7 ± 7.5 years compared with the control group 45,2 ± 10 years. A relationship was found between the risk factor and the frequency of occurrence of the main age-related stigmas in people living near uranium tailings in mountainous conditions. The influence of risk factors on the likelihood of age-related stigma from 37% ± 2.82% (95% CI 31.5% - 42.5%) to 63.2% ± 2.81 (95% CI 57.7% - 68, 7%), in addition to the probability that exists for persons who have not been exposed to a negative factor. Violations of the epidermal barrier, a decrease in skin resistance to environmental factors, and the presence of dystrophic changes in the skin appendages suggest structural and functional changes in the human integumentary system as a result of a long-term, predominantly endogenous, intake of radionuclides into the internal environment of the body.

Comorbidity in dermatological pathology is associated, on the one hand, with a violation of the skin barrier, and on the other hand, with changes in the main links of cellular and humoral immunity toward immunosuppression.

Based on the data obtained, it is necessary to develop therapeutic and preventive measures to provide practical assistance to residents of uranium geochemical provinces, which can be a model in the event of a radiation hazard.

#### **Author details**

Alena Isupova Kyrgyz-Russian Slavic University, Kyrgyz State Medical Academy, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan

\*Address all correspondence to: alena.isupova.2015@mail.ru

© 2024 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Restoration of Uranium Tailings in the Mountains: A Perspective from the State of the Skin… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113915*

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### *Edited by Ling Zhang, Shuli Wang and Liangying Liu*

Mountains are essential for maintaining biodiversity and providing ecosystem services. While practices such as resource exploitation in mountainous areas contribute to the well-being of human society by supplying materials, food, energy, and recreational opportunities, they also pose significant risks of ecosystem degradation. Mountain ecosystems confront numerous challenges exacerbated by climate change, particularly affecting forests, agriculture, meadows, and abandoned tailings within mountain regions. It is imperative to stay abreast of the latest advancements and understand the complexities surrounding mountain ecosystems to effectively support their management and provide guidance to people striving for ecosystem sustainability. This volume presents integrated approaches to the adaptation, evaluation, and restoration of mountain ecosystems, ensuring their sustainability and safeguarding the well-being of the communities reliant upon them.

### *J. Kevin Summers, Environmental Sciences Series Editor*

Published in London, UK © 2024 IntechOpen © Jian Fan / iStock

Mitigating Global Climate Change - Enhancing Adaptation, Evaluation,

and Restoration of Mountain Ecosystems

IntechOpen Series

Environmental Sciences, Volume 18

Mitigating Global

Climate Change

Enhancing Adaptation, Evaluation,

and Restoration of Mountain Ecosystems

*Edited by Ling Zhang, Shuli Wang and Liangying Liu*