**9. Scope for biosensors**

Marine biosensors detect eutrophication using nitrite and nitrate sensors, while nucleic acid hybridization-based sensors detect organisms. Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI) is developing an "environmental sample processor" sensor. Ribosomal RNA probes detect hazardous algae on moorings, with biosensors aiming to detect pesticides, heavy metals, and pollution. Nanomaterials offer opportunities for new biosensor technology, improving mechanical, electrochemical, optical, and magnetic properties, enabling single-molecule biosensors and highthroughput arrays.

Utilizing biomolecules and nanomaterials for single-molecule, multifunctional nanocomposites, nanofilms, and nanoelectrodes remains a challenge due to their unique structures and functions. Key obstacles include processing, characterization, interface problems, high-quality nanomaterial availability, customization, and electrode behavior. Strategies to increase signal-to-noise ratio and transduction and amplification are also crucial [84].
