Contribution of Government Support in Promoting Women's Entrepreneurship

*Handaoui Mahfoud*

#### **Abstract**

Nowadays, the practice of entrepreneurship in many countries is no longer restricted to men only but has opened wider areas for women's participation. The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Annual Report 2021 indicated that participation rates in entrepreneurial activities are close between men and women in 49 countries, and the reason for this convergence is due in large part to government support. In this context, we try in this chapter to highlight the importance of women's entrepreneurship and its impact on economic development, and then to determine the extent to which government support contributes to the promotion of women's entrepreneurship in Algeria. In this chapter, the various supportive bodies established by the Algerian state to stimulate entrepreneurship, especially women's, are addressed, where we find the Microcredit Agency, the National Agency for the Development of Entrepreneurship, the National Fund for Unemployment Insurance, and the National Agency for Investment Development. It should be noted that these bodies work in integrated coordination with each other to identify the different women's projects, whatever their specificities and areas of investment in them. A conceptual model has also been designed to simplify understanding of the topic.

**Keywords:** government support, women's entrepreneurship, development economic, entrepreneurship, sustainable development

#### **1. Introduction**

Most economies are currently seeking to pay attention to entrepreneurship because of its positive effects on various aspects of economic and social life [1]. Therefore, countries are trying at every stage to take several measures to improve the business climate and urge more young people to enter this field, as it has become known to be unacceptable. It is possible to talk about sustainable economic growth without integrating women, who represent half of society. Particularly about her role in the field of entrepreneurship, studies in some countries have shown that there is a strong correlation between the level of entrepreneurial activity of women and growth, as they have become one of the poles of the economy and the locomotives of its growth. They are interested in the phenomenon and seek ways to help them exploit it and how to benefit from it.

Investing in women's skills is one of the most effective ways to promote comprehensive and sustainable economic growth by creating job opportunities, increasing the human resource base, achieving economic production, and reducing poverty. Therefore, the International Labor Organization sought to prepare a strategy for the development of women's entrepreneurship in order to increase the economic potential of women's projects [2].

In addition, managing entrepreneurial projects for women is a source of income to support themselves and their families. However, the rate of women's participation in entrepreneurial activity is much lower than that of men. The rate of wastage and failure in new projects owned by women is much higher than that of men. Perhaps this is due to the obstacles of female entrepreneurs, as they often come from families with lower incomes than their male counterparts, and they do not have enough experience to manage projects, in addition to the lack of services they receive to manage their small and medium projects, and thus this affects the development of their businesses [3].

Entrepreneurship is not in the easy sense that leads any female to do her own independent work and put her name among the women in entrepreneurship. Rather, it is based on her independent personality and the image of the company she runs and what is her field of activity. In addition to their experience in many areas such as financing, training, management style, team spirit and leadership, the mechanism of development and many, and many information that you need within the labor market to have an enjoyable experience in this field and build its name in a brilliant way and are able to send confidence and credibility in its world within entrepreneurship. On the other hand, there is a significant link between women's entrepreneurship and innovation, where Nair [4] noticed a correlation between women's creativity in entrepreneurship, their age, education, location, type of work, annual income, and the number of employees.

From the foregoing, the life of natural entrepreneurial women in the field of business is the result of the continuous and permanent interaction between work and the social life in which they live and the extent to which this life is linked to factors that push them to succeed more and support their own decisions and direct them to a successful course of action [5], so the nature of socialization in society has an important role in their growth stage as brilliant females who enjoy a leadership, independent, successful personality in the field of business and lead their activities with all steadfastness and success and with all the quality and effectiveness as they always hope.

In fact, women remain the most powerful and influential members of society, even in developing and developed societies [6]; empowering their role in society will make society more aware and more successful, when women have their role in society in an elegant, decent, and appropriate manner for them in entrepreneurship The freedom of her voice and the expression of her demands, according to her awareness and according to her experiences in life, will make the matter more stable, stable, and more mature to reach a conscious generation supported by the mother or sister as a female entrepreneur, making successful decisions and understanding the needs of society and aware of what is changing in the labor market [7]. Taking on an entrepreneurial role, especially among women, requires a strong, courageous, and steadfast decision as well, and requires patience in every stage of life and building a brilliant brand name that is supported by good social relations, real experience in life, and quality in the leadership of her company and its staff, and with all the details that are needed. She needs to support her role in the field of entrepreneurship [8], and not to forget that society that is trying to change its stereotypical ideas and the usual image that it used to see in it without looking at its capabilities and talking about its ability to give and develop, whether in motherhood or in entrepreneurship, with success and stability.

#### *Contribution of Government Support in Promoting Women's Entrepreneurship DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111370*

In this chapter, we will shed light on the issue of support for women, and accordingly, one of the most important factors that help the success of women's entrepreneurship projects is the government's support in the first place represented in the devices that I set up as guardians, supporters, and companions for women during all stages of project completion. As for the second degree, it is family support, persistence, proficiency in work, administrative and organizational skills, knowledge, and familiarity with the nature of work and customers. This chapter focused on government support agencies and their contribution to promoting women's entrepreneurship, by addressing, first, the characteristics and importance of women entrepreneurs in increasing societal development. Secondly, the various government support bodies and ways of supporting entrepreneurial work. Third, design a conceptual model that explains the process of government support in Algeria.

#### **2. The economic and social importance of women's entrepreneurship and its most important characteristics**

Contracting has become a widely used and circulated concept, as it is now known as a field of research [9]. Due to its increasing importance, governments, university researchers, and society in general have become more interested in the development of contractors and their institutions, and their ability to survive and grow. This increased interest can be explained by the provision of these contractors and new institutions jobs, and their support for sustainable development, and women's entrepreneurship is considered one of the aspects of contemporary economic growth, due to its growing role and why it has importance on various levels, and with the intention of highlighting this, we first wanted to clarify the concept of the entrepreneurial woman, its most important characteristics, and the factors determining its growth and then highlight their importance at various levels.

#### **2.1 Characteristics of women's entrepreneurship**

Many studies have focused on the advantages of feminist entrepreneurship, and this is done by distinguishing between three elements [10]:

They are the characteristics of women entrepreneurs, the characteristics of womenrun enterprises, and the way they enter the business. Results will vary and stand out by type of training practiced, percentage of participation in networks, and financing.

About the characteristics of the entrepreneurial woman, most of the studies unanimously agreed that they are:


The institutions she used to work in (the problem of the glass ceiling, conflicts).


As for the characteristics of institutions run by women, they are usually characterized by the following:


As for efficacy, results vary according to the definition of efficacy [11] If we measure the efficiency based on the survival rate of the institution, it is found that the efficiency institutions run by women are larger than men. But if efficiency is measured based on the success of the institution, the results are contradictory, the indicator is growth or profitability the results are almost the same, but they decrease if we take the size of the institution as an indicator.

As for the management methods used, they are characterized by the following:


In an analytical study of "Greenhalgh" on the qualities necessary for successful negotiation, the behavior of men entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial women are very different, as men seek to earn whatever the results, and this is the basis of problems in the business world, whereas women, on the contrary, seek after negotiation to obtain permanent relations and profitable cooperation for both parties [12].

All these characteristics and advantages of the personality of the movement and its institution will influence the funding level, participation in the courses, training, and the use of the government and special organizations to support entrepreneurship, where women often use their own savings when starting their business, or the use of loans obtained from the surroundings. They rarely resort to private support networks that help provide information and offer opportunities possible. Rarely do women follow special and complementary training in the field of running institutions or joining organizations or government assistance in entrepreneurship, and this is due to their lack of information about existing structures and aids.

#### **2.2 The economic and social importance of feminist entrepreneurship**

The secret of the current interest in feminist entrepreneurship lies in its economic importance and social institutions established and developed by women. In recent years, many studies have been carried out on subject, and in several countries,

*Contribution of Government Support in Promoting Women's Entrepreneurship DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111370*

especially in the Anglo-Saxon part, and this is to attract the attention of governments and economic agents when making their decisions the strategy, for the important and growing role of women's entrepreneurship in life, and at all levels as a key factor in achieving sustainable development.

That most countries recorded a strong correlation between the level of entrepreneurial activity and growth, and these studies indicated that the entry of women into entrepreneurship is very positive and explains in a large proportion the deviation of growth between different countries. The same report indicated that some countries do not encourage women to enter entrepreneurship and institution development, and this is for fear of not achieving entrepreneurial goals and growth goals, and this is in fact contrary to the results achieved by women's institutions, and this result confirmed studies and reports as it showed the impact of women's entrepreneurship on the national economy of those countries [13].

The International Office of Labor [14] evaluates the economic impact of women's entrepreneurship in some African countries, by estimating women's ability to create job positions for themselves and for others. With the development of their institutions, these job positions were usually directed to women.

#### **3. Mechanisms for promoting and support women's entrepreneurship in Algeria**

Algeria, like other countries, has realized the importance of establishing institutions and upgrading the institutional fabric and striving to encourage investment in them, and this is what we see through the policies adopted in. In recent years, however, the question raised revolves around the share of women entrepreneurs in these mechanisms, and the extent to which there is privacy.

#### **3.1 National unemployment insurance fund**

Since its inception in 1994 as a public social security institution (under the tutelage of the Ministry of Labor, Employment and Social Security) working to "mitigate" the successive social effects resulting from layoffs of salaried workers in the economic sector in accordance with the structural adjustment scheme, the National Unemployment Insurance Fund has several phases in its course dedicated to taking charge of the new tasks entrusted by the public authorities.

From 1998 until 2004, the CNAC implemented active measures aimed at the reintegration of unemployed benefit recipients, namely job search assistance and assistance with self-employment by specially recruited and trained—the facilitator advisors—and in centers equipped with infrastructures and equipment also intended for this purpose. Assistance in the creation of activities for unemployed promoters aged 35 to 50, and the support system for the creation and extension of activities for unemployed promoters aged 30 to 50. Mechanism relate to measures to encourage and support the promotion of employment [15].

#### **3.2 The National Agency for entrepreneurship support and development**

The National Agency for Support and Development of Entrepreneurship, by abbreviation ANADE, created in 1996, is a public body with a specific character, endowed with legal personality and financial autonomy, placed under the

supervision of the Minister Delegate to the Prime Minister in charge of microenterprise [16].

ANADE supports project leaders in the creation and expansion of micro-enterprises producing goods and services, and has a network of 61 agencies, located in all the wilayas of the country, as well as branches located in major localities. Aims to promote the creation and extension of goods and services by project leaders, encourage all forms of actions and measures to promote entrepreneurship.

ANADE has the following missions: support, advise, and accompany project leaders in the creation of activities. Make available to project promoters all economic, technical, legislative, and regulatory information relating to their activities. Develop relationships with the various partners of the system (banks, taxes, CNAS and CASNOS, etc.). Develop a cross-sectoral partnership for the identification of investment opportunities—various sectors. Provide training on micro-enterprise management techniques for the benefit of project leaders. Encourage all other forms of actions and measures to promote the creation and extension of activity.

#### **3.3 The National Agency for the Management of Microcredit**

The micro-credit is considered as a tool to combat fragility, as it allowed the disadvantaged people to improve their living conditions, and this is by creating their own activities that enable them to obtain income.

The micro-credit appeared for the first time in Algeria in 1999, but it did not know—in its previous form—the success that the public authorities had hoped for, due to the weakness of the accompaniment process during the stages of project maturity and the follow-up of its completion. This was evident during the international forum organized in December 2002 on the subject of "the experience of microcredit in Algeria," and based on the recommendations presented during this gathering, which included a significant number of experts in the field of microfinance, the National Agency for the Management of Microcredit was established [17].

The agency is represented at the local level through 49 state agencies distributed throughout the country, including two agencies (02) in Algiers, and this network is supported by accompanying cells present at the district level.

The agency aims to contribute to the fight against unemployment and poverty in urban and rural areas by encouraging self-employment, homework, trades, and professions, especially women groups. Raising awareness among the rural population in their areas of origin by highlighting economic and cultural products, goods and services generate income and employment. The development of an entrepreneurial spirit that helps social inclusion and individual development of individuals and support, guides, and accompanies the beneficiaries in the implementation of their activities, especially with regard to the financing of their projects and the stage of exploitation. Follow-up on the activities is carried out by the beneficiaries, while ensuring that they respect the agreements and contracts that bind them with the National Agency for National Management (ANGEM). It trains entrepreneurs and microcredit beneficiaries. Supporting the marketing of microcredit products by organizing exhibitions and all available means of marketing, such as digital platforms [18].

**Table 1** shows the financial loans granted in 2022 by gender, where the percentage of men is higher than the percentage of women, due to the composition of society first, which consists of a greater percentage of men than women. Moreover, the rate of 36.72 percent is a very large percentage compared to previous years, something that indicates the state's interest in this category, in view of the economic importance that this category provides.

*Contribution of Government Support in Promoting Women's Entrepreneurship DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111370*


#### **Table 1.**

*The outcome of the grants granted for the year 2022, by gender.*

#### **3.4 National Agency for investment development**

Created within the framework of the first generation of reforms carried out in Algeria during the 1990s, the Agency responsible for investment has undergone changes aimed at adapting to changes in the country's economic and social situation. Initially, this government institution was entrusted with the task of facilitation, promotion, and investment support initially, the Agency for Promotion, Support and Investment Control from 1993 to 2001, then ANDI, and the National Agency for Investment Development.

National Agency for Investment Development aims to receiving, directing, and supporting investors at the level of its central and regional structures. Informing investors through its website, promotional materials, and various information points on the occasion of the economic events organized in Algeria and abroad. Formalize on a fair basis and within short notice the benefits offered by the incentive scheme. Ensure the coordinated implementation with the various concerned institutions (customs, taxation, etc.) of decisions to encourage investment. Contributes to the implementation of development policies and strategies in synergy with the concerned economic sectors. Makes its partnership on the stock exchange available to potential investors [19].

#### *3.4.1 Complementary structures of the agency and its most important privileges*

To facilitate the tasks of the National Agency for Investment Development, a group of complementary bodies has been established [20].

The National Investment Council: It is chaired by the Prime Minister and undertakes the following: suggesting an investment development strategy and its priorities, and incentive measures for investment in line with developments; encouraging the establishment and development of appropriate financial institutions and instruments to finance investment and development.

The unified window: It is located at the level of each state and provides the necessary administrative services, in coordination with concerned bodies related to the establishment of investment projects, including the National Center for Commercial Registration and the tax directorate real estate agencies, local investment support committees.

These administrative departments are represented in the unified window to ease and facilitate all procedures related to incorporation. For small and medium enterprises at the concerned wilayat level.

Non-investment fund: In charge of providing the assistance provided by the state to investors in the form of concessions to cover the costs necessary for the achievement investments.

### *3.4.2 Benefits granted by the National Agency for Investment Development*

The investor benefits within the framework of the National Development Agency. Investing has the following advantages: Exemption from customs duties applicable for imported equipment that is directly involved in the realization of the investment. Exemption from paying the value-added fee imposed on goods and services that are directly involved in the embodiment of project. Reduced real estate fees. Applying fixed rights regarding registration at a low rate of 2%, about the foundation contracts and raising the capital money. The state undertakes to pay, in part or in full, the expenses of the infrastructure works necessary to implement the project investments Institutions established within the framework of this agency, over a period of ten (10) years, also benefit from the following advantages [20]:


#### **3.5 Government support form**

The proposed model shows how each organization contributes to supporting women, where we find that women initially decide to resort to one of the organizations according to their social status, and then according to their age, their financial situation, and finally the size of their project, that is, the size of the initial project budget through which they can start to establish the project. In addition, these organizations accompany women in all stages of growth by re-granting them additional funding if necessary. On the one hand, the National Agency for Investment Development supports successful projects awarded by the other three agencies

#### **Figure 1.**

*Government support form. Source: Design by author.*

(as shown in **Figure 1**). This is to ensure the continuity of government support for these projects, so that these contractors can guarantee complete independence.

#### *3.5.1 Description of the model*

In **Figure 1**, the model shows, with continuous lines, the woman's direct relationship with the various governmental support agencies, where she can go to any agency according to the size of her project, her age, whether she is retired or not, the nature of her activity, or according to the purpose of the support, expansion, or new funding. As the dashed lines show, the second stage of support that comes after the success of the project is in one of the three bodies (the National Agency for Entrepreneurship Development, the National Fund for Unemployment Support, and the Microcredit Agency), as the pioneer or pioneer can go to the fourth body (the National Investment Agency) to expand the project on a larger scale.

#### **4. Conclusion**

The female entrepreneurship constitutes an active force within the fabric Economic [21], and an essential tool to promote sustainable development, where the participation of women in the field of entrepreneurship emerged as an alternative to confront the high rates of unemployment, mainly due to the provision of selfresources such as education, especially education undergraduate.

Therefore, this chapter focused on the government's efforts to develop women's entrepreneurship, through the various support bodies designed for this purpose. Where did these bodies consider the different segments of women, from small projects to medium and large projects, considering their social status and the age group to which they belong. All this for the success of the project and to ensure independence and thus contribute to sustainable economic development.

We conclude that government support in its various ways remains a stage after the stage of personal conviction in the project and the enjoyment of entrepreneurial passion on the part of women and effectiveness in achievement, as it is considered as a pillar and a means of helping to overcome the financing obstacle in addition to other tax privileges. The success of the project comes from the success of each stage without the other.

Accordingly, the following recommendations can be formulated:

We must work to raise popular awareness of the role and importance of women at various levels. Work to integrate entrepreneurship in general and women's entrepreneurship in educational curricula in all educational institutions. Work to increase the community's understanding and acceptance of women's entrepreneurship projects by spreading ideas and initiatives and raising awareness of them and their benefits. Encouraging local social organizations to absorb, support, and implement women's entrepreneurial activities on a large scale. Work to promote innovation and creativity in women entrepreneurship projects at the local level and provide support for women entrepreneurs to develop their innovations and creativity. Finding and marketing several innovative ways to develop women's entrepreneurship projects. Establishing a national center specialized in training entrepreneurs that grants training and qualification certificates to young entrepreneurs, focusing on the basics and skills of entrepreneurial work, preparing economic feasibility studies for projects, and providing statistics and data on available investment opportunities. Providing business incubators in all states of the country to accommodate owners of ideas and entrepreneurs, especially women, and develop their projects.

*Women and Society*

### **Author details**

Handaoui Mahfoud Chlef University, Chlef, Algeria

\*Address all correspondence to: handaoui.mahfoud@gmail.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Contribution of Government Support in Promoting Women's Entrepreneurship DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111370*

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## **Chapter 2** Feminisms in Social Sciences

*Medani P. Bhandari*

#### **Abstract**

Feminism is a social and political movement that aims to advance gender equality and challenge the patriarchal power structures that marginalize and oppress women. Feminist theory has become a significant perspective in the social sciences, including sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics, and political science. Feminist theory has made significant contributions to the social sciences, challenging traditional views of gender, and highlighting the importance of studying women's experiences and perspectives. Feminist scholars have provided important insights into the ways in which gender intersects with other forms of oppression and have advocated for policies and practices that promote gender equality and social justice. This chapter is based on desktop research, shows the concept of feminism in social science domain. The fundamental concept of feminism is the belief in gender equality and the rejection of patriarchal power structures that oppress and marginalize women. Feminism is a social, political, and cultural movement that advocates for the empowerment of women and the recognition of their rights as equal members of society. This chapter provides the general outlines of feminism in social sciences with reference to postmodern era and feminism, postmodernism and feminisms, history of feminist's theory, major characteristics of feminisms in social science domain, the founding scholars of feminisms, social science and feminisms theory, sociology and feminisms contemporary development, environmentalism, and feminism a new direction of new movement, interconnectedness of environmentalism, feminism, and its influence on social sciences, the feminist approach to organizational analysis and the organizational sociological view.

**Keywords:** feminism, social sciences, sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics, gender equality, environmentalism, ecofeminism, organizational analysis

#### **1. Introduction**

Feminism is a social, political, and cultural movement aimed at achieving gender equality, challenging, and dismantling gender-based oppression and discrimination, and advocating for women's rights on the grounds of social, economic, and political equality to men. Feminism can encompass a range of beliefs and practices, but at its core, it seeks to promote women's empowerment and challenge patriarchal norms and structures that limit women's opportunities and choices. Feminism also recognizes that gender intersects with other social identities, such as race, class, and sexuality, and seeks to address the unique experiences of women who face multiple forms of oppression [1–6].

Feminism is based on the idea that gender is a social construct that has been used to justify the subordination of women. Feminist theorists argue that gender is not an innate characteristic but is instead a set of social norms and expectations that are imposed on individuals based on their sex. These norms and expectations can lead to gender-based discrimination and inequality in all aspects of life, including education, employment, healthcare, and politics.

Feminism also recognizes the intersections of gender with other forms of oppression, such as race, class, and sexuality. Intersectionality is a key concept in feminist theory, which acknowledges that individuals experience multiple forms of oppression that cannot be separated from one another [7–11].

The fundamental concept of feminism is the belief in gender equality and the rejection of patriarchal power structures that oppress women. Feminism recognizes the importance of challenging social norms and expectations that reinforce gender inequality, and advocates for policies and practices that promote the empowerment of women and the recognition of their rights as equal members of society.

#### **1.1 Postmodern era and feminism**

Most importantly, feminism approach has been considered mainstream knowledge in the postmodern era.

The postmodern era is a period that began in the mid-twentieth century and is characterized by a rejection of the grand narratives of modernism and an emphasis on the fragmented, complex, and pluralistic nature of contemporary society. In the postmodern era, there is a recognition that reality is not fixed and objective, but is instead constructed through language, culture, and social relations.

Postmodernism is a cultural and intellectual movement that emerged in response to the failures of modernism, which was characterized by a belief in rationality, progress, and the ability of science and technology to solve social problems. Postmodernism challenged these assumptions, arguing that there is no universal truth or objective reality, and that knowledge and meaning are contingent on historical and cultural contexts.

In the postmodern era, there is a focus on diversity, difference, and the plurality of experiences and identities. Postmodernism has influenced a wide range of fields, including art, literature, architecture, philosophy, sociology, and cultural studies. It has also been associated with critical theory, feminism, postcolonialism, and other social and political movements that seek to challenge dominant discourses and power structures [12–28].

There are many scholars who have played important roles in challenging the traditional knowledge base system.

*Jean-François Lyotard*: A philosopher and literary theorist who is known for his work on the postmodern condition and the fragmentation of knowledge in contemporary society.

*Jacques Derrida:* A philosopher and literary critic who is known for his development of deconstruction, a method of analyzing language that reveals the hidden assumptions and contradictions of texts.

*Michel Foucault*: A philosopher and social theorist who is known for his work on power and knowledge, and for his critique of institutions such as prisons, hospitals, and mental health facilities.

*Donna Haraway*: A philosopher and feminist theorist who is known for her work on cyborgs, animals, and the boundaries between human and non-human entities.

*Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari*: Philosophers who are known for their collaborative work on topics such as rhizomes, the body without organs, and the politics of desire.

These and many other scholars of social science have significant contribution for postmodern knowledge creation including supporting and empowering the feminism theory.

#### **1.2 Postmodernism and feminisms**

Postmodernism and feminisms share a critical approach to the dominant discourses and power structures of society. Both reject the idea of a fixed, essential identity, and emphasize the importance of diverse experiences and perspectives.

Feminist postmodernism emerged in the 1980s as a response to the limitations of traditional feminist theories, which often essentialized women's experiences and identities. Feminist postmodernism emphasized the role of language, discourse, and cultural representation in shaping gender identity and inequality. It argued that gender is not a fixed biological category but is instead a social construct that is constantly being constructed and reconstructed through cultural practices and discourses [12, 14, 20, 23, 26].

Feminist postmodernism also challenged the idea of a universal female identity, arguing that women's experiences are diverse and shaped by intersecting factors such as race, class, sexuality, and nationality. It emphasized the importance of recognizing and valuing these differences, and of challenging the power structures that privilege certain groups over others.

Postmodernism and feminist postmodernism have had a significant impact on feminist theory and practice, influencing the development of innovative approaches such as intersectionality, postcolonial feminism, and queer theory. These approaches emphasize the importance of understanding the complex, multiple, and intersecting ways in which gender, race, class, and other factors shape individual and social experiences [12–28].

#### **2. History of feminist's theory**

"*The history of feminist politics and theory is often talked of as consisting of three 'waves.' First-wave feminism is associated with the women's suffrage movements of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. First-wave feminism was characterized by a focus on officially mandated inequalities between men and women, such as the legal barring of women from voting, property rights, employment, equal rights in marriage, and positions of political power and authority. Second-wave feminism is associated with the women's liberation movements of the 1960s and 1970s. While seeing themselves as inheritors of the politics of the first wave which focused primarily on legal obstacles to women's rights, second-wave feminists began concentrating on less 'official' barriers to gender equality, addressing issues like sexuality, reproductive rights, women's roles, and labor in the home, and patriarchal culture. Finally, what is called third-wave feminism is generally associated with feminist politics and movements that began in the 1980s and continue on to today. Third-wave feminism emerged out of a critique of the politics of the second wave, as many feminists felt that earlier generations had over-generalized the experiences of white, middle-class, heterosexual women and ignored (and even suppressed) the viewpoints of women of color, the poor, gay, lesbian, and transgender people, and women* 

*from the non-Western world. Third-wave feminists have critiqued essential or universal notions of womanhood, and focus on issues of racism, homophobia, and Eurocentrism as part of their feminist agenda*" Patricia Hill Collins [29] (https://routledgesoc.com/ profile/feminist-social-theory Retrieved March 25. 2023). Whereas the Fourth Wave of Feminism describes the feminist movement that emerged in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. This wave builds on the achievements of the previous feminist movements, but also addresses new issues and challenges faced by women in the contemporary world. The Fourth Wave of Feminism represents a continued evolution of the feminist movement, with a focus on intersectionality, digital activism, and an expanded set of issues affecting women and marginalized groups in the contemporary world.

Feminist theory has a complex and varied history that has evolved over the course of many centuries. Here is a brief overview of the major historical developments:

The Enlightenment (seventeenth and eighteenth centuries): During this period, writers such as Mary Wollstonecraft argued for women's equality and advocated for their right to education.

First-wave feminism (nineteenth and early twentieth centuries): This movement focused on women's suffrage, or the right to vote, and the basic legal rights of women. Key figures included *Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton* in the United States and Emmeline Pankhurst in the United Kingdom. The first-wave feminism movement focused on achieving legal rights for women, such as the right to vote, property rights, and reproductive rights. This movement was largely centered in Western Europe and the United States.

Second-wave feminism (1960s and 1970s): This movement focused on a wider range of issues, including reproductive rights, workplace discrimination, and sexual violence. Key figures included Betty Friedan, Gloria Steinem, and bell hooks. The second-wave feminism movement focused on challenging the ways in which gender inequality was produced and maintained in a range of social and cultural domains, including the workplace, the home, and popular culture. This movement was global in scope and influential in shaping the development of feminist theory and activism.

Third-wave feminism (1990s and 2000s): This movement sought to address the shortcomings of second-wave feminism, particularly its lack of diversity and inclusivity. Key figures included Audre Lorde, Kimberlé Crenshaw, and Rebecca Walker.

The third-wave feminism movement focused on the intersections of gender with other forms of social inequality, such as race, class, and sexuality. This movement emphasized the importance of individual agency and empowerment and sought to challenge the ways in which gender oppression was experienced and expressed in diverse and complex ways.

Fourth-wave feminism (2010s and onward): This movement is characterized by its use of social media and digital platforms to advance feminist causes, as well as its focus on intersectionality and the experiences of marginalized groups. Key figures include Malala Yousafzai, Tarana Burke, and Emma Watson. The postmodern and postcolonial feminisms challenged the idea that there is a single, universal experience of women's oppression, and instead emphasized the importance of recognizing and challenging the ways in which gender inequality is shaped by race, class, and colonialism.

The *intersectional feminisms*, which have emerged more recently, seek to understand and challenge the ways in which multiple forms of social inequality, such as race, class, gender, sexuality, and ability, intersect and shape experiences of oppression and privilege.

Throughout these various waves, feminist theory has explored a wide range of issues, including the gendered nature of power and oppression, the ways in which gender intersects with race, class, and sexuality, and the impact of feminist movements on society as a whole.

These movements have had a significant impact on shaping societal attitudes and norms related to gender and gender equality and have helped to advance the cause of women's rights and gender equality around the world. Although the goals and strategies of these movements have evolved over time, they all share a commitment to challenging and transforming systems of gender inequality and oppression.

#### **3. Major characteristics of feminisms in social science domain**

Feminisms in the social science domain refer to a range of theoretical and political perspectives that focus on understanding and addressing gender inequalities in society. Some of the major characteristics of feminisms in social science include:

Recognition of the social construction of gender: Feminist scholars in the social sciences argue that gender is not a fixed biological category but rather a social construct that is shaped by cultural and historical factors.

Focus on intersectionality: Feminist social science recognizes the importance of intersectionality, or the interconnectedness of multiple forms of oppression such as gender, race, class, sexuality, and ability [29, 30].

Critique of patriarchal power structures: Feminist social science is concerned with analyzing and challenging patriarchal power structures that perpetuate gender inequalities.

Emphasis on diversity and inclusivity: Feminist social science seeks to promote diversity and inclusivity by valuing and centering the experiences and perspectives of marginalized groups, particularly women and gender minorities [31–33].

Action-oriented: Feminist social science is often action-oriented, seeking to apply research findings to inform policy and social change efforts that promote gender equality [34, 35].

Emphasis on reflexivity: Feminist social science recognizes the importance of reflexivity, or self-awareness, in the research process. This involves critically reflecting on one's own social location and biases as well as acknowledging the ways in which power relations shape research [36, 37].

Interdisciplinary approach: Feminist social science draws on multiple disciplines, including sociology, anthropology, political science, and psychology, to understand and address gender inequalities in society [38, 39].

#### **4. The founding scholars of feminisms**

There is no one single founding scholar of feminisms, as the movement has been shaped and influenced by numerous thinkers and activists throughout history. However, some of the key figures in the development of feminist theory and activism include:

**Mary Wollstonecraft:** An English writer and philosopher who wrote "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" in 1792, arguing that women should have the same rights and opportunities as men.

**Simone de Beauvoir:** French writer, philosopher, and feminist thinker who lived from 1908 to 1986. She is best known for her book "The Second Sex," which is considered a seminal work in feminist theory and is often credited with inspiring the second wave of feminism. In "The Second Sex," de Beauvoir argues that women are not born, but rather made into a subordinate category by society. She suggests that women have historically been defined in relation to men, and that this has limited their opportunities and perpetuated gender inequality. She also argues that women must reject traditional gender roles and work to achieve greater social, economic, and political equality. De Beauvoir's work had a significant impact on feminist theory and the broader feminist movement. She challenged traditional views of femininity and masculinity, and helped to popularize the idea that gender is a social construct. She also argued that women must work together to achieve social change, and that feminist solidarity is crucial to overcome gender inequality. In addition to her work in feminist theory, de Beauvoir was a prolific writer and philosopher. She wrote novels, essays, and memoirs, and was a close friend and collaborator of Jean-Paul Sartre. She also wrote about topics such as existentialism, ethics, and politics, and was widely regarded as one of the leading intellectuals of her time.

**Betty Friedan (1921–2006):** An American writer and activist who wrote "The Feminine Mystique" in 1963, which is often credited with sparking the second wave of feminism in the United States. Friedan criticized the idea that women's primary role was to be wives and mothers and argued for women's rights to education and employment. Other works include- It Changed My Life: Writings on the Women's Movement (1963); The Second Stage (1981); and The Fountain of Age (1993).

**Audre Lorde:** An African American poet, essayist, and activist who wrote about the intersection of race, gender, and sexuality in her work. Lorde was a key figure in the development of black feminist theory.

**Bell Hooks:** An African American author, feminist theorist, and cultural critic who has written extensively on the intersections of race, gender, and class in her work.

**Dorothy Smith** was a Canadian sociologist and feminist scholar who made significant contributions to the field of sociology through her development of feminist standpoint theory. She was born on July 6, 1926, and passed away on June 3, 2022.

Smith's work challenged the traditional and often exclusive perspective of mainstream sociology, which tended to view the social world from the standpoint of those in positions of power and authority. Instead, she argued that sociologists needed to consider the experiences and perspectives of those who are marginalized or oppressed, particularly women.

Smith's feminist standpoint theory suggested that the experiences and perspectives of women are crucial to understanding the social world, and that women's experiences are shaped by social structures and institutions that perpetuate gender inequality. She argued that women's standpoint is not just a matter of personal experience but is shaped by the broader social context in which they live.

Smith's work had a significant impact on feminist theory and social research, and she was an influential figure in the development of feminist sociology. She authored many books and articles throughout her career, including "The Everyday World as Problematic: A Feminist Sociology" and "Institutional Ethnography: A Sociology for People."

In recognition of her contributions to sociology and feminist theory, Smith was awarded many prestigious awards throughout her career, including the John Porter Tradition of Excellence Book Award from the Canadian Sociological Association and the Jessie Bernard Award from the American Sociological Association.

**Patricia Hill Collins** is a sociologist and a prominent scholar in the fields of race, gender, and social inequality. She was born on May 1, 1948, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and is currently a Distinguished University Professor of Sociology at the University of Maryland, College Park.

Collins is known for her work on intersectionality, which is the idea that different forms of social oppression, such as racism, sexism, and classism, intersect and interact in complex ways to shape individuals' experiences. She has also written extensively on the experiences of Black women in the United States and has argued that understanding the unique experiences and perspectives of Black women is crucial to developing a comprehensive understanding of social inequality.

Collins has authored numerous influential books and articles throughout her career, including "Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment," which is considered a foundational text in the field of Black feminist theory. In this work, she argues that Black feminist thought provides a unique perspective on the world that challenges traditional theories of knowledge and power.

Collins has received many awards and honors for her contributions to sociology and feminist theory, including the W.E.B. Du Bois Career of Distinguished Scholarship Award from the American Sociological Association and the John Hope Franklin Award from the American Philosophical Association. She is widely recognized as a leading scholar in the fields of race, gender, and social inequality, and her work has had a significant impact on the study of social issues and social justice.

**Judith Butler** is a philosopher and gender theorist who has made significant contributions to feminist and queer theory. She is best known for her work on the concept of gender performativity, which suggests that gender is not a natural or fixed characteristic, but rather a socially constructed identity that is created through repeated performances of gendered behaviors and expressions.

Butler's work has been influential in challenging traditional notions of gender and sexuality, and in advocating for the recognition and protection of marginalized identities. She has also written extensively on topics such as power, violence, and political resistance, and has been a prominent voice in debates around feminism, queer theory, and social justice.

One of Butler's most famous works is the book "Gender Trouble," which was first published in 1990. In this book, Butler argues that gender is not an innate or biological characteristic, but rather a social construct that is constantly reinforced through our actions and interactions. She suggests that the idea of binary gender categories, such as male and female, is limiting and oppressive, and that we need to explore alternative ways of thinking about gender and identity.

Butler's work has been both celebrated and criticized for its complex and often challenging ideas. However, her contributions to feminist and queer theory have had a profound impact on the way we think about gender and identity and have opened up new avenues for thinking about social justice and political resistance.

**Nancy Chodorow:** Her most highly acclaimed book, The Reproduction of Mothering, first published in 1978, has won numerous awards. Chodorow's more recent books include Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory (1989), Femininities, Masculinities, Sexualities: Freud and Beyond (1994), and The Power of Feelings: Personal Meaning in Psychoanalysis, Gender, and Culture (1999).

**Raewyn Connell (formerly R. W. or Bob Connell):** books, including Ruling Class, Ruling Culture (1977), Class Structure in Australian History (1980), Gender and Power (1987), The Men and the Boys (2000), and Masculinities (1995), Southern Theory (2007).

**Kimberlé Crenshaw:** a legal scholar and critical race theorist who is known for coining the term "intersectionality" and for her work on the intersection of race, gender, and other forms of identity-based oppression.

**Sara Ahmed:** a cultural theorist and feminist philosopher who has written on topics such as queer phenomenology, affect theory, and the politics of diversity.

**Angela Davis:** a political activist and scholar who has written extensively on issues related to race, gender, and social justice, and who has been involved in movements for civil rights and prison abolition.

These scholars and activists have made significant contributions to the development of feminisms and have shaped feminist theory and practice in diverse ways. These are just a few of the many scholars and activists who have contributed to the development of feminisms throughout history.

#### **5. Social science and feminisms theory**

The social sciences, including sociology, psychology, political science, and economics, have all been influenced by feminist theory and have in turn influenced the development of feminist theory.

Feminist theory is an interdisciplinary field of inquiry that seeks to understand and challenge the ways in which gender inequality and the oppression of women are produced and maintained in society. Feminist theorists draw on a range of disciplines and perspectives, including sociology, psychology, political science, economics, and philosophy, to analyze the ways in which gender intersects with other forms of social inequality and to develop strategies for challenging and transforming existing power structures and norms [1–6, 40–44].

In sociology, feminist theory has influenced the study of gender and gender inequality and has led to the development of new theories and perspectives on gender and society. For example, feminist theory has challenged the idea that gender is a natural and biologically determined aspect of identity and has instead emphasized the social and cultural construction of gender and the ways in which gender is shaped by power and inequality [45–48].

In psychology, feminist theory has influenced research on gender and the experiences of women and has led to the development of new theories and perspectives on gender and the psychology of women. For example, feminist psychologists have challenged the idea that women are inherently less competent or less capable than men and have instead emphasized the ways in which gender stereotypes and gender-based discrimination impact women's experiences and opportunities [49, 50].

In political science, feminist theory has influenced research on gender and politics, and has led to the development of new theories and perspectives on the ways in which gender shapes and is shaped by political institutions and processes. For example, feminist political scientists have challenged the idea that politics is a purely maledominated domain and have instead emphasized the ways in which women's political participation and representation are impacted by gender-based discrimination and unequal power relations [51].

In economics, feminist theory has influenced research on gender and the economy and has led to the development of new theories and perspectives on the ways in which gender shapes and is shaped by economic processes and institutions. For example, feminist economists have challenged the idea that the economy is gender-neutral and have instead emphasized the ways in which women's economic opportunities and experiences are shaped by gender-based discrimination and unequal power relations [52–54].

Overall, feminist theory has had a significant impact on the social sciences and continues to shape and inform research and thinking in these fields. By challenging existing assumptions and power structures, feminist theory has provided new and innovative perspectives on a range of social, cultural, and political issues, and has helped to advance the cause of gender equality and the empowerment of women [49, 50, 52–54].

#### **6. Sociology and feminisms contemporary development**

In contemporary sociology, feminist theory continues to play a significant role in shaping research and scholarship. Here are some key developments in the intersection of sociology and feminisms:

*Intersectionality*: Intersectionality is a key concept in feminist theory that highlights the ways in which different forms of oppression, such as sexism, racism, and classism, intersect and shape individuals' experiences. Contemporary feminist sociology has continued to explore intersectionality, examining the ways in which different forms of oppression interact with each other to produce unique experiences of oppression and privilege [55, 56].

*Global feminisms*: Feminist sociology has increasingly focused on issues of globalization and transnationalism, examining the ways in which gender operates across national borders and in diverse cultural contexts. This has led to the development of a variety of "global feminisms," which seek to address the unique challenges faced by women in various parts of the world [57, 58].

*Queer theory:* Queer theory is a theoretical framework that explores the ways in which gender and sexuality are socially constructed and intersect with other forms of identity. Feminist sociology has increasingly engaged with queer theory, examining the ways in which gender and sexuality are fluid and complex and how they intersect with other forms of identity [59–62].

*Political activism*: Feminist sociology has continued to be closely connected to political activism, with many feminist scholars and activists working together to advocate for gender equality and social justice [63–65]. This has led to a variety of initiatives and movements, such as the #MeToo movement and the fight for reproductive rights.

Overall, feminist sociology continues to be an important and dynamic field, exploring new questions and challenges as they arise and working to create a more equitable and just society for all.

#### **7. Environmentalism and feminism a new direction of new movement**

*"Ecological feminism is a feminism which attempts to unite the demands of the women's movement with those of the ecological movement in order to bring about a world and worldview that are not based on socioeconomic and conceptual structures of domination" [66].*

Environmentalism and feminism have been intersecting for many years, and the relationship between these two movements has been growing stronger in recent years. The intersection between environmentalism and feminism is often referred to as ecofeminism, which recognizes the links between environmental degradation and the oppression of women and other marginalized groups [9, 66, 67].

Ecofeminism argues that the root cause of both environmental degradation and gender oppression is a dominant culture that values and prioritizes the interests of the powerful over the needs and well-being of marginalized communities, both human and non-human. This approach recognizes that environmental issues are not just technical or scientific problems but are also social and political issues that require collective action to challenge and transform the existing power structures and norms [68–73].

One of the key arguments of ecofeminism is that the oppression of women and the exploitation of the environment are interconnected and mutually reinforcing. For example, the destruction of the environment can lead to displacement, loss of traditional livelihoods, and exposure to hazardous chemicals and pollutants, which disproportionately affect women and other marginalized groups. Additionally, women have historically played a crucial role in the preservation and management of natural resources and have often been at the forefront of environmental activism and advocacy [68, 72].

Ecofeminism provides a new direction for environmental and feminist movements, which recognizes the importance of intersectionality and collective action in addressing the challenges of environmental degradation and gender oppression. By acknowledging the links between these two issues, ecofeminism offers a more holistic and inclusive approach to environmental and social justice and has the potential to mobilize a wider range of communities and constituencies in the fight for a more just and sustainable world [68–73].

#### **8. Interconnectedness of environmentalism, feminism, and its influence on social sciences**

Interconnectedness of environmentalism and feminism has given a new direction and movement on social political, economic, and psychological field especially on women empowerment, social justice, inequality, and equity in general.

The interconnectedness of environmentalism and feminism has led to the emergence of a new direction in social and political movements that recognize the links between environmental degradation and gender oppression. Ecofeminism is a theory and movement that highlights the connections between the domination of nature and the oppression of women, and the need to challenge and transform the power structures that sustain both [7–11].

At the heart of ecofeminism is the recognition that the exploitation of the environment and the oppression of women are interconnected and mutually reinforcing. The destruction of natural resources can lead to the displacement of marginalized communities, and exposure to hazardous chemicals and pollutants, which disproportionately affect women and other vulnerable groups. Additionally, women have historically played a crucial role in the preservation and management of natural resources and have often been at the forefront of environmental activism and advocacy [68–73].

#### *Feminisms in Social Sciences DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111652*

Ecofeminism offers a more holistic and inclusive approach to environmental and social justice, recognizing the importance of intersectionality and collective action in addressing the challenges of environmental degradation and gender oppression.

In terms of social science and feminism theory, ecofeminism builds on and extends the insights of earlier feminist theories, such as liberal feminism, Marxist feminism, and radical feminism. Ecofeminism recognizes the limitations of these earlier theories in addressing the intersections of gender and environmental issues and offers a more nuanced and complex approach to understanding the interconnections between social, political, economic, and ecological systems.

Ecofeminism also draws on the insights of social science disciplines, such as sociology, anthropology, and geography, to understand the social and cultural dimensions of environmental issues, and the ways in which gender shapes these dynamics. The theory and movement have also been influenced by developments in ecological science, such as the recognition of the interdependence of ecosystems and the importance of biodiversity [9, 66–74].

Ecofeminism offers an analytical overview of the social, political, economic, and psychological influences of environmental degradation and gender oppression, and the need for a more holistic and inclusive approach to addressing these challenges. The theory and movement recognize the interconnectedness of social, economic, and ecological systems, and the importance of intersectionality and collective action in achieving a more just and sustainable world.

#### **9. The feminist approach to organizational analysis**

The feminist approach to organizational analysis is a critical perspective that examines gender-based power dynamics in the workplace. It challenges traditional organizational theories, which have been based on a male-dominated perspective and have largely ignored the experiences of women in the workplace.

Feminist organizational analysis focuses on the social construction of gender, the gendered nature of work, and the impact of gendered power relations on organizational practices. It aims to uncover the ways in which gender shapes organizational culture, policies, and practices, and how these in turn affect women's experiences in the workplace.

One of the key insights of feminist organizational analysis is that gender is not just an individual characteristic, but a social construct that is created and reinforced through social interactions and institutional practices. This means that gender is not simply a matter of biology, but is shaped by cultural norms and expectations, and can vary across time and place.

Feminist organizational analysis also draws attention to the ways in which gender intersects with other forms of social inequality, such as race, class, and sexuality. This intersectionality perspective recognizes that individuals may experience multiple forms of discrimination and oppression, and that these intersecting identities can have a compounding effect on their experiences in the workplace.

Another important aspect of feminist organizational analysis is its focus on challenging and transforming existing power relations in the workplace. This includes addressing issues such as the gender pay gap, unequal representation of women in leadership positions, and sexual harassment and discrimination.

#### **9.1 The organizational sociological view**

Organizational sociology is a subfield of sociology that focuses on the study of organizations, including their structure, culture, behavior, and social dynamics. It examines how organizations operate and how they are shaped by social and cultural factors, as well as the impact of organizations on individuals, groups, and society as a whole [45, 46, 48, 75–77].

Broadly organizational sociology studies the organizational behavior in social context including:


#### **9.2 The organizational sociological view on feminist**

*The organizational sociological view on Feminist approach* emphasizes the importance of gender equality in organizations. This approach recognizes that gender-based power inequalities exist in many organizational settings and seeks to address these imbalances through critical analysis and social change. The organizational feminist approach incorporates the main essence of organizational sociology and beyond that, searches how, why, what, and in which way these approaches incorporate the gender perspectives in day-to-day organizations operation.

#### *Feminisms in Social Sciences DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111652*

From an organizational sociological perspective, Feminist approach can have significant implications for organizational behavior and outcomes. The approach challenges traditional gender roles and stereotypes, recognizing that gender is a social construct that is created and reinforced through cultural norms and practices. It emphasizes the importance of creating gender-inclusive organizational cultures that promote diversity, equity, and inclusion.

Feminist approach also emphasizes the importance of addressing structural barriers to gender equality in organizations. This includes issues such as the gender pay gap, unequal representation of women in leadership positions, and sexual harassment and discrimination. Feminist scholars argue that these barriers are not simply individual problems, but are deeply embedded in organizational structures and practices, requiring systemic change.

Furthermore, Feminist approach recognizes the intersectionality of gender with other forms of social inequality, such as race, class, and sexuality. It recognizes that individuals may experience multiple forms of discrimination and oppression, and that these intersecting identities can have a compounding effect on their experiences in the workplace.

Overall, the organizational sociological view on Feminist approach highlights the importance of creating gender-inclusive organizations that promote diversity, equity, and inclusion. By challenging traditional gender roles and stereotypes and addressing structural barriers to gender equality, it opens up new possibilities for creating more equitable and just organizational cultures.

Within the feminist organizational sociological view, Arlene Daniels 1975:349 states that "The women's movement contributes far more to sociology than a passing interest would. The development of a feminist perspective in sociology offers an important contribution to the sociology of knowledge. And through this contribution, we are forced to rethink the structure and organization of sociological theory in all the traditional fields of theory and empirical research" (as cited by [78]). Daniels captures the notion of feminist movements, which I think presents a major turn, not only to change the directions women face in the twentieth century onwards but also to provide a ground for the development of feminist scholarship. Adding to this notion, Tracy, and Thorne [79] brings an important account of how sociology developed by the privileged western, white, upper-middle-class, straight men (page 306). This hegemony of the male began to be challenged; however, it was not a strong stand until the feminist movements began at an organized level. The foundation developed through the first wave of feminist movements. The first wave had influence on the women's stand to some extent; however formally this stand became more visible only in the 1960s. Since then, various feminist scholars have challenged the one-sided view of society (privileged western, white, upper-middle-class, straight men), including postmodern thinkers.

I agree that the feminist movement has made a significant contribution to sociology, particularly in terms of developing a feminist perspective that challenges traditional sociological theory and research methods. The feminist movement has also played a critical role in bringing attention to issues of gender inequality and discrimination, which has led to greater awareness and understanding of these issues within the field of sociology. It is important to recognize the limitations of traditional sociological theory and research, which has been shaped by the perspectives of privileged western, white, upper-middle-class, straight men. By incorporating diverse perspectives and experiences, including those of women and marginalized groups, we can create a more inclusive and accurate understanding of society.

This challenge brought a new way to examine society. Academicians began to examine society more openly and flexibly, which helped to develop new thoughts and theories relating to feminism, racism, etc. Within sociology, scholars began

to see society deeply through feminist perspectives1 (Dorothy Smith, Marjorie DeVault, Gisela Bock, and Susan James). Organizational sociology has developed new perspectives (rational, natural, and open system (primarily) and environmental, demographic, ecological, etc., more recently). At first, the women's standpoint in the organization was not much focused upon, as discourse dealt more often with women's freedom as individuals as the feminisms movement began to examine the women's stand in every sector of social life including formal and informal social organizations, scholars began to see the women's role in organizational structure. Several authors in feminist scholars have contributed to organizational theory development. In this essay, I will only focus on Martha Calas and Linda Smircich's contribution to organizational theory building. They primarily examine women's standing in organizational management and apply a postmodern perspective to analyze the organization based on the perspectives developed by Michel Foucault, Jurgen Habermas, Jacques Derrida, Jurgen Habermas, etc.

Martha Calas and Linda Smircich state that organization theories—once they are presented as knowledge—guide organizational participants in their efforts to understand and control organizations. In this sense organizational scientists "make" organizations as much as we study them … Thus, having a socially conscious organizational practice may depend first on having a more socially conscious organizational scholarship ([80], pp. 223, 234).

These authors' approach to organization study is particularly based on postmodern notions of thought. They analyze organizations from various perspectives and provide a detailed account of the functionalist liberal way to postmodern power dynamism. I think Foucault's notion of power politics and social change through knowledge is a relevant ground for them to examine organizational dynamism. Because of the changing faces of organizations within modern neo-liberal socioeconomic scenarios, it is hard to develop universal principles for organizational management. Calás and Smircich's analysis goes beyond traditional sociological scholarship which was silent about women's standing and roles in the organization and elaborates on how women are ignored, or at least passed over, in organizational power politics. Another aspect they have analyzed is the impact of colonialism on the developing world's organizations. In the following paragraphs, I will examine how these two authors view feminism in organizational management and what they have contributed to organizational theory development.

I agree that the authors' approach to organizational study is heavily influenced by postmodern thought, particularly Foucault's notion of power politics and social change through knowledge. They provide a detailed analysis of organizational

<sup>1</sup> "A vision of feminist social justice emerges in the writings of contemporary American women writers Toni Morrison, Joy Harjo, Barbara Kingsolver, and Adrienne Rich. Their collective bodies of work envision a world that does not devalue and separate people, a world connected to ideals of justice grounded in the interrelationships of words and deeds. These writers argue that we need to create a new way of seeing and interacting with the world around us, recognizing our individual responsibilities for creating better communities, questioning government actions, and seeking, above all, a society that sustains people regardless of gender, race, class, ethnicity, sexuality, or access to resources. As such, these writers variously articulate what we propose as a feminist vision of justice—one which asserts that interdependence, responsibility, respect for and relationship with the environment, and an ethics of care are the foundation for a more reasoned and reasonable practice of justice" Riley Jeannette; Torrens Kathleen; Krumholz Susan (2005), Contemporary feminist writers: envisioning a just world, Contemporary Justice Review, Volume 8, Number 1, March 2005, pp. 91–106(16).

#### *Feminisms in Social Sciences DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111652*

dynamics, which moves beyond traditional sociological scholarship and highlights the role of women and marginalized groups in organizational power politics.

Calás and Smircich's analysis of feminism in organizational management is an important contribution to the development of organizational theory. They argue that traditional management theories are based on a functionalist liberal perspective that ignores the role of gender and other forms of diversity in organizational dynamics. They show how women are often excluded from positions of power in organizations and how this exclusion is perpetuated by organizational structures and cultural norms.

Furthermore, Calás and Smircich highlight the impact of colonialism on the developing world's organizations, which often perpetuate neocolonial power dynamics. They show how organizations in the developing world are often organized around Western ideals of management and ignore local cultural values and practices.

Overall, Calás and Smircich's analysis is an important contribution to the development of organizational theory. They provide a critical perspective that challenges traditional management theories and highlights the importance of diversity in organizational dynamics. Their work also demonstrates the importance of understanding the impact of historical and cultural contexts on organizational dynamics.

Calás and Smircich [81] state that the word "feminism" cannot contain the notion of the strength of the feminist theory, because it includes several perspectives, hence it should be "feminisms." This minute correction encapsulates the seriousness of their stand. Another point they state is that feminist theories go beyond 'women's issues' where they examine feminisms as critical and political issues, which have been embedded in society since earliest times and can be seen in every aspect of social, economic, and political spheres. They argue that feminist theorists should situate themselves as a part of any project "in research" to articulate the real grounds of tension. Authors are not satisfied with the existing theory of feminism which according to them are not necessarily in sequential order. They state that theories of feminism built on, responded to, and changed as a result of different dialogs—boundaries between them are "blurry and blurring." They look into existing organizational theories through feminist perspectives and evaluate how feminisms contribute to organizational theory building in the context of existing liberal, radical, psychoanalytic, Marxist, socialist, poststructuralist/ postmodern, and third world/(post) colonial perspectives.

Calás and Smircich [81] explain each of these categories, which provide an important basis for how organizations can be analyzed and explained. The following paragraphs give a brief account of such points, developed by Calás and Smircich, which can be used in studying social organizations. Similarly, their liberal perspective is based on the functionalist/positivist approach, which mostly examines sex and gender as a variable, not a framework for organizational analysis. At the *individual and psychological level*, this approach examines the sex and gender differences in leadership, power, job stress, satisfaction, organizational commitment, sex stereotypes, androgyny, recruitment, selection, and performance appraisal. It also examines the glass ceiling, organizational demography, career building, and social networks and evaluates whether organizations provide equal opportunity and take affirmative action without discrimination against the women workers in the organizations. Calás and Smircich are analyzing the situation of women in organizational management around 1996, and where women stand more than ten years later is not presently clear.

Likewise, the radical feminist approach uses case studies and ethnographies to examine organizations, and search for innovative ideas of alternative organizations that may arise for the creation of "woman space." Calás and Smircich [81] illustrate Koen's five alternatives to increase women's role in organizations such as participatory decision-making, rotating leadership, flexible and interactive job designs, and equitable distribution of income, interpersonal and political accountability. However, the question is whether it is possible in the real ground to apply these principles or not. Here questions arise, such as who heads the organization for whose interest? While most organizations still operate with the traditional functional system of governance, whether this new radical approach can take a forward step? These authors are silent about the implementation part. Another approach they reveal is psychoanalytic. Here, they state that organizational study should examine whether women have equal advantages in the organization or not, in terms of leadership and teamwork capabilities. This approach "considers the consequences of women's different psychosexual development for their roles in organization and management" ([81], page 224). The psychoanalytic aspects of the organizational study have been little considered in practice. Many scholars have analyzed organizational behavior; however, they have seldom adequately represented the essential differences governing women's standpoint and roles.

Calás and Smircich [81] next elaborate on the Marxist approach, where they criticize capitalism and patriarchy together: "work organizations are important sites for analyzing the ongoing reproduction of sex/gender inequality as they expose the intersections of patriarchy and capitalism" ([81], p. 226). They state that the socialist approach to organizational research examines the case studies of "women in the organization." In this approach organization studies do not distinguish individuals from private and public life: "families and societies are mutually constituted through gender relations" ([81], p. 227). This approach is opposite to Max Weber's notion of the bureaucratic model. As Kilduff and Mehra note: "Feminist postmodern researchers seek to represent women as subjects rather than objects and to give voice to the narratives of those who violate what Cassell [82] referred to as the "principles of the incarnate social order" (Kilduff and Mehra, p. 472). However, traditional bureaucratic expositions reject this notion. Feminist scholars criticize the traditional organizational model because it focuses on power in the hierarchical order which is silent about the women's stand in the decision-making process. I think an alternative model can be proposed based on dialectical classification (in terms of gender, sex, race, ethnicity, and country of origin) and where organizations can be analyzed in the context of sex/gender, north, and south, or as a power struggle.

Calás and Smircich further explore the subject from the poststructuralist/postmodern perspective. This approach is based on power relationships (as Foucault illustrates). They state that postmodern feminist ethnography "subverts many images about what it is to be a gendered self-belonging to particular ethnic groups within particular life circumstances; as well as what counts as theory and where the boundary is between the empirical and the theoretical" ([81], p. 231) and note poststructuralist study of "secretaries as a social group and their discursive constructions in the day-today relationships of power" ([81], p. 231). Calás and Smircich's postmodern approach examines women's role in the organization in terms of power politics. In the bureaucratic web, power is considered a major aspect to manage the operation of the organization. In this context, to study organizations from any perspective, it is important to see how the organization is structured and who makes the decisions. The authors propose a final approach, the study of the third world's perspective, which is still an innovative approach that focuses on how the organization or agency formed and how knowledge is created within it. The western scholars dominate organizational study. Scholars are silent about the developing world situation on "how organizations are created, operated, and how they function."

#### *Feminisms in Social Sciences DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111652*

Another silent feature is the changing face of the developing world's organizations in the postcolonialism condition. Calás and Smircich highlight this issue and state that knowledge developed by third world women is still not for them (as I have observed, too often the benefits of financial and another aid benefit disproportionally the donor country rather than the recipient). Chandra Mohanty [83] examines how western eyes see women of color in the United States. She states "I would like to suggest that the feminist writings I analyze here discursively colonize the material and historical heterogeneities of the lives of women in the third world, thereby producing/ representing a composite, singular 'third-world woman' - an image which appears arbitrarily constructed but carries with it the authorizing signature of western humanist discourse" ([83], p. 63). Her focus was to see how third world women are examined from western eyes. She argues that the third world is facing western hegemony in many ways. Mohanty's notion is valid even to propose alternatives in the feminist discourses. This sector needs to be examined more deeply through a comparative study of how southern women are changing their stand in society. Women's participation in the decision-making process is limited. Calás and Smircich insist that the western world needs to explore more about women's role in the southern context.

Calás and Smircich are considered feminist and postmodern organizational theorists (Joanna [84]). They examine organizations in two major frames (1) feminisms and (2) modernism and postmodernism. From the feminisms perspective, they bring the notion of how identity makes difference in organizations2 due to sex, class, and culture. The identity issue not only applies in the organizational setting but equally works with other social behavior. In the organizational setting, Calás and Smircich bring three basic points about identity i.e. it constitutes a racial term and condition of employment, it is a form of race-plus discrimination, and it reflects racial stereotyping. The question arises, then, how to address such an issue. Here the authors lack clarity.

It is worthwhile to evaluate what Calás and Smircich have added to organizational theory. In this context, Joanna Brewis's [84] summary of Calás and Smircich's organizational theory is useful to quote.3 Calás and Smircich present a valid argument to

<sup>2</sup> In their article "Identity Performance," Calás and Smircich state "A person's experiences with and vulnerability to discrimination is based not just on a status marker or difference (call this a person's status identity) but also on the choices that person makes about how to present her difference (call this a person's performance identity)" Everyone performs identity. Though we may not recognize that we are doing it, by making choices about what we wear, how we talk, how we walk, and how we structure a conversation…we are performing identity (ies) Different intersections of identities can bring varying amounts of privilege and oppression. It is not addictive but is contextual, relational, and historical. For instance, we do not try to determine who is oppressed more: an able-bodied upper-class, black gay man or a working-class white woman that uses a wheelchair… (71).

<sup>3</sup> Joanna Brewis states "(1) revealing 'the inner workings and assumptive basis' ([85]: 649) of existing organization theory, identifying the arbitrary discursive limitations within which it operates; (2) focusing on the fixing of meaning in organization theory and therefore on how our scholarship represents some phenomena, interests and groups and marginalizes others (while implicitly or explicitly making much more universalist claims); (3) seeking to make space for non-traditional voices in organization theory, whilst being aware of the difficulties in attempting to speak for these Others; (4) disavowing notions of enduring truths about organizations; (5) acknowledging the 'real-world' power of organization theory and considering how it might best be undertaken; (6) creating localized, temporary and subjective accounts of organizations which are sensitive to how they 'realize' their subject matter; and (7) acknowledging that writing on organizations exists to be read, and that the author is 'just one interpreter among other readers'" (1999: 653 as cited from [84], p. 80).

apply postmodern perspectives in the organizational study (see Endnote 23). I am not a fan of the postmodern approach, but in researching the place where women stand in organizations, their points provide some assistance.

In the context of the postmodern approach to organizational research, Foucault's power dynamism is the major ground for Calás and Smircich. However, the postmodern approach4 itself is not universally accepted in organizational research. Calás and Smircich [81] advocate postmodern thought, in their words: "Insofar as postmodern perspectives allow for questioning conventional approaches to theory development, the argument goes; they provide incisive analyses showing the inner workings and assumptive basis of those theories. At the same time, however, the elusiveness of theory under postmodern premises prevents those who articulate postmodern perspectives from theorizing other, alternative views, because they do not have any 'solid ground' from which to speak" ([81], p. 649).

Foucault's power dynamics are a major ground for feminist postmodern approach to organizational research. Their work challenges traditional approaches to theory development and highlights the importance of questioning the assumptions that underlie conventional theories.

However, I see the postmodern approach to organizational research is not universally accepted. Some critics argue that the elusiveness of theory under postmodern premises makes it difficult to develop coherent and testable hypotheses. Moreover, the postmodern approach has been criticized for being overly skeptical and rejecting the possibility of objective truth.

Despite these criticisms, I believe that the postmodern approach has made an important contribution to organizational research by challenging traditional assumptions and providing new insights into the complexities of organizational dynamics. The postmodern approach encourages researchers to examine how power is constructed and contested in organizations, and to question dominant narratives about organizational life [12–28]. While the postmodern approach may not provide a single, objective truth about organizational dynamics, it can help us to develop a more nuanced and critical understanding of the social and cultural factors that shape organizational life.

Overall, the feminist approach to organizational analysis offers a valuable framework for understanding and addressing gender-based inequalities in the workplace. By highlighting the gendered nature of organizational practices and challenging traditional theories and assumptions, it opens up new possibilities for creating more equitable and inclusive organizations.

#### **10. Conclusion**

In conclusion, the study of feminisms in social sciences has evolved significantly over the years and has contributed to the development of critical approaches to

<sup>4</sup> Kilduff; Mehra state "Within the social sciences in general, the specter of postmodernism has aroused widespread anxiety. Postmodernism has been viewed as an enterprise that calls for the death of all scientific inquiry; the end of all new knowledge; the dissolution of any standards that may be used to judge one theory against another; a banishment into utter relativism wherein a clamor of fragmented and contentious voices reigns" (see Pauline Rosenau's 1992 balanced review of these concerns and Stanley Fish's [I9961 recent discussion of misunderstandings of postmodernism) (p. 454). Calás and Smircich [86] have a slightly different perspective than what Kilduff; Mehra have highlighted.

#### *Feminisms in Social Sciences DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111652*

understanding society and social issues. The postmodern era and feminist postmodernism have played a significant role in shaping contemporary feminist theory and practice, emphasizing the importance of recognizing diversity and difference in experiences and identities.

This chapter has provided a comprehensive overview of feminism in social sciences, covering a broad range of topics from the history of feminist theory to contemporary developments in sociology and environmentalism. The major characteristics of feminism in social science and its impact on organizational analysis were also highlighted, as well as the significant role of founding scholars in shaping feminist discourse.

Feminisms in social sciences have also influenced the development of novel approaches to understanding organizational structures, environmental issues, and political and social movements. By challenging traditional male-centric knowledge bases and power structures, feminisms have opened up new avenues of inquiry and have provided important insights into the complexities of social life.

Moreover, the chapter emphasizes the interconnectedness of environmentalism, feminism, and their influence on social sciences. The emergence of eco-feminism as a new direction for the feminist movement is a significant development that highlights the importance of recognizing the interdependence of gender, social justice, and the environment.

Overall, this chapter demonstrates the ongoing evolution of feminist thought in social sciences and the significant contributions it has made to our understanding of gender, society, and the environment. As we continue to explore new directions in feminist theory and research, it is clear that the intersectionality of these fields will continue to shape our understanding of the world around us.

It is important to recognize the value and significance of feminist theories and approaches in understanding social issues and addressing inequalities. By incorporating feminist perspectives into our work, we can better understand the diverse experiences and perspectives of those we work with, and work toward creating more just and equitable societies.

#### **Acknowledgements**

I would like to thank my wife Prajita Bhandari and daughter Manaslu Bhandari, giving insight of what is the meaning of being women in the patriarchal society. My mother Heema Devi Bhandari who always remain suppressed in the family has different story. I think listening to the experiences and perspectives of own circumstance is an important part of understanding the ways in which gender inequality operates in our society. By being open to their insights and learning from them, we can help to create a more inclusive and equitable world for all.

*Women and Society*

### **Author details**

Medani P. Bhandari1,2,3

1 Akamai University, USA

2 Sumy State University, Ukraine

3 Atlantic State Legal Foundation, USA

\*Address all correspondence to: medani.bhandari@gmail.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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#### **Chapter 3**

## Decolonizing Female Genital Mutilation: A Harmful Yet Identity-Affirming Practice

*Reham ElMorally*

#### **Abstract**

Women have historically been the target of violence, especially in the situation of social flux; for instance, the Rwandan Civil War of 1994. It was observed that countries in conflict simultaneously observe an increase in Violence Against Women (VAW), particularly Female Genital Mutilation (FGM). This article displays the historical context within which the practice developed, culturally significant facts and myths encouraging its continuation, to substantiate existing scholarship around FGM and colonial legacies, and its effects on gender discourse. I argue that colonial legacies of ethnic rivalry, unequal distribution of resources, and weak institutions have dominated postcolonial scholarship, few have zoomed in on the role dehumanization played. I claim that colonial legacies and power dynamics correlate to the frequency and resilience of harmful practices such as FGM, as the ritual itself could be perceived as an anti-colonial act. I conclude that for harmful practices to be eradicated, cultural and moral absolutist arguments, which justify cultural impositions to 'save' "brown women from brown men," should be made obsolete. Instead, I recommend that the international community ought to recognize the identity-affirming capacity FGM possesses, and acknowledge its relationship to colonial legacies before attempting to counteract it.

**Keywords:** female genital mutilation, violence against women, cultural relativism, cultural absolutism, global south, Women's rights

#### **1. Introduction**

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is a practice that involves the partial or complete removal of female exterior genitalia for cultural, religious, and socio-political beliefs and motives. The practice is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as "all procedures that involve … injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons" [1]. The term "Female Genital Mutilation" was first espoused in 1990 by the *Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children*, and in 1991 the *World Health Organization* (WHO) recommended the term and terminology be adopted by all international organizations, especially the UN [2]. This practice, with its peculiarity, has been attributed to divergent and competing interests within the country-specific socio-economic and political configuration.

In most cases women are the target of violence, especially in the situation of social flux; "Throughout the world, sexual violence is routinely directed against females during situations of armed conflict. This violence may take gender-specific forms, like sexual mutilation, forced pregnancy, rape, or sexual slavery. Being female is a risk factor; women and girls are often targeted for sexual abuse on the basis of their gender, irrespective of their age, ethnicity or political affiliation" [3].

There are four identified types of FGM, as depicted in the diagram below: 1) Clitordectomy, which includes the partial or complete removal of the clitoris or the clitoral prepuce; 2) Excision, which includes the removal of the labia minora and/ or labia majora and the clitoris; 3) Infibulation, which includes sowing/narrowing of the vaginal opening and excision of the clitoris and labia; and 4) other harmful procedures of non-medical necessity that involve the female genital such as piercing, scraping, and cauterizing.

The procedure is performed on women between the ages of 0–15 by traditional practitioners, such as midwives, and is concentrated in African and Middle Eastern countries and migrant communities in Europe, Australia and North America. Somalia (98%), Guinea (97%), Djibouti (93%), and Egypt (87.2%) rank among the top countries with the highest percentage of women circumcised/mutilated in Africa and the Middle East [4]. More than 200 million women and girls in over 30 countries on five different continents have undergone the procedure with an estimated three million women and girls expected to undergo it each year [5]. According to the *European Parliament Committee on Women's Rights and Gender Equality* [6] an estimated 500,000 women and girls living in the European Union (EU) have been subjugated to the practice, among which 180,000 women and girls are born in the EU that may be at risk of subjugation. The resolution of the committee states "these figures are underestimated and do not take into account second-generation or undocumented migrants" (Point B: P7\_TA: 2012).

FGM has been on the agenda of international organizations for over 70 years. Many International Organizations (IOs) such as the *United Nations Development Program* (UNDP), *United Nations Children's Fund* (UNICEF), *UN Women*, and the *World Health Organization*, *inter alia.* as well as Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) such as *#28TooMany*, *Daughters Of Eve*, *END FGM European campaign*, and the *Desert Flower Foundation*, *inter alia* have convened summits and conferences elaborating on the tragedies followed by atrocities found in many developing and underdeveloped countries.

The United Nations in 1948, within the context of the *Universal Declaration of Human Rights* (UDHR) *–* adopted by the UN General Assembly in the same year –*,* condemned the procedure and labeled it a Human Rights violation ([7], p. 198; [8]). The declaration transcended and transformed into Human Rights Law after its adoption by the *International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights* (ICCPR) and *the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights* (ICESCR) in 1966. Additionally, in 1984, The *Convention against Torture, and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment* (Torture Convention)*, The Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women* (CEDAW), and *The Convention on the Rights of the Child* [9], prohibit the physical or mental trauma and injury of women and children through FGM and raises awareness of its harmful and socially damaging side-effects. All three Conventions partake in a legally *binding* international law for all signatory states, therewith redirecting responsibility for the protection of vulnerable and socially marginalized groups onto individual states with the expectation that the governing bodies will adhere to the laws agreed upon and protect their nationals.

*Decolonizing Female Genital Mutilation: A Harmful Yet Identity-Affirming Practice DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109837*

In 1994 the *Declaration and Program of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development* (ICPD) urged countries to provide, monitor, and allocate relief funds and administrative social support for NGOs and Civil Societies targeting the protection and prevention of FGM. In addition, ICPD set out an action plan for awareness campaigns that were meant to be appropriated by every country to secure cultural sensitivity and approachability, hence ensuring the effectiveness and responsiveness of different societal and cultural backgrounds. Shortly after, in 1995, *The Declaration and Platform for Action of the Fourth World Conference on Women*, held in Beijing, listed FGM as a form of economic and sexual exploitation and exhibited robust action to eradicate it [10, 11].

The deformation, alteration, and mutilation of female genitalia have grave physical and psychological consequences which qualify it as a human rights violation. The physical magnitudes include prolonged and difficult menstrual cycles, hemorrhage, septicemia, complications during childbirth and/or injury to the newborn, internal bleeding, urinary and bladder control issues and infections, sexual dysphoria, and, in severe cases, death of the subject [12, 13]. The psychological and emotional consequences can include but are not limited to, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), anxiety, depression, and suicidal tendencies [14]. The physical and psychosexual trauma resulting from the cutting has been analogized with the complete amputation of the penis for males, potentially leading to the incomprehension of one's sexual and social identity [15].

In light of the aforementioned and explicit complications and traumatic results of the practice, FGM directly violates articles two and five of the UDHR where "Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinions, national or social origin, property, birth or another status (Article 2)" and "No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment (Article 5)" [16]. Following the orientation of the UDHR one can understand why FGM is a human rights violation. It subjugates, exploits, disadvantages, and tortures young women and girls by stripping them from any sense of security and basic freedoms, treating them as non-sentient objects of desire and manipulation, and if the "body is our hold of the world" as Simone de Beauvoir said then women's worlds have been forcibly broken apart to create a universal ideal of a woman that is passive, docile, and *silent* [17].

There are a myriad of reasons why FGM is performed, including psychosexual, cosmetic and religious ones (discussed later). The reasons FGM is performed seem to all serve the patriarchal structures by subjugating and oppressing women through their bodies. I am interested in understanding the extent to which FGM has been shaped by the patriarchal structure and colonial legacy. This chapter problematizes FGM, to answer the following question: Is FGM a political tool of patriarchy designed to subjugate women, or is it a cultural practice that emerged from patriarchal hierarchies and understandings in the developing world? To better unpack the issue, this chapter relies on Martha Nussbaum's concept of *Dehumanization.* The chapter argues that FGM, much like pornography, is a practice that is culturally embedded and sociopolitically reproduced to cater to the male sexual gaze. While the practice may have arisen for other purposes, such as protection from an infection brought on by extreme hot and sandy weather in ancient Egypt or as a sacrifice to the divine [18], the practice has been absorbed by the patriarchal structure to control women's bodies and lives. Controversially, in this chapter, I argue that FGM has been exacerbated by colonization as an identity-affirming practice to counteract colonial influence and cultural imposition.

#### **2. Less than: the colonial legacy of dehumanization**

For centuries, male hegemony has been assumed as the natural state of the world. Abrahamic religions, particularly, have favored this status quo depicting exclusively male figures as the 'saviors' or 'prophets' and preaching the role of men in society as the protectors of fragile and weak women. Politics, needless to say, has been maledominant perpetuating the social roles of women as homemakers belonging in the private sphere, and men as providers belonging in the public sphere [19]. Religion has oftentimes been "routinely blamed for promoting derogatory views of women" ([19], p. 146). Yet, scholars that presume the inherent misogyny of religious doctrines do not account for the fact that it was not until the 18th century that the *Enlightenment* sentiment of "all men are created equal" came about [20]. The idea is that the "rights of man result simply from the fact that they are sentient beings, capable of acquiring moral ideas and of reasoning concerning these ideas ... women having these same qualities must necessarily possess equal rights" [21]. The fact that women do not possess equal rights is therefore a direct reflection of how women are perceived as *less than* human, denied their inertness, and subjectivity, labeled as objects of sexual desires, and oppressed by the patriarchal system to be socio-politically subservient sheds light on how women have been systematically dehumanized.

In the aftermath of the enlightenment, we saw great pioneers of gender irrelevance, like Condorcet, Judith Drake1 , Jean-Jacques Rousseau<sup>2</sup> , John Locke3 , Mary Astell4 , *et al*, Mary Wollstonecraft<sup>5</sup> , and later John S. Mill6 and Sarah Margaret Fuller7 , who believed that socially constructed roles are beside the point in philosophy and scientific inquiry of human life and rationality. As Laquer [20] put it, scholars have realized that women are:

*Undifferentiated in [their] desires, interests, or capacity to reason. In striking contrast to the old teleology of the body as male, liberal theory begins with a neuter body, sexed but without gender, and of no consequence to cultural discourse. The body is regarded simply as the bearer of the rational subject, which itself constitutes the person. The problem for this theory then is how to derive the real world of male dominion of women, of sexual passion and jealousy, of sexual division of labor and cultural practices generally from an original state of genderless bodies. The dilemma, at least for theorists interested in the subordination of women, is resolved by grounding the social and cultural differentiation of the sexes in biology of incommensurability that liberal theory itself helped bring into being.*

Biological differences between women and men remain the dominant discourse to justify and rationalize women's inferiority. Violence Against Women (VAW), to which FGM belongs, was only discussed on a global scale after the establishment of the United Nations (UN) in 1945. The UN's General Assembly passed Resolution 217A in 1948, which is now commonly known as the *Universal Declaration of Human* 


<sup>1</sup> Ref. [22].

<sup>2</sup> Ref. [23].

#### *Decolonizing Female Genital Mutilation: A Harmful Yet Identity-Affirming Practice DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109837*

*Rights* (UDHR), in which the right of individuals, regardless of sex, gender, age, color, religion, political affiliation, nationality, race, and ethnicity, were clearly stated. Articles 58 , 129 , and 3010 of the UDHR manifested the efforts of the 51 initial member states to restore the world after WWII. The initial 51 members sought to set forth new international customs that protect individuals from all forms of violence they may be subject to intra-state or interstate and all forms of human degradation and humiliation. It was not until 1993 that the UNGA proclaimed resolution 48/104 now known as the *Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women*<sup>11</sup>*.*

However, while the UN, and its predecessor the *League of Nations*, proclaim their mission is to maintain international peace and security, promote cooperation, and resolve international conflicts and disputes, the organization utterly dismisses the colonial past of its members and does not account for the colonial legacies which plagued the territories they occupied and systematically undermines the effects of imperialism on the socio-cultural, political, and economic (under) development of former colonies. Inhumane practices, the encouragement of ethnic enclaves and promotion of ethnic rivalries, the unequal distribution of resources, and subjugation of the "barbaric and savage peoples" [29–32]. The dehumanization force [33] which rationalized colonization, promoted the "white man's burden" [34], and propagated the "civilization mission" [35], all contributed to the structural and institutional arrangements of former colonies, in which FGM is most commonly practiced, and perpetuated the notion of male hegemony in public and political life. The colonial influence cannot be sidestepped, particularly as weaponizing women's bodies was a notorious colonial tool to subdue what they labeled 'unruly savages'. Acquitting themselves from their role in institutionalizing Violence Against (colonized) Women, only served to maintain the colonial influence over nations of the global south.

Post-independence many of the nations where the "oversexed" brown and black women were subjected to violence and abuse, outlasted the colonial powers, as much as ethnic rivalries in Rwanda did. This encouraged the epistemic community to seek answers as to why the practice of FGM persists and hypothesize the rationality of people performing it. The debate among scholars sheds light on cultural and religious aspects that have led to the continuation of the practice, including but not limited to, the belief that it is religiously mandated by a supreme being or

<sup>8</sup> "No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment."

<sup>9</sup> "No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honor and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks."

<sup>10</sup> "Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein."

<sup>11</sup> Preamble "Recognizing the urgent need for the universal application to women of the rights and principles with regard to equality, security, liberty, integrity and dignity of all human beings, Noting that those rights and principles are enshrined in international instruments, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment,

Recognizing that effective implementation of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women would contribute to the elimination of violence against women and that the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women, set forth in the present resolution"

higher power. Other perspectives perceive it as a facet of patriarchy that, like Adam Smith's invisible hand, perpetuates and reproduces the socio-political status quo through subtle means of systemization and institutionalization of FGM disguised and propagated as religious submission. Scholars, such as Gruenbaum and Olenick, have correctly observed discontinuation between countries with a Muslim majority and the practice. They have accurately noted that in Egypt, a country with a Muslim majority, the practice is widespread among people of different faiths, while a country such as Saudi Arabia, also with a Muslim majority, experiences close to zero percent occurrence rates [36–38]. The contrast between countries suggests that there are more cultural reasons for the practice than religious ones, which does not negate the significant influence of religious fundamentalism on FGM, but at least subdues the argument and shifts our attention to the root causes of VAW beyond religion.

A study conducted at the International Institute of Social Science, the Netherlands, concluded that the practice persists to exist because it "societal interest in preserving culture, association with the religion despite lacking concrete evidence, [and] the *assumed pleasure* [author's emphasis] of men to enjoy sex via this form of man-made virginity" ([39], p. 40). The study also showcased that there is a need to deconstruct the claim that FGM is male-led, by highlighting the complexity and structural nuances of FGM's resilience. Andarge further argued that "FGM is apparently mainly pushed by women who internalize the cultural need of FGM … Women are obediently scarifying their bodies, life, and dignity to satisfy the control and apparent sexual interest of men as the women obey rules of female virginity and chastity" (ibid). These conclusions highlight Deniz Kandiyoti's predictions that in contexts where classical patriarchy can be observed, like in most Low- and Middle-Income Countries (LMCIs), women will oftentimes "adhere as far and as long as they possibly can to rules (…) that result in their active collusion in the reproduction of their own subordination" ([40], p. 289). Kandiyoti predicted this would arise as a response to inferiority internalization and historical repetition, which in turn allowed certain practices to be mythicized over time, and later socially institutionalized, as tradition and cultural practice. Therefore, deconstructing the origins of those myths could help in improving our understanding as to why a practice such as FGM is resilient against change.

Some common myths and facts about FGM have elucidated the continuation of the practice. From the available data, we can deduce that the rationalization of FGM is multilayered and mutually inclusive. It is important to distinguish between motives, the facts and myths people have reported as *justifications,* and modes of analysis, *successive theories* that are used for outsiders to better understand and hypothesize the reported justifications. One can reduce the *rationale/motives* behind it into four categories: 1) religious, 2) sociological, 3) esthetic, and 4) psychosexual. Scholars have had trouble determining the morality of FGM**.** Yet three modes of analysis can be used to determine and analyze the intention behind the practices: 1) compositional differences, which account for the socioeconomic and demographic characteristics influencing the decision to mutilate; 2) particularized theologies, which refer back to religious texts and distinguishes between text and interpretation of the text to account for the decision and value ascribed to mutilation; and 3) group identity, which considered all other variables which cannot be accounted for by compositional differences and particularized theologies, such as the unique group identity and collectivist construction of social order to which the value of participants and members of the society are measured and judged.

*Decolonizing Female Genital Mutilation: A Harmful Yet Identity-Affirming Practice DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109837*

#### **2.1 Religious**

*Religious* purposes include, especially among Sunni12 Muslim communities, following the instruction of the Prophet Mohamed. A lot of debate in the Muslim scholarly community surrounds two *Hadiths*<sup>13</sup>*;* "Do not go to the extreme in cutting; that is better for the woman and more liked by the husband." (narrated by Abu Dawood) and "The fitrah14 is five things – or five things are part of the fitrah15 – circumcision, shaving the pubes, cutting the nails, plucking the armpit hairs, and trimming the mustache." (narrated by [42], p. 256). In a study conducted in Burkina Faso to see the relationship between religion and FGM, the decision to circumcise girls was asserted by mothers and thus the social and religious context of the mothers were crucial for the investigation [43, 44]. The study concluded that sociodemographic differences are not statistically significant among practitioners, rather religious convictions, in conjunction with group identity, have amplified the seeming 'necessity' for the practice [44]. When questioned about the reasons for the belief that it is religiously mandated, Muslim interviewees referred back to the aforementioned *Hadiths*, while Christian interviewees cited 'preservation of purity' as their main motive. In 2006 a conference organized by the German human rights group *TARGET*, in Cairo-Egypt, Islamic and Coptic16 Christian scholars deemed FGM 'un-Islamic', against basic human rights, and declared it as a practice that predates both religions [46].

The practice of FGM is adjacent to predominantly Muslim communities in Northand Central Africa. The literature examined, in quasi unison, highlights that the practice does not seem to be religiously mandated [36, 37, 47, 48], yet many studies, in juxtaposition, have reported that participants cite religion as the chief ground for execution [49, 50]. Nonetheless, a study surveyed 318 Somali women to better understand the reasons behind the continuation of the practice. The study revealed that 74% of participants exclusively perform FGM for traditional and cultural reasons, compared to only 20% citing Religion as the motivation ([51], p. 34). In another study, Werunga [52] sought to examine the relationship between migration to Canada and the likelihood of practicing FGM, found that refugee women who themselves have been subjected to FGM did not desire to perform it on their daughters. Most notably, however, the study highlighted that among the Muslim refugee community in Canada:

*"Participants who identified as Muslim seemed to agree that Islam, the religion which is usually associated with FGC, did not specifically sanction the practice but that the* 

<sup>12</sup> A theological division that is, in contrast with Christianity, rooted in political difference than theological. Sunni Muslims are a sect of Islam whose followers believe that Mohamed is the true prophet of God and his *Caliph,* "successor" should be Abu Bakr, in contrast with Shi'a Muslims who believe that Ali was supposed to be the successor Ref. [41].

<sup>13</sup> "According to Juan Campo, the term hadith refers to reports of statements or actions of Muhammad, or of his tacit approval or criticism of something said or done in his presence."

<sup>14</sup> Instinct

<sup>15</sup> Instinct or *a priori* knowledge

<sup>16</sup> Greek and literally translates to Egypt(ian). See BBC History, [45]. "Coptic Orthodox Church" -- "The Church separated from other Christian denominations at the Council of Chalcedon (451 AD) in a theological dispute over the human and divine nature of Jesus Christ ... Copts believe that their Church dates back to around 50 AD, when the Apostle Mark is said to have visited Egypt. Mark is regarded as the first Pope of Alexandria. This makes it one of the earliest Christian groups outside the Holy Land."

*religious excuse had somehow been passed down generations and become embedded within cultures whereupon people now regarded it as an important part of their cultures" ([52], p. 111).*

Where did the miscommunication occur? Is the reason for the misinterpretation politically motivated or is it illiteracy and the lack of awareness? Tamale [53] posited that the lack of methodological and theoretical inclusivity of formerly colonized persons into the mission of decolonization could be able to "explain how the maledominated pan-African Movement or the predominantly heterosexual women's movements on the continent unwittingly uphold the very forms of domination that they seek to dismantle" (Tamale, 68).

These questions are significant in order to understand why the practice continues to affect so many young, innocent, girls in Africa and the World. Are women being punished for something they were not conscious of committing? Are women being punished by virtue of being born female? Who is accountable for this atrocity? Mothers? Fathers? Religious clergy? The society? History? Answers to these complex questions must be approached interjectionally and qualitatively. While this falls beyond the scope of this research, it is significant to note that in utilizing Social Convention Theory "public statements about the topic is complex and that the taboo permeating the practice remains intact even outside of Africa" ([54], p. 1153).

#### **2.2 Sociological**

*Sociological* reasons differ from one community to another. In some communities, like in Kenya and Sudan, FGM is a rite of passage where a female transcends from "girlhood" into "womanhood" [55]. A woman who does not undergo FGM can suffer from grave social consequences. Over precedent, the young lady might be ostracized by her family and, on a few occasions, will most likely be unable to wed. The inability to endure the pain of the socially-enforced practice can prompt different social pressure from family and friends. Lamentably, many women who have been subjected to FGM emphatically have it performed on their girls. It shocks many to know that someone of a marginalized, socially inferior, and oppressed minority can consciously choose and will to perpetuate the same system that made her a minority and a victim; Stockholm Syndrome might be one explanation for it. Society as a whole contributes to the practice by setting socially constructed gender roles, ascribing value to traditional practices, and setting forth gender-based goals that men and women are supposed to strive for, leading to "all members of communities practicing FGM have a role in perpetuating it. Families of girls or women who undergo FGM support it because it makes their daughters marriageable—the operation ensures that their daughters will have ready suitors and a satisfactory bride price" [56].

Communities practicing FGM have justified the practice by claiming the right to protect their tradition and heritage, even if their arguments could be refuted and demystified "in societies where illiteracy and poverty prevail, where women believe that FGM is universal, where the social pressure is tight, the justifications for FGM are the reality of life for the women in FGM practicing countries" [57]; the key word here being a *reality.* Women who have undergone FGM have been socialized to believe that it is the only standard of beauty. In a critique of society and culture, for example, Theodor Adorno stated "the commodification, fetishization, and standardization of its products, together with the authoritarian submissiveness, irrationality, conformity, ego-weakness and dependency behavior of its recipients" [58]. Applying this to FGM victims and

#### *Decolonizing Female Genital Mutilation: A Harmful Yet Identity-Affirming Practice DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109837*

practitioners, one can see that women have commodified themselves and in the case of FGM, have rationalized the role of mothers, the main executors, and perpetrators, as a form of protecting the heritage and social norms of the society [49].

A study conducted by the WHO on exiled societies17 concluded that assimilation into a novel society does not necessarily mean that the respective persons will abandon their conceptions of femininity and masculinity, ergo for exiled persons whose social construction, more or less, dictated that FGM is directly correlated to femininity and beauty, that person will perform FGM on their female offspring irrelevant of the social and legal framework they are in [1].

Naomi Wolf hypothesized in *The Beauty Myth* that "Our society does reward beauty on the outside over health on the inside. Women must not be blamed for choosing short-term beauty "fixes" that harm our long-term health, since our life spans are inverted under the beauty myth, and there is no great social or economic incentive for women to live a long time". Although, Wolf is referring to extreme dieting, bulimia, and starvation techniques used by women to look thinner, her conceptualization of the lengths women go to in order to be 'beautiful' can be used to explain the request of mutilated women to undergo re-infibulation postpartum [59, 60], Women who have expressed the desire to be re-infibulated say that they feel "naked" and "ugly" and reported anxiety and fear that their husbands would not be attractive for their husbands without it [61].

The overwhelming critique is that women of Africa lack social awareness, literacy, and agency, and suffer from internalized inferiorities, where they define themselves by their male counterparts and not by their innertness and subjectivity [62]. Nonetheless, critics of FGM, who condemn women of Africa who choose to mutilate their daughters and/or choose to be re-infibulated, claim that a woman should not put her body through excruciating processes to become more desirable for a man. However, those same critics are more often than not comfortable and tolerant of vaginal rejuvenation/reconstructive surgery18, assuming that it is a conscious decision and not a forced one. Conversely, is it really agency when one is indirectly *pressured or expected* to look/act/behave in a very specific way to maintain a relationship with a sexual partner?

In an attempt to add an African discourse to FGM for 'foreigners and outsiders' scholars – academic as well as public figures – have narrated the cultural significance for their societies. It is of the highest priority to note that the practice is located predominantly African-Former-Colonies, which gained independence after the creation of the UN in 1945, and the *Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples* adopted by General Assembly Resolution 1514 (XV) of 14 December 1960 [64]. More than 750 million colonized people suddenly gained their independence, but without the philosophical, political, social, or economic reason to navigate this newly acquired status of 'self-determinate, independent agent'.

Hyper-nationalism and Pan-Africanism radicalized and anti-colonial propensities were rejected by regression into one's cultural traditions in an effort to rebuild a

<sup>17</sup> Used here to refer to any person who has left their country forcibly or voluntarily to assimilate in a Western society

<sup>18</sup> "Female esthetic genital surgery to tighten a loose vagina has become very common nowadays. This type of surgery is performed to enhance the cosmetic appearance, size and function of the female external genitalia for satisfaction of both female and her sexual partner. Such procedures include vaginoplasty, vaginal tightening, perineoplasty, clitoral hood reduction, labia majora augmentation, and G-spot amplification" [63].

*nation* and not just a state. The first and former president of Kenya, Jomo Kenyatta, for example – an anti-colonial activist and conservative politician – struggled and fought to apprehend cultural, economic, and political liberation for his people, which, to him, included cultural preservation. In an attempt to shift discourse and narratives to favor the underrepresented perspective of former colonies and accommodate African voices, he defended the integral social and institutional aspect of FGM. In his book, he hinted at its necessity for the transformation and armament of social configuration "The operation is (still) regarded as the very essence of an institution which has enormous educational, social, moral and religious implications, quite apart from the operation itself. Presently, it is impossible for a member of the tribe to imagine an initiation without clitoridectomy (FGM). Therefore, the abolition of the surgical element in this custom means to the Gikuyu the abolition of the whole institution" [65]. This view was recapitulated by cultural/moral relativists, which will be discussed in further detail later.

#### **2.3 Esthetic**

*Esthetic* reasons are intertwined with hygienic myths. The belief that a women's genitalia will carry bacterial infections if not circumcised is the most common one. However, in some cultures, the belief is that female genitalia are esthetically unpleasant. This conviction has led to the perpetuation of the practice to ensure marriage for the daughters. Some men have reported disgust and worry from the appearance of the clitoris, arguing that its "poisonous" disposition will harm their penis. Others, supporters of infibulation, argue that a tighter entry helps in reproduction and assists in childbirth. In some societies it is even believed that if circumcision is not performed the clitoris and labia will grow into a penis-shaped external organ, making a woman virtually unmarriable and unfit for reproduction [66, 67]. One might argue that those beliefs are not motivated by common sense or scientific evidence, but by the individual desire to dominate, self-interest, and fear that serve the social hegemonies to maintain the status quo within a given society. In some societies it is even believed that if circumcision is not performed the clitoris and labia will grow into a penis-shaped external organ, making a woman virtually unmarriable and unfit for reproduction [66, 67]. Clearly, those beliefs are not motivated by common sense or scientific evidence, but by socio-political narcissism and fear that serve the social hegemonies to maintain the status quo within a given society.

Furthermore, it can be hypothesized that in agrarian tribal and developing countries, especially those in Africa, folktales have a cultural and traditional significance. It can be assumed that in the 19th and 20th centuries news of the Khoikhoi women19 circulated among other communities in Africa. One possible influential figure is Saartije (Sarah) Baartman (1770–1815)20, a Khoisan woman, who was

<sup>19</sup> A tribal community believed to be the original inhabitants of South Africa, infamous for steatopygia (the excess tissue on their buttocks) and elongated labia. "[Peter Kolb] also professed an interest in the peculiar sexual anatomy of Khoekhoe women, especially their elongated labia. Kolb briefly discussed the idea that weights were attached to the labia of women in order increase the length of the appendage, again assuming that peculiar 'primitive' behaviors were linked in some way to the difference in physical features between the Khoekhoe and the Europeans" [68].

<sup>20</sup> "Saartjie became the most famous theatrical attraction in Piccadilly in the transition between two distinct historical moments in English racial attitudes. She arrived toward the end of the era when sentimental primitivism held sway and at the beginning of the rise of the new pseudo- science of ethnology, in which human beings became living specimens" ([69]; see also [70]).

*Decolonizing Female Genital Mutilation: A Harmful Yet Identity-Affirming Practice DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109837*

#### **Figure 1.**

 *(A) a Bushwoman (the famous 'Hottentot Venus'); (B) a Korana woman; (C) the external genitalia of a Bushwoman, standing upright; (D) the same, of a Bushwoman lying down with the labia minora separated and turned aside. Source: A, from Cuvier; B, from Friedenthal; C and D, copies of coloured engravings by Lesueur, reproduced by Blanchard [ 72 ]. Source: Baker, J.R. [ 73 ], "The 'Hottentot Venus'" http://www.heretical.com/ miscella/baker4.html* 

showcased in 1810 in London, United Kingdom, by Hendrik Cesars and Alexander Dunlop as a wonder that "combined science and the freak show, and alluded to the public interest in the figure of the prostitute" [ 70 ]. Conceivably, Baartman's genitalia (depicted below) could have aggravated the urban myth, galvanizing the practice of FGM in African countries. Although these are hypothetical assumptions, it is probable that "the oral tradition not only provides an important bridge to the study of narrative strategies in written form, but it is elemental in the definition of a group's aesthetic and psycho-social dynamics" [ 71 ] meaning that they function as validation of cultural practices by the society. Folklore is consequentially an expression of world views and social paradigms and thus operates as a source of cultural complexities ( **Figure 1** ).

#### **2.4 Psychosexual**

*Psychosexual* justifications for FGM-practicing societies, as elaborated by Leigh Trueblood, is the conviction that "women are fundamentally sexual creatures and naturally promiscuous; thus the purpose of FGM is to prevent women from succumbing to these impulses and to protect them from the aggression of others" [ 74 ]. In many cultures the argument is reinforced by the victim-blaming environment surrounding sexual harassment and assault in which the claim is repeatedly made that "she asked for it", "she wanted it", and "she did not say no". Naomi Wolf asserts, although in a different context, that there is a biological reason behind desiring and striving for women's lack of sexual pleasure. Her argument is that sexual relief/orgasms increase the levels of testosterone in a women's body making her more assertive and vocal. Pleasurable and "successful" sexual encounters, she claims, release cortisol, oxytocin,

and dopamine "which boosts the chemical construct of confidence, motivation, focus, all of these feminist qualities. Goal orientedness. Assertiveness" which many women are deprived of. Additionally, the psychological component of being socialized and treated as an object to which you can add or deduct something that does not appeal to you intensifies the inferiority complex21 many women suffer from [75].

Additionally, in some societies, for instance, the Kenyan society, the conviction that controlling sexuality is essential for the survival of tradition was amplified in a rally held by the former president of Kenya, Jomo Kenyatta. In a rally defending FGM as a cultural and socially-preserving practice that is, as he states, an essential and defining feature of Kenyan society, states "the natives have a strong feeling that it is as shameful for a girl to be uncircumcised as for the boy. They regard the two operations as entirely parallel and homologous. In the same word, IRINO (Djagga) describes both of them (...) As regards the physiology of the matter there is a general conviction that whereas circumcision makes a boy sexually more libidinous, the girl becomes less so after the operation. So that parents are said to be keen on the operation so as to keep their daughters chaste" [65]. While scientific evidence is still conflicting with regard to the effects of FGM on physical sexual pleasure for men and women, the former president's sentiment speaks volumes about the restrictions imposed on women's sexuality via social conventions. Kenyatta's statements hint toward a bigger issue regarding female sexuality and the inclination of some societies to control it [76–78].

All four justifications for FGM (religious, sociological, esthetic, and psychosexual) can be analyzed using Nussbaum's [62] objectification and dehumanization concepts. Nussbaum argues that there are seven ways in which women are *treated as an object,* which through a process of repetition, subjugated and oppressed women and attribute a "less-than-human" status to them. Firstly, women are dehumanized for their *instrumentality*, i.e., they are a tool for the objectifier to do with what they please. Secondly, *denial of autonomy,* by virtue of being regarded as a tool, women are perceived as lacking the secondary faculties necessary for self-determination and therefore autonomy. Thirdly, *inertness* is an organic consequence of women being perceived as tools lacking secondary faculties, alleging that the objectified woman must lack agency. From there. *Fungibility,* i.e., "the object is interchangeable with other objects of the same type" and *violability,* i.e., "the object as lacking in boundary-integrity, as [in] something that [one is] permissible to break up, smash, break into" ([62], p. 257), appear as natural consequences. These dehumanizing features ascribed to women lead to sentiments of *ownership* where women are perceived as commodities and objects, that the "owner" can buy or sell. Naturally, *denial of subjectivity* arises out of the processes above. If a woman is a tool that lacks secondary faculties and thus cannot exercise self-determination, autonomy or agency, is something someone can break, easily replace, buy, and sell, then how can that being have or develop the capacity of emotional intelligence? It cannot. Colonies have not merely been dehumanized to rationalize their occupation, oppression, and subjugation, but the women of those societies, which have historically been marginalized, have been made to believe in their ascribed social roles, and the necessity of catering to the male gaze and the submitting to male control.

<sup>21</sup> "An inferiority complex is the conscious or unconscious feeling that one is not as good as others. Along with concepts such as traits, the unconscious, and self-actualization, in psychology the concept of inferiority complex is used to explain personality".

#### *Decolonizing Female Genital Mutilation: A Harmful Yet Identity-Affirming Practice DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109837*

Yet, the dominant perpetrators of FGM are in fact mothers, making mothers "complicit in reinforcing gender norms and practices that support violence against women" [79]. Mona ElTahawy [80] in her book *Headscarves and Hymens* problematizes the issue of mothers and female relatives perpetuating and subjugating their daughters to the same horrors they themselves have been victimized by. ElTahawy asks "why do those men hate us", and her answer is:

*They hate us because they need us, they fear us, they understand how much control it takes to keep us in line, to keep us, good girls, with our hymens intact until it's time for them to fuck us into mothers who raise future generations of misogynists to forever fuel their patriarchy. They hate us because we are at once their temptation and their salvation from that patriarchy, which they must sooner or later realize hurts them, too. They hate us because they know that once we rid ourselves of the alliance of State and Street that works in tandem to control us, we will demand a reckoning.*

ElTahawy further argues that cultural relativism is as much damaging for women of the developing world as it is for women everywhere, stating "When Westerners remain silent out of 'respect' for foreign cultures, they show support only for the most conservative elements of those cultures. Cultural relativism is as much my enemy as the oppression I fight within my culture and faith" [80]. Appropriating her work into the context of this chapter, ElTahawy's statement introduces the dimension of cultural relativism to the question of women's oppression. So what ethical and moral framework are perpetrators of FGM operating under which portrays mutilation as pro-social behavior?

Philosophical disagreements among scholars have led to a prolonged discussion without a clear and distinct answer to recapitulate a global or national action plan. The two major schools of thought are cultural relativism and cultural absolutism. Cultural Relativists attempt to situate "group rights" into the multicultural liberal context, arguing that intersectional viewpoints will inevitably lead to different conclusions and thus divergent interests that should be equally valid. Moral and legislative norms ought to accommodate for differences and inspire tolerance and acceptance of "the other", in the hopes that this would decrease conflict. Cultural Absolutists, on the other hand, argue for a transcendent morality that is *a priori* to all human beings, thus its universality supersedes cultural beliefs. The extent of both is limited and debatable and in any situation that involves human subjects there is not really one right answer, but multilayered, individualistic, and situational solutions that dictate courses of action.

Cultural relativism can arise when subjects of diverse cultural backgrounds exist within the same jurisdiction, like in the same country, where public policy and legislative decrees are both comprehensive and affect all constituents, yet allow for cultural norms to be practiced by minorities safely [81–83]. The idea behind cultural relativism and its accompanying policies is to ensure the protection of minority groups from harassment, social, legal, and political prosecution and exclusion, and to foster an environment of tolerance and understanding for difference and social egalitarianism. Yet cultural relativism does have its drawbacks as there are cultural practices, such as FGM, honor killings, body piercings, and polygamy, *inter alia,* that are widely regarded as violations of human rights, yet the argument can be made that those are cultural practices ought to be protected by the liberal state under the concept of minority group rights. The role of culture thus poses an issue for exiled communities who may want to assimilate into their host society but are still bound to their indoctrinated cultures and traditions. Culture, therefore, can be often associated with identity, especially for exiled communities, which cannot be dismantled. In defense of the necessity of multiculturalism and its need to be adopted by liberal states, Will Kymlicka [84] says:

*The state does not oppose the freedom of people to express their particular cultural attachments, but nor does it nurture such expression—rather [...] it responds with 'benign neglect' [....] The members of ethnic and national groups are protected against discrimination and prejudice, and they are free to maintain whatever part of their ethnic heritage or identity they wish, consistent with the rights of others. But their efforts are purely private, and it is not the place of public agencies to attach legal identities or disabilities to cultural membership or ethnic identity. This separation of state and ethnicity precludes any legal or governmental recognition of ethnic groups, or any use of ethnic criteria in the distribution of rights, resources, and duties.*

Similarly, Chandran Kukathas, a cultural absolutist argues for the liberal states' responsibility – based on a libertarian laissez-fair system – ought to choose cultural absolutism over liberal feminism, essentially arguing that no matter how patriarchal or misogynistic a minority group may seem and/or is, they must be protected and permitted to practice their beliefs freely and uninterruptedly without state interference by pursuing "politics of indifference" [85, 86].

In juxtaposition, cultural absolutists argue for the necessity of a legislative and legal forum that encourages assimilation and draws on universal rights and obligations to which exiled communities have to adhere if they wish to assimilate into their host societies. Cultural and moral absolutists contend that having a universal legislative framework to which all members of society must adhere, fosters harmony, unlike cultural relativists, who are heavily criticized for fostering a 'multi-cliquery' [87] where integration is virtually impossible. In recent years, cultural relativism has functioned as a proxy for political, social, and economic issues, especially by conservative and populist parties, who scapegoat issues of social unrest and dissatisfaction onto cultural uniqueness to disguise xenophobic notions and ideologies [88–90]. Cultural absolutism, therefore, seems to have transformed into *cultural imperialism*, where "the sum of processes by which a society is brought into the modern world system and how its dominating stratum is attracted, pressured, forced, and sometimes bribed into shaping social institutions to correspond to, or even promote, the values and structures of the dominant center of the system" [91]. Simplified, this critique accentuates the sentiment that some cultures are superior to others and thus have the right to dictate actions and ascribe moral values to certain behaviors. So how can we evaluate practices that contradict our moral beliefs without being accused of imperialism?

FGM is still a heated topic, with some cultural and moral relativists claiming that the practice should be preserved under the assumption of cultural rights, while others, cultural and moral absolutists, have expressed discontent and called for the abolishment of the practice. The main distinction between both lies in philosophical juxtapositions concerning morality. Moral relativists, such as Gilbert Harman22, David B. Wong23, and Chris Gowans24, argue that cultural practices, beliefs, and practices should be

<sup>22</sup> See Refs. [92–94].

<sup>23</sup> See Refs. [95–98].

<sup>24</sup> See Refs. [99, 100].

#### *Decolonizing Female Genital Mutilation: A Harmful Yet Identity-Affirming Practice DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109837*

regarded with respect and tolerance, hence "*Metaethical Moral Relativism* (*MMR*). The truth or falsity of moral judgments, or their justification, is not absolute or universal but is relative to the traditions, convictions, or practices of a group of persons" [100]. Contrastingly, moral absolutists, argue that some practices possess an absolute truth where they can either be right or wrong; perspectives, attitudes, and customs ought not to have an effective and significant weight on some issues deemed to be universal. The idea that certain actions are objectively right/wrong and abide by an *a priori* universal law – "Two things awe me the most, the starry sky above me and the moral law within me" [101] – in contrast to the idea that the moral value ascribed to action is subjectively right/wrong – "man is the measure of all things" (Protagoras in Plato's *Meno*); "One and the same thing can at the same time be good, bad, and indifferent, e.g., music is good to the melancholy, bad to those who mourn, and neither good nor bad to the deaf" (Baruch Spinoza in *Ethica*, 1677) i.e. no action or practice can be inherently good or evil – makes moral judgment with regards to a practice such as FGM difficult. So how can we evaluate FGM?

On the one hand, we must concede that essentializing women's experiences under an umbrella of 'womanhood' is neither productive nor critical. The idea that women of the global South have been essentialized by the women of the global North, specifically white Western feminists who look upon women of color with a patronizing and paternal gaze – as passive, oppressed, fragile, illiterate, and in dire need of saving [102] – has lead scholars to dismiss their arguments altogether. Kalev, for example, recites the conceptual reaction of Western feminists to FGM, who she argues think "An adult woman accepting the practice voluntarily is seen as comparable to a battered wife who stays with her husband: she is misguided and acts out of fear" [57]. Although she agrees that FGM should be abolished, she supports the narrative that cultural relativist and cultural pluralists posit [81–83]; FGM is as much a cultural practice which ought to be protected under "group/minority rights", therefore people should be allowed to perform FGM on their daughters if they so desire. Many policies have been enacted in the past years to account for the rights of migrants for the representation and preservation of their culture. Some of the policies enforced were 'affirmative action' to ensure representation, exemptions from legal obligations that violated a cultural or religious belief, and legal protection against prosecution by individuals and/or institutions, *inter alia,*

On the other hand, assimilationist and bifurcationist policies have been repeatedly proposed as public strategies especially in 'migration haven' countries such as the United States. Policymakers have called for a distinction between the public and the private sphere, indicating that culture is a private matter and therefore should not occupy space in the public sphere. It has also been argued that bifurcationist policies have promptly endorsed uniformity in the public sphere, where difference is regarded as divergence and thus assimilation and conformity into the host society are not only expected but socially and, covertly, coerced [103, 104].

Moreover, cultural and moral relativists, such as Juliet Rogers, have adopted a social constructivist lens for analyzing issues that may seem on the outskirts to be culturally born. Rogers [105] believes that the picture of a girl undergoing FGM has been hyper-romanticized and determined that the "truth" is relative and subjective. She insisted that this thought process, mainly carried out by Westerners on behalf of people of the global south, is patronizing and 'outrageously' inflated the harmful effects of FGM. She carries on to state that to "offer the 'truth' of female genital mutilation as a coupling of an image of a child being mutilated ... This speech recruits the tropes of a Western subjectivity that supports freedom, choice, desire,

and an agency defined by sexual freedom, and frames the subject of mutilation as lacking in these capacities" [105]. In her notes, she explains that even the usage of the term 'mutilation' is a western-born term; therefore, she prefers the term 'cutting' to signal its cultural heritage and 'correct' intention. Rogers' arguments make sense for any person proud of their own culture and heritage, however, it gravely misrepresents and naively considers the intention behind FGM. By downplaying the practice and claiming it is 'not as bad as the West makes it seem' she has systematically dismissed and silenced the voices of women whose right to childhood, freedom, liberty from any form of violence, and agency have been stripped away from them under the name of 'culture', using social media and online platforms to voice themselves (e.g. 28toomany.org, endfgm.eu, UNICEF Connect, etc.). One cannot deny that some women pride themselves in being circumcised, but the dominant data suggests otherwise [8], and supports the claim that no one has the right to deform another individual. To sum up, the cultural relativist position states that: One cannot *project* their own cultural beliefs, *morally coerce* those beliefs on others, *or morally victimize subjects*.

I argue that, from a postcolonial standpoint, the relativity of cultural understandings of persons practicing FGM ought to be respected. This is not in any way a statement of support for the practice, but instead a postcolonial argument about the necessity of eradicating the "white savior" complex. As Spivak [106] argued, we need to abolish the colonial idea of "white men saving brown women from brown men", particularly as the WHO's ([79], p. 6) "fathers were less supportive of FGM than mothers, and were often crucial to decisions not to subject their daughters to the procedure" Adopting a postcolonial perspective when it comes to discussions of FGM is thereby necessary, whereby cultural practices are respected but harmful practices are eradicated. To achieve this, the ambitious and, rather unrealistic, project of global wealth distribution ought to occur. Power dynamics between the "core" and the "periphery" need to be challenged by the "periphery". For that to occur, the entire international system needs to be abolished and restructured so sovereign states, which the UN claims are all equal, are in fact *equal*. Then, and only then, might we see a shift in cultural practices which are harmful to those already marginalized and victimized. So long as the" core" benefits from the "underdevelopment" and "dependency" of the "periphery" we will continue to see practices, such as FGM, which are objectively harmful, persist.

#### **3. Conclusion**

A post-colonial perspective could assist in reformulating and reconstructing the perception of sexuality especially that of "the woman whose very womb is claimed by the irresolvable contesting narratives of 'church,' 'paternity,' 'economy,' and 'liberal polity'" [107]. Michel Foucault, for instance, rebelled against the idea that people of the world have become more liberal when it comes to sexuality and sexual relations, while in fact a medicalization of sexuality and restriction on its fluidity was imposed to control societies and the minds of people by the 1%. The "relentless" science of sexuality, argues Foucault, counteracted the ancient *erotic art* of the Romans, Chinese and Japanese, whose focus was to increase pleasure and encourage the pursuit of lust by replacing it with an understanding of sex in the name of modernity. He drew comparisons between the medicalization of sex and Catholic confession to highlight that modernity did not bring about the liberation of sexuality, but rather repression, by treating it as a 'secret', 'shameful', and 'private' sin that

one ought to be 'controlled' and 'redeemed', but also as a tool to assert control over someone. Foucault [108] wrote:

*Instead of adding up the errors, naïvetés, and moralisms that plagued the nineteenthcentury discourse of sex, we would do better to locate the procedures by which that will to knowledge regarding sex […] caused the rituals of confession to function within the norms of scientific regularity: how did this immense and traditional extortion of sexual confession come to be constituted in scientific terms? [...] To say that sex is not repressed, or rather that the relationship between sex and power is not characterized by repression, is to risk falling into a sterile paradox [...] (sexuality) has been linked from the outset with an intensification of the body – with its exploitation as an object of knowledge and an element in relation to power.*

Similarly to Nussbaum, I conclude that "the instrumental treatment of human beings, the treatment of human beings as tools of the purpose of another, is always morally problematic" ([62], p. 289). The international community ought not to regard FGM as a harmful practice exclusively, but needs to recognize that the practice is in as much an identity-affirming practice as it is a traditional practice. The colonial legacy of the nations practicing FGM needs to proceed with the discussion of how harmful the practice is and whether the international community ought to intervene in the name of humanitarianism. We should acknowledge that FGM is a rational practice for those subjected to it, by challenging the narrative that "suggests that practitioners are somehow less rational than people in 'modern' societies and justifies a heavy-handed approach that strives to teach … people who are seen as 'ignorant'" ([109], p. 16). This cultural and absolutist approach will only serve to radicalize those practicing it, as the mere notion of moral imposition is almost automatically challenged by colonies who had to fought for their right to exist as humans during colonization. Underestimating the damaging impact of colonial rule, and the national sentiment of the formerly colonized to rid themselves of colonialism will serve the narrative which allows for harmful practices to continue.

Lastly, we need to recognize the central function of FGM as an identity-affirming practice that, people who engage with it, utilize as a means to reclaim control over their lives. As Coyne and Coyne [110] argued "the decision of people to engage, or to refrain from engaging, in the practice of FGM affects not only the identity of the decision maker, but also broader social group". Thereby, the postcolonial approach serves to understand how power structures are challenged through the practice. As Wagner [111] in her cross-section study of thirteen African nations posited, ethnic identity is fueling the practice, particularly as FGM is believed to be "an important source of my social identity. It's what links me with my mother, my grandmothers my aunts, my female ancestors. It celebrates our history, our connection" ([112], p. 46). As colonized persons have been victimized, dehumanized, and systemically undermined by coercive means, the practice is a way of rebelling and reaffirming their own identity and power as rational actors. Any attempt by the international community to villainize the practice or intervene in the internal affairs of the nation, will most likely, result in its exacerbation.

*Women and Society*

### **Author details**

Reham ElMorally Department of Political Science, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, American University in Cairo, New Cairo, Egypt

\*Address all correspondence to: reham.elmorally@aucegypt.edu

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Decolonizing Female Genital Mutilation: A Harmful Yet Identity-Affirming Practice DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109837*

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### **Chapter 4**

Perspective Chapter: Exploring the Role of Female Characters to Fights Their Rights against Male Domination in the Selected Literary Works of Buchi Emecheta and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie

*Haruna Alkasim Kiyawa*

#### **Abstract**

This paper aims to explore the male domination that affected almost women under the African patriarchal traditional system. This article also examines how female characters challenge the several subordinations and suffering as a result of domestic violence experienced at their matrimonial homes. The theoretical perspective that framed the study was feminism. The data were obtained by selecting some relevant excerpts analysing the two novels (*The Bride Price*, *Purple Hibiscus*) using textual analysis. The findings revealed that all the characters individually were able to reveal their responses, and experiences on the value of the humanity with equity and justice, which challenged the primitive culture in African society. The finding yielded four themes including (a) forced/arranged marriage; (b) gender inequality to acquire education; (d) psychological abuse; and (d) physical abuse. Finally, these findings provided an empirical support for the application of the global feminism from two African feminist writers.

**Keywords:** African literature, feminist writers, female characters, patriarchal traditional system, African society

#### **1. Introduction**

Society is the group of people living together in a more or less ordered community. According to [1, 2], who argues that society is a group of people engaged in a social interaction among themselves sharing the same region, territory and geopolitical zones. Every society were characterised by certain social relationships/interaction between individuals who shares a similar culture and institutions [3, 4]. However, most African societies share the same or similar norms and cultures in which all men were superior taking the roles in all situations such as controlling every activity at home, all family responsibilities including feeding, clothing, market, farmland and all times, which led total control while women were subjugated and underrated. Perhaps, in most cases, women are seen as material things or sex objects that can be used, work with or played with, were suffered, maltreated and also left out when they are no more useful at home or in their communities [5, 6].

Similarly, in African primitive practices under patriarchal, for example, several men regarded women as objects of sexual partner if needs arise rather seen them as human being who has equal rights or privileges compared to their men counterparts Abubakar, [7]; Astrick [8]. Similarly, Azuike [9] argues about how females battle to defeat underestimation and male dominance culture in *Purple Hibiscus*. The analysis affirms that harmony will keep on evading at the home. The novel depicts how the world does not take measures to handle the subjection and infringement of females' rights. Azuike [9] further listed major problems faced by African women such as domestic violence, civil war, conflicts, sexual assault, senseless brutality and mental maltreatment of women, which effectually affect their prosperity.

However, based on the general beliefs about women in Africa, this study aims to examine the male domination under the African patriarchal issues which affected women from the feminist perspective approach. Buchi Emecheta and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie were chosen as case studies. The two feminist literary texts address primitive cultural issues that focus on the critical and different experiences faced by all women of all cultures in the African continent. Feminist issues are examined in the text and the issues are related to the ideologies about women in the African society [10, 11]. These selections of the two feminist novels explore how female characters struggle to fight for their rights in all forms of male subjugation and set themselves free from all sorts of suffering, subjugation of male domination and independent women.

#### **2. The main objectives of the chapter**

The present study utilises two selected literary works for the data analysis, it is different from other fields of research like participant observation whereby the researchers must go to a place or venue where events take place to collect the data. Therefore, the researcher did not go any place or field, his data was sourced from The *Bride Price and Purple Hibiscus.* These aforementioned novels were read as the main focus of the analysis. The present study made the selection by considering their fiction writing, they share several themes that explored the cultures and languages they belong to. For example, they describe several effects of British colonisation on their people, natives, their lands and their education. Their literary narratives have attracted many feminist thinkers, social critics and cultural scholars as examples of the ways in which the Africans were socially, morally and psychologically maimed by the colonial masters. The two selected novels exemplified such traumatic experiences and offer a useful testing ground for the theme of woman representation, this study examined the patriarchal treatments imposed on them and explored their actions to rescue themselves.

#### **3. Methodology**

The purpose of the study was to examine the male domination of women and explore patriarchal treatments received by women characters as depicted in the two selected novels of Buchi Emecheta's *The Bride Pride Price* and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie's *Purple Hibiscus.* The choice of selecting two feminists' writers most of their *Perspective Chapter: Exploring the Role of Female Characters to Fights Their Rights… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109839*

literary fiction focuses on issues of gender discrimination, subordination, effects of colonialism myth and other primitive cultures affecting challenges for African women. Another reason they belong to commonwealth feminist writers whos fictional works have received recognition from both international and local literary critics, linguist scholars and cultural scholars.

#### **3.1 Research approach**

Seitz also defines literary analysis as a form of research approach, whichaimed to understand literature in its relevant context. In addition, Seitz further argues that literary analysis researchers may experience some challenges because of the nature and its subjectivity and the researcher's reading experience and thorough observation and understanding of selected literary texts.

The present study used novels and applied literary analysis and examined traditional patriarchal treatments of women through selection of dialogues and conversation depicted in selected two novels of Buchi Emecheta's *The Bride Price* and *Purple Hibiscus* of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie*.* Seitz opines that literary analysis aims at understanding literature in its relevant context and it involves a researcher selecting a text for thorough reading and detailed analysis of literature under study at a particular time. The analysis was based on the following steps: (1) The researcher involved in managing and reducing the data, which he selected and then underlined specific passages or excerpts from the texts, did note taking of specific places, events and episodes that helped in the discussion of the objectives; (2) The researcher selected prominent characters whose actions helped in the development of the themes and examined the episodes, events and actions of characters from the texts; (3). The researcher validated the analysis using quoted messages from the two selected novels.

The researcher read the two novels intensively several times to familiarise themself with the events and episodes, which Buchi Emecheta and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie's highlighted on gender issues in the novels. During the second reading, the researcher began to take notes of the relevant data for the study. In the third reading, the researcher began marking and underlining specific passages, events, episodes and characters from where the data were obtained. In the final reading, relevant characters, events, scenes, passages and episodes that were to be used as the data for the study were identified and marked accordingly.

In addition, relevant excerpts and, at times, whole passages quoted from the novels are in line with feminism to support the claims and objectives of the chapter. Characterisation, dialogues, actions and views of the characters, episodes and events were highlighted and explained.

However, objective was to explore how Buchi Emecheta and Chimamanda Adichie portrayed treatments of women traditional patriarchal women depicted in their four novels. For objective two. To show the women's reactions towards the patriarchal power imposed on them as depicted by Buchi Emecheta in *The Bride Price* and in *Purple Hibiscus* of Chimamanda Adichie through the narration of their stories.

The present study applied feminism. The study justifies the selection of postcolonial feminist two prominent female writers. Both two are influential writers, Buchi Emecheta and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie have a lot of similarities despite the differences in their writing period backgrounds. They grew up in Nigeria and were able to travel out to the UK and the United States of America which means that all of them are Diaspora's female writers.

Considering their fictional writing they share several themes that explored the gender, cultures and language they belong to. For example, two feminist writers described several effects of British colonisation on their people, natives, their lands and their education. Their literary narratives have attracted many critics, cultural scholars and feminist thinkers as examples of the ways in which the Africans were socially, morally and psychologically maimed by the colonial masters. Feminism was applied to explain how Buchi Emecheta and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie portrayed characters' actions and roles to subtly the patriarchal treatment they received.

The researcher selected the novels based on the impact of their literary works on postcolonial literature as justified by previous literary critics such as [12, 13]. The present examined and explored the persistent treatment imposed on them and explored characters' actions to rescue themselves, which are in line with feminism as one of the two theoretical perspectives that guided the study. According to Amouzou [14] who claims that 'a central task of feminism is to examine women's oppression and the possibilities for resistance and positive change'. (p. 13). He further stated that feminism is a movement to liberate every woman from the bondage of suffering and subjugation and were regarded as subjects in the society. Creswell argues that qualitative research data analysis begins 'hand-in hand' with another section of developing the qualitative research approach, including data collection, thorough reading of the rough data and writing up the findings. As discussed earlier, the data for the current study were collected from two selected novels of Buchi Emecheta and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie as follows:

1.*The Bride Price (1976)*

#### 2.*Purple Hibiscus (2003)*.

The researcher made the decision of selecting these novels, which addressed the subject matter and all are representing postcolonial periods. Four steps were used step 1, familiarise the events, step 2, began taking notes, step 3, the researcher marked and underlined the specific passages and step 4 focuses on the major characters' actions and events. These novels are written documents that served as main sources of data in form of related episodes, excerpts and quotations and sometimes citing all passages were selected from the novels and were analysed. The analysis of the data was guided by the chapter objectives, as well as the research's theoretical perspectives. The researcher divided the data into segments to make desired meaning accordingly.

The present study applied feminism. This perspective was used to explain the relationship between the two selected novels. In doing this, the patterns and trends in the way of themes emerged. The themes show the strength of patriarchal oppression of women, the quotations and excerpts portrayed both male and female characters' actions that contributed to exposing their subjugations, while other episodes narrated by the two feminist writers explored the awareness to express their rights of women characters in the selected four novels.

#### **3.2 Text selection**

The present study utilises two selected literary works for the data analysis, it is different from other fields of research like participant observation whereby the researchers must go to a place or venue where events take place to collect the data. Therefore, the researcher did not go to any place or field, his data was sourced from *The Bride Price*

*Perspective Chapter: Exploring the Role of Female Characters to Fights Their Rights… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109839*

and *Purple Hibiscus*. These aforementioned novels were read as the main focus of the analysis. The present study made the selection by considering their fiction writing and they share several themes that explored the cultures and languages they belong to. For example, they describe several effects of British colonisation on their people, natives, their lands and their education. Their literary narratives have attracted many critics, cultural scholars and feminist thinkers as examples of the ways in which the Africans were socially, morally and psychologically maimed by the colonial masters. The selected two novels exemplified such traumatic experiences and offer a useful testing ground for the theme of woman's representation, which this study examined the patriarchal treatments imposed on them and explored their actions to rescue themselves.

However, the researcher focused on the main female characters. For example, in. In *The Bride Price* characters such as Ma Blackie, as mother, Akunna is also regarded as the main character. *In the second novel Purple Hibiscus characters* like Beatrice Mama, her daughter Kambili and aunty Ifeoma sister-in-law to Mama.

#### **4. Findings/discussion**

African society is a group of people living together in one compound, which comprises a man and a woman and their children. Society describes by social orders and connected with social relations between people who share a particular culture and same institutions (**Table 1**) [15].

Therefore, the issue of domestic violence among the family members is the one of the major challenges affecting African women. Robert and Richardson [16] notes societies construct certain norms of behaviour by deeming given actions or speech either acceptable or not acceptable. These social norms and behaviours within a given society are known as social norms.

Similarly, Azuike also noted that 'cultural patriarchy has historically been a complex problem for African women. The traditional African customs, for instance, tend to encourage polygyny, child marriage, male-child preference and the poverty or powerlessness of women. It is not news that African narratives have numerously portrayed men who have treated their wives as common slaves or as their inferior and insignificant 'other' because cultural norms permit it' (p.3). Azuike further claims that culture and religion are major challenges and are not the only drawbacks behold in African narratives, which obstructed women from subtle persistent male oppression. In fact, patriarchal structures, however, are intentionally created against women's progress. Finally, it was suggested that African men and women joint hands end these issues of patriarchal through feminism to set women free and have equal opportunity in social-cultural and economic participation for a better life.


**Table 1.**

*Four themes emerged on the types of treatment women characters received in African patriarchal society as explored from the novels of Buchi Emecheta and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie.*

For the second feminist writer, Buchi Emecheta's novel *The Bride Price* two themes were emerged and discussed.

#### **4.1 Forced marriages/arranged marriages**

African women especially young girls face a lot of problems in a marital institution, for example, forced marriage is one of the major challenges under patriarchal treatments wheremen have total control over their daughters to marry them off to an old man or without the consent of approval or choice of their daughters. However, Emecheta uses the title *The Bride Price* to symbolise the traditional practice in African culture to demand a good bride price for marriage, which also represents women's submission to men in the patriarchal society. It is common in African culture to practice forced marriage. Forced marriage is a branch of patriarchal treatment of young girls whereby the parents of the girls arranged a local marriage on behalf of their daughter without their consent or agreement and collect a huge amount of money from a wealthy man. Daughters who got married without their parent's consent would be regarded as having very low status as the same level of as prostitutes, evil co-wives, barren women, stepmothers and old women who are witches. Emecheta in her narration described that:

In the *Bride Price*, when Akunna rejected to marry Okoboshi, her mother was very angry and threatened her by saying:

#### *I will kill you if you bring shame and dishonour on us (The Bride Price, p.121).*

This an evident of how African women experience several forms of patriarchal treatment in being forced to marry or arranged marriage in their system. Furthermore, Bedana and Laishram explain that marriage is a social institution and the recognition of bride price as a social practice is a significant part of the lives of most African men and women. In the traditional setting, bride price is strictly bound to the father and his family members to decide how much the suitor is supposed to pay. They believe the social practices and taboos that continue in most African societies would affect the lives of women.

#### **4.2 Gender inequality to acquire education**

Emecheta in *The Bride Price* portrays the issue of denial for girls or women to acquire education. In African societies, children will suffer after the death of their father because no one will continue to take care of both the widow and her children. A conversation between Aku-nna and her brother, Nna-nndo transpired about their father who has passed away is described as such: Father is dead, she thought. But at the same time, the whole idea seemed unreal. This is not happening to me, thought Aku-nna. 'It's just a dream. Soon I shall wake up and father will be here.' Then her brother's high, childish voice broke the silence. 'We have no father,' he said. 'But Nnanndo, you are wrong,' thought Aku-nna. 'It's worse than that. We have nothing. Our father named you Nna-nndo, father is the shelter. We have not only lost our father. We have lost our shelter too.' It has always been like that in Nigeria. When you have lost your father, you have lost everything. Your mother is only a woman; she cannot do anything for you. A fatherless family is a family without a head and a family without a home (*The Bride Price,* p. 11).

At first, Aku-nna could not accept the fact that her father had just passed away. When she came to her senses, she realised that they had lost everything such as the *Perspective Chapter: Exploring the Role of Female Characters to Fights Their Rights… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109839*

house and money. In Nigeria, it is evident that once a father passed away the family will suffer, especially the widow and her children. In Igbo communities the wealth and other assets left by the deceased will be given to his younger brother and the widow will be left with no money and will be married to her brother-in-law.

In Igbo culture after the announcement of the deceased, all relatives, friends and neighbours were expected to mourn by crying loudly and desperately. Aku-nna experienced the crying of her mother during deaths of her relations, thus she understands what to do.

'My father was a good provider. My father went to church every Sunday. He was a good husband to my mother, Ma Blackie. He bought me many dresses. He was kind to me. He sent me to school.' This was followed by a long, wordless cry of sadness. Then she sang, 'Who will be kind to me now? Who will send me to school? Who will feed me? Who will be a good husband to my mother? … mother, come back from Ibuza! You have lost your husband. He married you according to local custom, and then again in the Christian church. And now he has gone. Come back, mother! You have lost the father of your children …' Aku-nna did not stop, even when the other mourners became tired. This was expected of a daughter. 'She is doing very well', the neighbours said to each other (*The Bride Price*. p. 22).

Uzo made Aku-nna realise that she had lost everything except getting married so that her husband can take care of her. However, this passage affirms with findings of Alkali [17], Eswaran and Santhi [18] studied syndrome of women subordination in the selected novel *The Bride Price* as a feminist novel writer. They argued that oppositional feminist perspectives depicted in such novels on Nigerian women's inequality and injustice under African patriarchal traditional system.

Aku-nna, oooo!' She set out in the direction of the voice. She could not answer; her throat was still too sore. Her chest felt heavy. She pulled at her thin shirt. 'Akunna!' said Uzo crossly. 'You'll tear your shirt! You have no father now, to buy you new clothes. Nobody will buy you any until you marry. Then your husband will take care of you (*The Bride Price,* p. 16).

Similarly, there is another scenario describing how young girls like Aku-nna are not allowed to go to school. When Aku-nna or other girls reached puberty, their parents will quickly marry them off in order to get a good price for the boys in the family to be educated. For example,

Auntie Metilda said about Aku-nna: They will marry her off very quickly in order to get enough money to pay Nna-nndo's school fees (*The Bride Price*, p. 38).

*The Bride Price* depicts that acquiring education is not a good choice. 'School, they said is no uses to free man. School is a place to send your slaves' (*The Bride Price*, p. 28).

The narration explains a clear rejection of acquiring education in the traditional society because it was meant for the children of slave people. These people are not respected in the society. Due to colonialism, the people did not encourage schooling. The issue of caste system is highlighted in (*The Bride Price)*.

Literary critics such as Begum [19], Izzu [20] and Mtenje [21, 22] argue that education needs to be offered to every woman so that they can discover themselves as human beings and suggest that men should give more priority to empowering women through education, economic and other social responsibilities. Such an idea goes in line with the fact that women subordination exists in many African communities although the situation varies in time and space. These scholars argue that all gender oppression should be eliminated to allow women to use various strategies to free themselves from male domination such as having their voices heard and acquiring education to empower themselves to make decisions on matters surrounding family and society at large.

#### *Women and Society*

Similarly, Simon argues on women being treated as sex objects and slaves, forced into marriage, child-birth and house-keeping chores under African patriarchal traditional system. He further explains that women particularly in rural areas were denied to acquire higher education after finishing senior secondary leaving certificates because some African men have the ideology that women's place is at home with domestic responsibilities while public or private sectors remain for men's place.

Bedana and Laishram acknowledge the effort of Buchi Emecheta's creative writing through educated female characters by calling for a social change and all women must acquire education to liberate themselves from the current situation. This finding shares the same idea with Daimari [23] who argues that the only way of subverting all forms of women subordination, domestic violence in their matrimonial home and gender injustice under male domination is to educate women so that they know their rights, brave to raise their voice, partaking decision making, which could help to empower themselves socially, politically and economically.

Becker [6] suggests that for women who suffer under the traditional patriarchal society such discrimination, degradation and social inequality can affect their well-being. In addition, African feminist writers such as Chimamanda Adichie and Buchi Emecheta focus their literary fiction on the fight against patriarchy system in order to create new spaces of educated female characters who are independent and vocal at large.

Emecheta notes that education helps towards the development of any society and she always encourages younger generation, particularly girls, and she believes that 'If ones educates a woman, one educates a community, but if one educates a man, educates a man' (*The Joys of the Motherhood*, p. 555).

Similarly, Emecheta believes that women's education assists towards self and family and it helps in women's liberation, promoting awareness to know self and other relations. From the narration of the story in The Bride Price, Akunna the main character, after the death of her father, attempted to learn and be educated but faced an objection from her uncle's eldest son Iloba because she is a girl, this is clear of gender inequality, the narrator describes gender discrimination in her novel, which is a serious problem in the Nigerian society.

African literature gives us a clear picture of African women we come across with various types of projection of women characters. Most of the past studies describe women as housewives, mothers and daughters who are highly engaged in their domestic work serving their husbands and child upbringing and assisting the family by providing happiness and affection. However, the narration of the two novels of *Bride Price* and *Purple Hibiscus* shares the same themes in terms of women suffering from primitive cultures and traditions. For example, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie's writing is another effort to voice out internal feelings, which encourages all women to wake up in any way that challenges the status quo. Her fictional works reawaken images of African women dominated by patriarchal structures.

Buchi Emecheta as an African female writer challenged the status quo in the social, and cultural of their societies by using her fictional writing to present characters who resist all sorts of patriarchal treatments and oppression. One of Nno Ego twins' daughter, Kehinde fell in love with a Yoruba man, Aremu and wanted to marry him. However, Nnaife, Nno Ego's husband did not approve of the choice. He wanted Kehinde to marry an Ibo man. On first night, after arguing with her father about the issue, Kehinde slept at Aremu's house rather than coming home. When it was quite late, her family members began looking for her. Nnaife went straight into the house of Aremu carrying a machete, shouting at him.

#### *Perspective Chapter: Exploring the Role of Female Characters to Fights Their Rights… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109839*

Consequently, in African society, men are using social norms by taking all roles at all times, while women are regarded as material things or objects that can be used and, sometimes, they can also be discarded. The first major theme found under cultural invisibility is family abuse in the Purple Hibiscus novel. The novel centres on a family of Papa Eugene as the head of the family and Mama Beatrice as his wife with the children Kambili (sister) and Jaja (brother). The wife and children are portrayed to be experiencing abuse by Eugene. In traditional African patriarchal society, the head of the family or husband is considered to have full power over the family. For example,

'Let me stay in the car and wait, biko,' Mama said, leaning against the Mercedes. I feel vomit in my throat. Papa turned to stare at her. I held my breath. It seemed a long moment, but it might have been only seconds. 'Are you sure you want to stay in the car? Papa asked. Mama was looking down; her hands were placed on her belly, to hold the wrapper from untying itself or to keep her bread and tea breakfast down. 'My body does not feel right,' she mumbled. 'I asked if you were sure you wanted to stay in the car.' Mama looked up. 'I'll come with you. It's really not that bad'. (*Purple Hibiscus*, p. 29).

The above incident reveals how Eugene does not consider the feelings of Mama Beatrice. As African woman, she has to obey her husband and has no other options or choices of her own. Either at home or outside, Mama Beatrice has no right of making her choice.

#### *'Kevin brought samples for Mama to look at, and she picked some and showed Papa, so he could make the final decision' (Purple Hibiscus, p.192).*

This means that her ambivalence proves a clear male domination in the family affairs. Therefore, most of the previous findings had revealed similar incidences. Akpome [10] examines *Purple Hibiscus*, *Half of A Yellow Sun*, the woman characters confront patriarchal power affecting African women. Akpome further acknowledges the effort made by Adichie's fiction as one of substantial contributions to feminist activism both on a global scale and in postcolonial societies. Azuike [9] and Sam et al., [24] also argues that most African women face a lot of male domination and discrimination due to cultural norms laid by patriarchal societies, which affects the lives of woman. Sam et al., [24] noted that women continue to struggle vehemently to free themselves from all sorts of traditional practices and other socio-political and economic menaces to achieve their desired goals for better life well-being as subjects not only created to serve men at home such as domestic violence and physical abuse.

#### *'Mama was given about nineteen strokes/lashes which led to loses her pregnancy' (Purple Hibiscus, p. 40).*

This page shows the soft voice of Beatrice when she discusses with her daughter Kambili. However, looking at these challenges and problems affecting African women as depicted by Adichie in her literary work is in line with Feminist critics such as Ann, and Fwangyil [25] view Adichie as a reformist feminist writer who uses educated protagonist characters in her literary fiction like aunty Ifeoma who plays a significant to encourage Mama Beatrice in Purple Hibiscus to challenge male centred oppressive ideology and free themselves towards different forms of suffering, such as Christian fanaticism cultural taboos, which hindered women development.

Feminism according to Ibeku refers to women-oriented and concentrates on issues that concern women. It is literary movement that tends to bring about changes in the society, especially on how women are treated; it tries to discourage discrimination

and humiliation of women; it focuses its attention on emancipation of women. A lot of emphases has made on feminism and its stand in the African novel (p. 427). This assertion is in line with present study, which examines treatment of women received in traditional patriarchal society in the seven selected novels of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie and Buchi Emecheta. The findings explore how women characters excise their actions to rescue themselves to become independent.

#### **4.3 Psychological abuse**

Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie begins her narration with a sad event, which shows how patriarchal traditional power structure of a typical African man maltreating his wife. Psychological abuse is the first minor theme that emerges under cultural invisibility to a family she uses a literary device, which is symbolism to show how Papa Eugene maltreated his wife, Mama Beatrice. It is important to note that authors like Adichie uses her narration to portray how silence kept most of African women in a psychological condition, which affects their well-being. The novel opens with a reference to the breaking of figurines: Things started to fall apart at home when my brother, Jaja, did not go to communion and Papa flung his heavy missal across the room and broke the figurines on the étagère (*Purple Hibiscus*. p. 3). The figurines personify the woman character Mama Beatrice, while the breaking of the figurines symbolises the fragile state of Beatrice.

According to Chadwick [26] symbolism is the art of expressing ideas and emotions not by describing them directly, or defining them through overt comparison with concrete images, but by suggesting what ideas and emotions are by recreating them in the mind of the reader through the use of explained symbols (p. 3). Chadwick [26] further claims that literary writers use symbolism to beautify the language in the narration to attract the attention of readers' feelings and emotions. In this case, Adichie's narration uses the figurines to represent Mama as the weaker sex, while Papa Eugene uses the missal to show him to be a strong person in control.

The narrator discusses the heavy missal as a book containing a year's service of Papa Eugene who is the leader of the family. It is interesting to note that though the missal was intended to hit Jaja, it missed him totally and instead hit the glass étagère, which Mama Beatrice polished often.

Adichie shows the psychological abuse that Mama Beatrice and her children have to endure due to Papa Eugene's temper. Nobody in the family dares to challenge or speak out to Papa Eugene to explain why Jaja did not attend the Christian gathering. People who experience psychological abuse may go through psychological trauma.

*'Figurines were mentioned in several places which are associated with Mama Beatrice from the narration of story. For example, discussion about what happens in the story, the narrator said that the missal missed Jaja completely, but it hit the glass étagère, which Mama polished often' (Purple Hibiscus, p. 7).*

Since the broken figurines have changed the relationship completely which affects both Mama and her children. Therefore, Mama as a mother is ready to receive vengeance from her husband because he may retaliate with negative consequences for both of them. Kambili has realised that, on her mother's face, she was even worried about what will happen to her mother. Kambili the protagonist draws the attention of the reader's attention to the appearance of trees, cashew trees, pines trees, gmelina trees, coconut trees and mango trees are surrounded the environment where people

*Perspective Chapter: Exploring the Role of Female Characters to Fights Their Rights… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109839*

live. Kambili describes her room and all their environment as covered with flowers and trees which shows people interacting with one another.

*'I sat at room and window changed, the cashew uses palm hibiscus, figurine as ambivalent symbols whose meanings can give insights into understanding hidden aspects of the novel' (Purple Hibiscus, 119).*

The story describes the nature of Kambili's room where she saw all these trees such as cashew palm hibiscus. Kaboré [27] explains that Adichie used palm, figurines, coconut trees, cashews trees and hibiscus to symbolise nature, which leads readers to understand the message and meaning of a clear picture. In line with this, Chadwick [26] describes how fictional writers utilises different symbols in their narration to convey meaning and picture of surrounding or setting of the story in the heart of the reader. Therefore, during the reading process a reader can make his/her to feel as he/ she is the character/protagonist performing the actions. In addition, there are other places that depicted symbolism in the narration of the story.

*'Closer to the house, vibrant bushes of hibiscus reached out and touched one another as if they were exchanging their petals. The purple plants had started to push out sleepy buds but most of the flowers were still on the red ones. They seem to bloom so fast, those red hibiscuses, considering how often Mama cut them to decorate the church altar and how often visitors plucked them as they walked past to their parked cars' (Purple Hibiscus, pp. 8–9).*

The narrator tries to portray the nature of the flowers decorating and beautifying a house. This means that house of Kambili's father was surrounded by flowers, trees and other plantations that covered their compound. Adichie uses symbolism to convey meaning to the readers. In addition, narrator symbolises a victory in the narration of story. For example,

*'Palms symbolise victory or triumph. It is in this sense that in ancient Roman culture, a lawyer who wins his case in the forum would decorate his front door with palm leaves' (Purple Hibiscus, pp. 205–206).*

The narrator tells us that as a symbol of victory in *Purple Hibiscus*, the palm refers to the victory of Beatrice and her children, Jaja and Kambili, over Eugene, her husband and her children's father. Adichie describes the behaviour of Papa Eugene as a typical African oppressor. Mama Beatrice was always portrayed by the narrator as having received several forms of assault from her husband. Even the family members knew about it and they were silent or talked about it with vanquish voices. In addition, Mtenje [21, 22] argued that patriarchal culture is the main challenge affecting African women. The two authors further portrayed this type of socialisation as not only disempowering to the women as mothers but also encouraging their daughters to challenge the negative cultural constraints and how to empower themselves through social development.

#### **4.4 Physical abuse**

Physical abuse is one of the themes that emerged under the patriarchal treatments imposed on woman characters as depicted In *Purple Hibiscus*, Mama Beatrice has to go through several physical cases of abuse by her husband, Eugene. When Beatrice

denied Eugene's request to visit father Benedict, she was thrown behind the closed doors of their bedroom until she became like a bleeding gunny bag. Kambili as the narrator described clearly an episode of how her mother Beatrice suffered from her father's cold-blooded violence.

*'I stepped out of my room just as Jaja came out of his. We stood at the landing and watched Papa descend. Mama was slung over his shoulder like the jute sacks of rice his factory workers bought in buck at the Seme Border. He opened the dining room. Then we heard the front door open, heard him say something to the gate man, Amadu. There's blood on the floor Jaja said. I'll get the brush from the bathroom. We cleaned up the trickle of blood, which trailed away as if someone had carried a leaking jar of red water colour all the way downstairs. Jaja scrubbed while I wipe'. (Purple Hibiscus. 32-33).*

Kambili witnessed their father carrying their mother on his shoulder after beating her but they were too scared to say anything. They helped to clean their mother's blood on the staircase. The way Papa Eugene beat his wife signifies she as the weaker sex, and he did not treat her as a human being. The description of the blood trailing like a 'leaking jar of red water colour all the way downstairs' shows the seriousness of her beating. This might reflect the kinds of treatment that African women experience during their womanhood. This is in line with Abubakar [7] who says that blood signifies danger, destruction and a break in a body's ability to defend itself against diseases. In the African patriarchal society, a man is encouraged to marry another woman to give birth to male children. She said:

*'God is faithfully. You know after you came and I had the miscarriages, the villagers started to whisper. The members of our ummuna even sent people to your father to urge him to have children with someone else. So many people had willing daughters and many of them are university graduates, too. They might have borne many sons and taken over our home and driven us out, like Mr. Ezendu's second wife did. But your father stayed with me, with us' (Purple Hibiscus. 31).*

The passage shows how Beatrice suffers as a result of violent physical abuse from her husband, Eugene, which caused her to suffer a miscarriage or pregnancy loss. Eugene had taken a small table and broken it on her pregnant belly. This is how Beatrice recounts her experiences to Aunty Ifeoma, her sister-in-law:

*'I got back from the hospital today. The doctor told me to rest but I took Eugene's money and asked Kevin to take me to the Park. I hired a taxi and came here … You know that small table where we keep the family Bible? [Eugene] broke it on my belly. My blood finished on that floor even before he took me to St. Agnes [Hospital]. My doctor said there was nothing he could do to save the pregnancy' (Purple Hibiscus, 248).*

Most African men preferred male before girl child. However, Adichie stated several times in narration that Mama Beatrice had a series of miscarriages with an aim to have male child with her husband Papa Eugene who is the genesis of her traumatic abuse, which led to her miscarriages. This assertion is in line with study of Kimou [28] who states that African men want kids, usually lots of them especially male children. They want woman who will take pride in bearing multiple children (p. 15). Other scholars describe suffering and maltreatment as a result of traditional patriarchal society in most African countries.

*Perspective Chapter: Exploring the Role of Female Characters to Fights Their Rights… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109839*

#### **5. Conclusion**

This chapter examined different personal experiences of female characters exercising their actions to challenge their suffering and other maltreatment in both the novels under patriarchal male domination. It was observed that this finding highlighted how four themes in relation with (i) forced/arranged marriage, ii-gender inequality psychological abuse and physical abuse suffered by the male family also the torture of different strategies adopted by Papa Eugene to stay in control. Moreover, it was evidently proved that power can be lost if there was too much control and it shows how such actions ultimately lead to rebellion. The female authors tried to reveal the negative side of male domination who was responsible for the cause of what happened such as rebellions and uprisings in their matrimonial homes. Finally, the study also shows how feminist writers applied their fictional female characters under a feminist approach to actualise women's dreams to achieve gender equality and equal opportunity under patriarchy traditional system with their men counterparts in Nigeria and Africa at large.

### **A. Appendix**

#### **B. The short synopsis of the two selected novels**

*The Bride Price* was written by Emecheta which described the injustice of male supremacist and caste system restrictions in her native Igbo community in eastern Nigeria. *The Bride Price* (1976) and women where highlighted by promoting awareness on the significance of acquiring education. The story began with a narration of the life of urban centre and continues narrations with the farewell Ezekiel to his children that placed the rest of the actions and events. Based on the Igbo culture, any woman without a husband could not be able to take care of herself or her children. In the first three chapters of the novel the writer described how Ezekiel's death and funeral to the continuation of travelling of his beloved widow and her children from the city. The woman writer, Emecheta proposed the concept of bride price and their role in the Nigerian people.

*Purple Hibiscus* was written and published in (2003), the story focused on family setting. The narration of the story also dealt with women's oppression by prompting awareness on. The narrative focused only on major characters such as Kambili Achike and her family. In addition, the story focuses Achike family in particular post–war Nigeria also faced difficulties, varying from extreme violence between religious groups to government corruption and an unstable economy. Britain colonised Nigeria because they had an interest on native slaves. But the Slave Trade Act in 1807 prohibited British subjects from participating in the slave trade. Nevertheless, the British continued their slave trading even after the prohibition. The situation was worsening because the Nigerian communities, except the Northern one, joined hands in supplying the slaves. In this way, the British tried to make Nigeria a colony of their own, the colonisers were interested in making Nigeria part of their colony.

*Women and Society*

### **Author details**

Haruna Alkasim Kiyawa School Secondary Education (Languages), Jigawa State College of Education, Gumel, Northern Nigeria

\*Address all correspondence to: kiyawaharuna@gmail.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Perspective Chapter: Exploring the Role of Female Characters to Fights Their Rights… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109839*

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#### **Chapter 5**
