**5. Academic adult education and the comparative advantage of higher education**

Regarding work-based learning, Raelin [30] claims that a theory is needed regarding learning from practice. The learner may be introduced to theory after an experience "in order to question the assumptions of practice" (p. 564). He further states that: "The teacher's intentions and the students' understanding are best achieved through action" (p. 564). This implies that action is needed to help understand the implications of the theory. Raelin's critique of "conventional learning methodologies" is that the knowledge conveyed in the classroom is explicit, whereas some of the experiences they may face outside of school may provide the students with tacit knowledge.

Even so, Bolli and Renold [25] claim to have evidence for higher education institutions' advantage regarding teaching strategic management, innovation, human resources, organizational design and project management.

Raelin [31] points out the social context of learning. In organizations, one may form what Lave and Wenger termed "Communities of Practice", in which members of the organization work together, discussing and debating, to solve a "problem" [32, 33]. This social context will also represent situatedness within organizations. This situatedness is addressed in academia by case solving, role playing, gaming and the use of tools that enable a work life resemblance [34–38].

Dewey's "learning by doing" [22, 39] is also about practicing and experimenting, as students often find a discrepancy between what they have learned as theory, and how this appears in action. This may resemble what Argyris and Schön (1996) present as "espoused theory" and "theory in use", "espoused theory" being what the students bring from being taught a theory into putting it into action. Still, the action may bring different or modified versions of the theory; hence, the need to employ "theory in use". According to Raelin [30], these theories may be "aligned" through experimentation in the classroom (such as role play, simulation, exercises) or in reallife settings [40].

The support that academia can offer may reside within the areas of a willingness to learn [41–43] and learning to learn [44]. This corresponds with the OECD soft skill to "acquire new knowledge" [45, 46]. A "willingness to learn" may also be tied to self-efficacy [47] and intrinsic motivation [48]. Karatas et al. [49] have interpreted the definitions by Ryan and Deci [46] and Deci and Ryan [50] regarding intrinsic to be a "motivation that originates from within the individual and results in enjoyment of the process of increasing one's competency in regard to particular academic tasks" (p. 162). Learning also requires reflection processes [51, 52]. In HEIs, reflection is generally a part of the educational process [53]. *Reflection* is therefore something that we can include as a part of the training at HEIs. In fact, training for reflection and preparing for the students becoming *reflective practitioners* [54, 55] may support utilizing reflection back on the organization. Raelin [30] claims that organizations rarely have time, nor prioritize spending time on reflections for learning in

#### *The Future of Education: Strengthening the Relevance of Lifelong Learning DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110328*

organizations. Knowing how important reflection is for the learning process [21, 56, 57]; making reflection a part of routines may also support the development processes back into the organizations and aid in the process of becoming *learning organizations.*

Universities have yet another advantage in their pedagogical instruments that provide them with a comparative edge, as opposed to at-work learning. The utilization of pedagogical tools such as "e-learning, solving case studies and reflecting on work experience in school" aids in the development of the desired skill needed in one's work life [25]. Bolli and Renold also claim that factors like being able to be "presenting case studies of the workplace in school, presenting a survey in the workplace at school, making a learning contract and documenting the learning process in the workplace" enhance the universities' positions regarding the development of soft skills. This suggests a closer contact with the workplace and encourages the students to utilize the work experiences in their school situation, such as using examples and cases based on experiences from the organization, and also utilizing the new knowledge acquired at the university back into the organizations.
