Application of Colorimetric Analysis in Textile and Apparel Industry

### **Chapter 7**

## Study on the Compatibility of a Binary Mixture of Babul Bark and Other Natural Dyes Used on Gallnut Pre-Mordanted Cotton Fabric for Developing Compound Shades

*Deepali Singhee, Yamini Dhanania and Ashis Kumar Samanta*

#### **Abstract**

Cotton fabric that has been pre-mordanted with gallnut extract was dyed using a binary mixture of aqueous extracts of the natural dyes such as babul bark with bixa (annatto) seeds, *Rheum emodi* (rhubarb) roots and pomegranate rind extracts to obtain compound shades. The compatibility of each binary pair of natural dyes was assessed by (a) a conventional process of analysis through progressive development of shades by changing time and temperature in one set, and variation in the total concentration of dyes in the mixture in the second set with 50:50 dye proportion and (b) by a newer approach of analysing the relative compatibility rating (RCR) of each pair of dyes by varying proportion of both the dyes (75:25, 50:50, 25:75) in the mixture. The study indicates that all three pairs of binary mixtures (babul bark with annatto seeds, babul bark with pomegranate rind and babul bark with Himalayan rhubarb roots) are found to vary in their respective degree of compatibilities and are differently compatible (moderated, fair and average) as determined by the newer RCR method. Interestingly the degree of compatibility found by the conventional method nearly matches with the newer method showing the efficacy of the RCR method/technique.

**Keywords:** bixa orellana (annatto), babul bark, binary mixture of natural dyes, compatibility of natural dyes, cotton, pomegranate, relative compatibility rating, *Rheum emodi* (Himalayan rhubarb)

#### **1. Introduction**

Despite a number of drawbacks, natural colourants have been used to dye textiles since ancient times. In recent years, the use of natural dyes has experienced a significant resurgence due to the chemical hazards and harmful effects of some synthetic

dyes [1]. Natural dyes offer a restricted range of shades; thus, textile dyers must create a wide range of colours to meet customer demands, colour forecasts, and fashion trends. Development of compound shades using natural dyes involves sequential dyeing in multiple baths, which is invariably time-consuming, expensive and associated with increased fabric damage. Therefore, there is a need for an alternate method that allows dyers to blend natural dyes in a single bath to create wider spectrum of colour shades.

Researchers have investigated the compatibility of binary and ternary synthetic dye combinations on a variety of textiles [2–4], but similar studies on natural dyes are scarce. Some such research has although been reported on cotton [1], jute [5] and wool [6].

Compatibility between two dyes in a binary mixture is a very important aspect for obtaining compound shades on textiles, leather etc. and the use of incompatible dyes in a mixture for compound shades is not advisable. Additionally, since the colour build-up of one dye and the colour build-up of the second dye in a binary mixture occur at different rates, it is difficult to control the development of compound shades to a desirable level to obtain a particular tone of colour. Thus, dyes having comparable or identical exhaustion properties are deemed to be compatible with one another [7]. There are several approaches of judging compatibility between two dyes in a binary/ tertiary mixture [1, 4, 8–11].

Though some techniques of determining the compatibility of dyes rely on the assumption that dyes are non-interactive and their rate of dyeing do not change in the presence of another dye, this supposition is not always true. The compatibility between two dyes can be assessed by the following methods [1–5]:

a.By determining the rate of dyeing of individual dyes.


All these three methods are subjective, highly time-consuming, analytical and skill-based requiring a precision control of time and temperature for progressive shade build-up. Additionally, they lack quantitative assessment of degree of compatibility rating.

Thus, it is preferable to use a compatibility test method in which the substrate is dyed with a mixture of dyes under realistic dyeing conditions as opposed to dyeing them with individual dyes and then predicting the compatibility from the rate of dyeing or other dyeing results because all dyeing process variables can affect the final dyeing results/outcomes [4]. The compatibility between two dyes can be assessed by a newer relative compatibility rating method based on the difference in colour difference index for dyeing the substrate with varying proportion of two dyes and a relative grading of degree of compatibility have been suggested [1, 5, 12]. Relative compatibility rating (RCR) method for binary dye mixtures is a more recent method that provides an easily usable way of determining the compatibility of binary combinations of dyes [1].

Previously established [1], this faster and more straightforward RCR method of dye compatibility testing is based on data for CDI differences (CDIMax − CDIMin) on *Study on the Compatibility of a Binary Mixture of Babul Bark and Other Natural Dyes Used… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114123*

dyeing results of varying proportion of individual dyes in a binary mixture following standard/optimised dyeing conditions and method. This newer RCR method can be used to test dye compatibility more quickly than the conventional method, which requires time-consuming, laborious and cumbersome plotting of different colour parameters for two separate sets of dyeing and the determination of the more difficult dyeing coefficient or rate of dyeing. The conventional method also does not provide relative quantitative grading for degree of compatibility.

The present study thus explores the application of newer RCR method of compatibility test of any two dyes, for choosing right compatible dyes only for development of newer shades using binary mixtures of natural dyes (babul bark with annatto seeds, babul bark with Himalayan rhubarb roots and babul bark with pomegranate rind) and the compatibility of the dyes used in the binary mixtures in different proportions on bleached pre-mordanted cotton fabric by both the conventional method of progressive colour build-up (with the plotting of K/S vs. ∆L and ∆C vs. ∆L) as well as the newer relative compatibility rating technique. Both methods have been compared for babul bark with annatto seeds, babul bark with Himalayan rhubarb roots and babul bark with pomegranate rind etc. to judge their efficacy for further endorsement.

#### **2. Methodology**

#### **2.1 Fabric**

Hand-spun and hand-woven, bleached 100% khadi cotton fabric from Khadi Silk Emporium, Kolkata was used in this study (**Table 1**).

#### **2.2 Natural dyes, chemicals and auxiliaries**

Dried gallnuts (*Quercus infectoria*) as a natural mordant, and natural dyes like dried babul bark (*Acacia nilotica*), annatto (*Bixa orellana*), dried pomegranate rind (*Punica granatum*) were obtained from Kangali Charan & Sons, Kolkata. Ready to use natural dye powder of *Rheum emodi* (Himalayan rhubarb) was sourced from AMA Herbal Laboratories Pvt. Ltd., Lucknow.

Gallnuts (*Quercus infectoria*) are collected from the oak tree or similar shrubs like the walnut tree after they are formed as a response to insect infestation. The galls from *Quercus infectoria* contain the highest level of naturally occurring tannins, approximately 50–70% [13]. They also contain 2–4% each of gallic and ellagic acid. The main colouring component in gallnut extract is ellagic acid [14], which has an affinity for dyeing substrates due to the presence of OH (auxochrome group) (**Figure 1**).

The pod/leaves and bark of the Acacia Nilotica (babul bark) tree locally known as *kikar* or babul or Indian gum Arabic tree in India are rich in polyphenols being mainly composed of natural tannins containing gallic acid, ellagic acid and gallotannins having


**Table 1.** *Fabric specifications.*

#### **Figure 1.**

*Chemical composition of gallnut (Quercus infectoria).*

#### **Figure 2.**

*Chemical composition of babul bark (Acacia nilotica).*

light yellow colour in condensed non-hydrolysable forms, some catechin and epigallocatechin gallate having much darker yellow-brown colour gallate [15–17] besides few yellow-coloured amino acids (like NMT) and other minor constituents. The tannin content in babul bark ranges from 9 to 16.5% on dry weight (**Figure 2**) [17, 18].

Bixa orellana (annatto) seeds is a tall, perennial shrub which is the source of 70% of all natural colourants consumed worldwide. The dye contains 80% of coloured unsaturated pigment i.e. bixin (monomethyl ester of the dicarboxylic carotenoid compound), and norbixin (9′-cis-6,6′-diapocarotene-6,6′dioic acid, C24H28O4) as a yellow pigment [19]. In addition to bixin and norbixin, annatto seeds also contain isobixin, bixein, lutein, beta-carotene, cryptoxanthin, crocetin, zeaxanthin, bixol, ishwarane, threonine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, ellagic acid, salicylic acid and tomentosic acid (**Figure 3**) [20].

*Rheum emodi* (Himalayan rhubarb) is a powerful perennial herb having strong roots and a hollow stem with reddish streaks and a green colour. A variety of anthraquinone derivatives, including emodin, emodin-3-monomethyl ether, chrysophanol, aloeemodin, and rhein, are present in Indian rhubarb [21] and physcion. Chrysophanolalso known aschrysophanic acid is the main colouring agent of rhubarb (**Figure 4**) [22].

Punica granatum (Pomegranate rind), is the most significant of two species of the Punica Genus that contains a significant amount of tannin in its flower, leaf, root-bark, fruit and peels [23]. The main colouring agent in pomegranate rind is granatonine, which is found as N-methyl granatonine [24]. The fruit's rinds also contain rutin and quercetin. Condensed tannins make up 26% of the chemical content of the peel (**Figure 5**).

*Study on the Compatibility of a Binary Mixture of Babul Bark and Other Natural Dyes Used… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114123*

**Figure 3.**

*Chemical composition of annatto seeds (Bixa orellana).*

#### **Figure 4.**

*Chemical composition of Himalayan rhubarb roots (Rheum emodi).*

#### **Figure 5.**

*Chemical composition of pomegranate rind (Punica granatum).*

Other chemicals used like amylase enzyme (for desizing), acetic acid and sodium carbonate (for adjusting the pH), conc. sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, ferric chloride, aluminium chloride, chloroform, ammonia, and 1% picric acid were obtained from E-Merck (India). Reagents (Dragendroff, Mayer and Wagner) were obtained from Nice Chemicals Pvt. Ltd., Kolkata and non-ionic wetting agent (Axel NW 100) from Bharati Chemicals (Kolkata).

#### **3. Methods**

#### **3.1 Pre-treatment of cotton fabric**

The cotton fabric was desized using 2 ml/l of amylase enzyme, 5 g/l NaCl, 2 g/l non-ionic wetting agent, 1:30 MLR, at 50–90°C for 15 min as reported in earlier literature [25]. The treated samples underwent a thorough 15-min wash in hot water. Finally, 100°C was used to dry the textile samples to a consistent weight.

#### **3.2 Extraction of colourants from natural resources**

All materials from natural sources (gallnut, babul bark, annatto seeds and pomegranate rind) were dried in the sun and powdered using a mechanical grinder.

The aqueous extraction of gallnut powder was done at the optimised conditions reported earlier [26] at MLR—1:20, extraction time—45 min, temperature—80°C and at pH—11.

The aqueous extraction of babul bark was done at the optimised conditions reported earlier [16] at MLR—1:30, extraction time—45 min, temperature—60°C and pH—6.

Aqueous extraction of the colourants from powdered bixa and pomegranate rind were carried out under varying process conditions—pH (3–11), MLR (1:10–1:50), time (15–120 mins) and temperature (37–100°C) and optimization parameters identified based on the optical density with the greatest value at maximum absorbance wavelength of the solution (**Table 2**).

Ready-to-use dye powder of Himalayan rhubarb roots was extracted at 70–80°C for 60 min as recommended by the manufacturer.

#### **3.3 Mordanting of cotton fabric with gallnut extract**

Desized cotton fabric was pre-mordanted with gallnut under optimised conditions of mordant concentration—20% owf, 1:20 MLR, 11 pH at 80°C for 45 min as reported earlier [26].

#### **3.4 Dyeing of pre-mordanted cotton using a mixture of two natural dye extracts**

Gallnut extract (aqueous) pre-mordanted cotton fabric was dyed with aqueous extracts of both single or selected binary pairs of natural dyes in varying proportions (100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75 and 0:100) as mentioned below:

a.B1: babul bark + annatto seeds (BB & AS)

b.B2: babul bark + Himalayan rhubarb roots (BB & HR)

c.B3: babul bark + pomegranate rind (BB & PR)

The binary mixtures of the dye extracts were applied on gallnut pre-mordanted cotton fabric maintaining the overall total concentration of both the selected dyes (in the binary mixture) at 40% (on the weight of source material) at 100°C for 60 min using MLR 1:20 and 10% owf of sodium chloride as additive using the exhaust process. Following dyeing, the samples were soaked in a 2 g/l soap solution for 15 min at 60°C, then rinsed and allowed to air dry in the shade.


**Table 2.**

*Optimised extraction condition parameters for different natural materials.*

*Study on the Compatibility of a Binary Mixture of Babul Bark and Other Natural Dyes Used… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114123*

#### **4. Test methods**

#### **4.1 Phytochemical analysis**

Analysis of the phytochemicals found in the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of natural mordants and dyes was done using the standard Trease and Evans and Harbone [27, 28] procedure.

#### **4.2 UV-vis spectral analysis**

The wavelength of maximum absorbance for 0.1% aqueous extracts of the natural dyes were identified at 410 nm for gallnut and bixa seeds; 420 nm for pomegranate rind; 430 nm for *Rheum emodi* and 510 nm of babul bark, separately, through UV-vis spectral analysis using UV-vis absorbance spectrophotometer (Hitachi-U-2000 model).

#### **4.3 Surface colour strength**

Surface colour strength of the control and dyed cotton samples was estimated using the Kubelka Munk equation [29] utilising a Premier Colour Scan reflectance spectrophotometer (model SC 5100A) and related colourlab plus colour matching software to measure the surface reflectance of each of the dyed samples at its respective λmax.

From the measured K/S values for 100% individual dye applied on a pre-mordanted cotton fabric, the calculated K/S values (as K/S values are additive and liner) were obtained for samples dyed with specific properties of a selected pair of dyes using the following equation [5]:

$$\text{Calculated K} / \text{S}^{\text{a}} = \frac{\text{m}}{\text{100}} \text{K} / \text{S}^{\text{b}} + \frac{\text{N}}{\text{100}} \text{K} / \text{S}^{\text{c}} \tag{1}$$

Where (a ) is observed for the m:n proportion of the two dyes (A & B) in the binary mixture, (b ) is observed for 100% of dye A and (c ) is observed for 100% of dye B.

#### **4.4 Colour interaction parameters**

Using a Premier Colour Scan (model SC 5100A) reflectance spectrophotometer and associated Colourlab plus colour matching software, values for total colour difference (ΔE), lightness/darkness (ΔL\*), redness/greenness (Δa\*), blueness/ yellowness (Δb\*), change in chroma (ΔC\*), and change in hue (ΔHab) were measured before and after dyeing to compare the shade depth and colour differences of each dyed sample against a particular undyed (bleached/mordanted) standard sample [29].

#### **4.5 General metamerism index**

Nimeroff and Yurow's equation [30] was used to calculate the general metamerism index (MI) of the treated and dyed samples.

#### **4.6 Colour difference index**

The colour difference index (CDI) [1] was also used in the current work to understand the combined effects on total differences in colour strength with varying rate of colour build up and difference in hue and chroma and metamerism for different proportion of dyes or variations in different dyeing process variables by a single index value. CDI indicates the combined effects of various known individual colour difference parameters between any two samples when dyed with varying shade under various dyeing conditions. Relatively, higher CDI values indicate more criticality in the control of colour variation with a particular dyeing condition/variation in the individual dye proportion in their binary mixture for development of compound shades.

Thus, colour difference index (CDI) values represent the overall effect of colour variation arising due to variations in dyeing process variables in terms of the major colour difference parameters between sample-1 (standard) and sample-2 (produced) when dyed under different conditions using different proportion of binary mixture of dyes etc. This indicates overall dispersion of varied colour yield and colour differences in terms of hue, chroma, metamerism values. Colour difference index (CDI) was calculated by an established empirical relationship established earler [1]:

$$\text{ColorDifferenceIndex} \left( \text{CDI} \right) = \frac{\Delta E \times \Delta H}{\Delta C \times MI} \tag{2}$$

#### **4.7 Compatibility tests for selected binary pairs of natural dyes**

#### *4.7.1 Conventional method*

The following selected binary pairs (50:50) of natural dyes were applied on the pre-mordanted cotton fabric using an overall 40% (owf) of the respective extracts.

Two sets of gallnut pre-mordanted cotton fabric samples were dyed in progressive depth of shade for each selected binary pair of dyes (babul bark with annatto seeds, Himayalan rhubarb roots, and pomegranate) taken in equal proportions (50:50).

B1: babul bark + bixa seeds (BB & AS).

B2: babul bark + Himalayan rhubarb roots (BB & HR).

B3: babul bark + pomegranate rind (BB & PR).

The shade was gradually/progressively developed in the first set of samples (Set-I) by adjusting the dyeing time and temperature. Three separate small pre-mordanted cotton fabric samples were dyed for each pair of dyes, using Lab Dyer MAG Solvics make with a temperature controller for different dyeing time periods (15–60 min). At intervals of 15 min starting at 60°C, the samples were taken out of the dye bath while still being heated at a rate of 1° per min until 90°. The first sample was removed after 15 min at 60°C, and the last one was removed 60 min later at 90°C, marking the end of the dyeing process. The incremental depth of darkness (progressive shade depth) in Set-II was created by changing the dye mixture's overall concentration from 10 to 40%. Three separate small pre-mordanted cotton fabric samples were dyed in triplicate for each pair of dyes at intervals of 10% using 10–40% (owf) of each pair of dyes applied in equal proportion (50:50) at 90°C for 60 min.

The dyed fabrics for both dyeing processes (Set-I and Set-II) were washed, soaped, and rinsed before being air-dried. The differences in the CIELab coordinates, ∆L,

*Study on the Compatibility of a Binary Mixture of Babul Bark and Other Natural Dyes Used… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114123*

∆a, ∆b and ∆C for all the dyed fabrics using Set I and II methods in comparison to the standard undyed fabric sample were measured separately using the Macbeth 2020 Plus Reflectance Spectrophotometer and related colour matching software. The compatibility of a selective pair of dyes was judged from the degree of closeness and overlapping of the two curves i.e., ∆C vs. ∆L or K/S vs. ∆L corresponding to the two sets of dyeing (Set-I & Set-II).

#### *4.7.2 Newer RCR method (alternative)*

The related ∆E, ∆C, ∆H and MI values' magnitudes, regardless of their sign or direction, may be utilised to produce the CDI (colour difference index) after the application of various ratios of binary pairs of dyes on the same fabric [4]. The compatibility rating (between 0 and 5, rating 5 shows maximum or excellent compatibility, rating 1 represents minimal or worst compatibility, and rating 0 is viewed as fully non-compatible) increases with the proximity of the CDI values for binary pairings of dyes.

#### **4.8 Colour fastness properties**

Fastness to washing of the dyed cotton was assessed using the Launder O Meter in accordance with AATCC Test Method 8-2009 [31]; fastness to light was assessed using AATCC Test Method 16-2004 [31]; fastness to rubbing (dry and wet) was evaluated using AATCC Test Method 8-2007 [31]; and fastness to perspiration (alkaline and acidic) was assessed using AATCC Test Method 15-2009 [31].

#### **5. Results and discussions**

#### **5.1 Standardisation of extraction conditions for annatto seeds and pomegranate rind**

The colouring matter from annatto seeds and pomegranate rind was extracted under various pH, MLR, time, and temperature conditions. The optical values for each parameter were established based on the highest optical densities of the corresponding solutions (**Table 3**).

Aqueous extraction of annatto seeds under alkaline pH gave a higher colour yield as shown in **Table 2**. pH 11 gave the highest optical density at 410 nm. A higher liquor ratio probably has a dilution effect thereby lowering the optical density of the extract. Thus, an MLR of 1:20 was considered optimum. The optical density of annatto seeds shows an increasing trend till 75 min after which the remains the same. Hence 75 min is considered optimum. The highest optical density was observed at 80°C, after which it declined. This indicates that most of the colouring matter from the annatto seeds is leached out at this temperature. Thus 80°C temperature is considered optimum.

Extraction of pomegranate rind is most favourable in an alkaline medium and gives better colour yield with the highest optical density value obtained at pH 11 (**Table 3**). Low MLR of 1:20 and 1:30 are best suited for extraction of pomegranate rind, but 1:30 requires a high amount of water and energy; hence, 1:20 was selected as optimum. After 45 min the optical density reduces, thus 45 min is considered optimum. With the increase in temperature to 80°C, the optical density diminishes. Thus, a temperature of 80°C was considered optimum (**Table 4**).


#### **Table 3.**

*Optical densities at λmax of aqueous extract of gallnut, annatto seeds and pomegranate rind.*


*The extraction of Himalayan rhubarb roots was done as recommended by the manufacturer.*

#### **Table 4.**

*Optimised extraction conditions for aqueous extract of gallnut, annatto seeds and Himalayan rhubarb roots.*

#### **5.2 Phytochemical analysis of different natural resources**

Gallnut, babul bark, annatto seeds, Himalayan rhubarb roots and pomegranate rind were extracted in two media—aqueous and ethanolic and phytochemical screening was done for each extract (**Table 5**).


**Table 5.** *Qualitative examination of the phytochemicals in gallnut, babul bark, annatto seeds, Himalayan rhubarb roots and pomegranate rind.*

#### *Study on the Compatibility of a Binary Mixture of Babul Bark and Other Natural Dyes Used… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114123*

#### *Advances in Colorimetry*

The phytochemical screening of gallnut, babul bark, annatto seeds, Himalayan rhubarb roots and pomegranate rind extracts indicated the existence of certain compounds in their extracts (extraction in ethanol was done only for phytochemical analysis). Flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, terpenoids and saponins are present in all five extracts prepared under different mediums. The extract of gallnut, babul bark and Himalayan rhubarb roots showed a moderate presence of alkaloids in both the mediums. Flavonoids were present in high amounts in the extraction extract of all five compounds, but it was present in moderate amounts in the aqueous extract. Tannins were present in high amounts when extraction was carried out in an ethanolic medium for gallnut, babul bark and Himalayan rhubarb roots, but it was present in moderate amounts in aqueous extract. Terpenoids were also present in high amounts in both the mediums (aqueous and ethanol) in bixa seeds and Himalayan rhubarb

*Study on the Compatibility of a Binary Mixture of Babul Bark and Other Natural Dyes Used… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114123*

#### **Figure 6.**

*(a–e) Absorbance spectra of gallnut, babul bark, annatto seeds, Himalayan rhubarb roots and pomegranate rind extracts in the UV-range (100–1100 nm).*

roots whereas in gallnut, babul bark and pomegranate rind is present in moderate amounts. Saponins were present in considerable amounts in gallnut, babul bark and pomegranate rind in both the extracts, but bixa seeds and Himalayan rhubarb roots do not report the presence of it.

#### **5.3 UV-vis spectral analysis and UV-vis characterisation**

UV-vis spectra with the corresponding UV-vis peak frequency at different wavelength (nm) of gallnut, babul bark, annatto seeds, Himalayan rhubarb roots and pomegranate rind aqueous extracts are shown in **Figure 6(a–e)** and characterisation of the different peaks in the visible and UV zone have been tabulated (**Table 6**).


#### **Table 6.**

*Identification and interpretation of peaks in the visible and UV zones.*

#### *5.3.1 Bixa orellana (annatto) seeds*

Three peaks have been identified at 240 nm, 416 nm and 494 nm confirming the presence of carotenoid compounds [32]. Other researchers have [33] also found out, that the annatto seeds extract exhibits the highest absorbance between 400 and 500 nm (λmax), confirming the presence of bixin and nor-bixin compounds.

#### *5.3.2 Rheum emodi (Himalayan rhubarb) Roots*

Absorption peaks in aqueous extract of Himalayan rhubarb roots (Rheum emodi) were identified at 226 nm, 256 nm, 290 nm, 348 nm, 430 nm and 600 nm. The absorption peaks around 226–256 nm indicate the existence of hydroxyanthraquinone group [34], absorption at 290–340 nm may be due to the occurrence of several phenolic compounds [35] while in the visible range, the absorption peaks of 430 nm and 600 nm show the presence of anthraquinone compounds and derivatives [36].

#### *5.3.3 Punica granatum (Pomegranate) rind*

It shows a significant peak between 330 and 370 nm confirming the presence of flavonoid and phenolic compounds [37]. A significant peak in the visible region 420 nm is visible and it indicates the presence of gallotannins [38].

*Study on the Compatibility of a Binary Mixture of Babul Bark and Other Natural Dyes Used… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114123*

#### **5.4 Colour strength, related parameters and brightness index of pre-mordanted cotton fabric with gallnut dyed with selected binary pairs of natural dyes in different proportions**

Colour strength, related parameters and brightness index of pre-mordanted cotton fabric with gallnut dyed with selected binary pairs of natural dyes in different proportions namely B1—babul bark + annatto seeds (BB & AS), B2—babul bark + Himalayan rhubarb (BB & HR) and B3—babul bark + pomegranate rind (BB & PR) are tabulated in **Table 7**.

The observed K/S (surface colour strength) of cotton dyed with a mixture of babul bark and annatto seeds (BB + AS), Himalayan rhubarb (BB + HR), and pomegranate rind (BB + PR) is slightly lower than the theoretical K/S that has been calculated separately by adding the K/S for each proportion of the dye in the binary mixture (**Table 7**). This is true for all different ratios of the two dyes used in the binary mixture (i.e., 25:75, 50:50, and 75:25) although the difference varies from one pair of dyes to another and for different ratios utilised.

The metameric effect considering the differences in the two K/S values measured at λmax of the respective dyes in the binary pair (D2) for each pair of natural dyes is found to be minimum for the B2 (BB + HR) mixture. The order of increasing


*BB, babul bark; AS – Annatto seeds; HR – Himalayan rhubarb roots; PR, pomegranate rind; AD1, K/S at λmax of BB; BD2, K/S at λmax of BX/RE/PR; D1, difference between observed and calculated values; D2, difference between two sets of observed vales at the respective λmax of the two dyes in the binary pair.*

#### **Table 7.**

*Observed and calculated K/S values and related parameters of cotton fabric pre-mordanted with gallnut and dyed with selected binary pairs of natural dyes in different proportions.*

difference between two sets of observed K/S values at two different wavelengths values for each pair of natural dyes is given in **Table 7**:

$$\mathbf{B}\mathbf{2}(BB+RE) < \mathbf{B}\mathbf{3}(BB+PR) < \mathbf{B}\mathbf{1}(BB+BX).$$

The surface colour strength for all binary pairs of dyes is highest for B1 (BB + AS) compared to other binary pairs B2 (BB + HR) and B3 (BB + PR), when K/S is assessed at the common wavelength of all the dyes used (410 nm). K/S values' ascending order for the different dyes used in varying ratios in their binary pairs is

$$\mathbf{B1}(BB+B\mathbf{X}) < \mathbf{B3}(BB+PR) < \mathbf{B2}(BB+RE)$$

K/S reduces with decreasing amount of babul bark in the mixture for B2 (BB + HR)) and B3 (BB + PR) binary pairs (**Table 8**), but for the B1 (BB + AS) pair of dyes, the presence of more babul bark in the mixture decreases the surface colour strength (K/S) in general.


*BB, babul bark; AS – Annatto seeds; HR – Himalayan rhubarb roots; PR, pomegranate rind; Control, cotton fabric pre-mordanted with gallnut extract; ΔC, change in chroma; ΔH, change in hue; ΔE, total colour difference; MI, metamerism index; BI, brightness index.\* 410 nm—common.*

#### **Table 8.**

*Colour strength, metamerism and brightness index and other colour related parameters of cotton fabric premordanted with gallnut and dyed with selected binary pairs of natural dyes in different proportions.*

*Study on the Compatibility of a Binary Mixture of Babul Bark and Other Natural Dyes Used… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114123*

Colour difference (ΔE) increases with a reduction in the proportion of babul bark in the binary mixture with annatto seeds (B1), but it reduces with an increase in babul bark proportion in the mixture with Himalayan rhubarb (B2) or pomegranate rind (B3). The binary pair of babul bark and pomegranate rind (B3) shows the lowest ΔE regardless of the ratio of each dye used in the binary mixture (**Table 8**). This is followed by B2 (BB + HR) and B1 (BB + AS) pairs of dyes. The increasing order of ∆E values for the three selected binary pairs of dyes are in the following order:

$$\mathbf{B1}(BB+B\mathbf{X}) < \mathbf{B2}(BB+RE) < \mathbf{B3}(BB+PR)$$

Change in chroma (ΔC) is positive indicating that it is lowest or minimum for all corresponding dye proportions (25:75, 50:50 and 75:25) used in the B2 (BB + RE) pair of dyes, while a maximum change in ΔC is observed for B1 (BB + AS) pair of dyes used in different ratios (**Table 8**). The increasing ∆C values for the three selected binary pairs of dyes are in the following order:

$$\mathbf{B1}(BB+B\mathbf{X}) < \mathbf{B3}(BB+PR) < \mathbf{B2}(BB+RE)$$

The B1 (BB + AS) pair of dyes has the highest growing order of magnitude for ∆H values across all ratios/combinations (**Table 8**). The increasing ∆H values for the three selected binary pairs of dyes are found to be in the following order:

$$\mathbf{B1}(BB+B\mathbf{X}) < \mathbf{B2}(BB+RE) < \mathbf{B3}(BB+PR)$$

Brightness index (BI), another important colour characteristic for dyed materials, is significantly impacted by surface sheen and specular reflectance. The brightness index values for the selected binary pair of dyes used in this study are found to be in the following order (**Table 8**):

$$\mathbf{B} \mathbf{3} (BB + PR) < \mathbf{B} \mathbf{2} (BB + RE) < \mathbf{B} \mathbf{1} (BB + BX)$$

Metamerism index (MI) is minimum for B3 (BB + PR) pair of dyes under all different ratios used in the binary pair. The order of increasing MI for the selected binary pair of dyes used in this study is found to be as follows:

$$\mathbf{B} \mathbf{3} (BB + PR) < \mathbf{B} \mathbf{2} (BB + RE) < \mathbf{B} \mathbf{1} (BB + BX)$$

#### **5.5 Colour fastness of cotton fabric pre-mordanted with gallnut and dyed withselected binary pairs of natural dyes in different proportions**

The fastness of cotton fabric pre-mordanted with gallnut and dyed with selected binary pairs of natural dyes in different proportions (**Table 9**) indicates that the light fastness of all combinations of dyes in the selected binary mixture are found to be good (rating of 4 and 5). Wash fastness for all the dyed samples also ranges between moderate (rating of 2–3) to good (rating of 3–4). All of the samples dyed with binary


### **Table 9.**

*Colour fastness of cotton fabric pre-mordanted with gallnut and dyed with selected binary pairs of natural dyes in different proportions.*

#### *Advances in Colorimetry*

*Study on the Compatibility of a Binary Mixture of Babul Bark and Other Natural Dyes Used… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114123*

mixtures of natural dyes in various proportions have excellent (rating of 4–5) and good (rating of 3–4) dry and wet rubbing fastness, respectively, indicating that no superficial unfixed dye molecules are left on the fibre surface and the dyes have been well absorbed inside the fibre. For all binary pairs of natural dyes, fastness to acidic perspiration is either comparable to or significantly superior to alkaline perspiration fastness.

#### **5.6 Compatibility tests for selected binary mixtures of natural dyes**

Binary dye pairings exhibit a wide range of responses to different dyeing techniques. A pair of dyes may show compatibility under one set of dyeing conditions, but they may turn out to be incompatible under another set of conditions. When a certain fibre is dyed with one dye, it does not necessarily follow that the dye will behave the same way when mixed with another dye.

Plotting K/S vs. L and C vs. L for two sets of progressive depth of shade produced by dyeing pre-mordanted cotton with the selected binary mixture of natural dyes taken in equal proportion, and then judging the closeness and degree of overlap between two sets of curves (Set-I and Set-II) are the traditional/conventional methods for testing compatibility between dyes. To provide dyers the choice of selecting the right mixture of dyes to match a desired compound hue, it is important to test the relative compatibility of various binary mixtures of natural dyes using some type of quantitative term or rating system (**Table 10**).

In the current investigation, two approaches of testing the compatibility of binary dye pairs have been employed. In the conventional method, the closeness and degree of overlap between the two sets of curvesin the plots ∆C vs. ∆L or K/S vs. ∆L produced using two sets of dyeing procedures (Set-I and Set-II) for the progressive build-up of shade have been compared. Also, the compatibility of various pairings of selected natural dyes has been established by an easy quantitative method based on relative compatibility rating (RCR) between any pair of natural dyes as described in the earlier study [5]. As suggested earlier the closer the CDI values of dyeing with different binary pair ratios of dyes, the greater their compatibility (RCR). Thus, the compatibility between the two approaches (traditional and proposed) for binary pair of dyes used in different proportions has been compared.

**Figure 7** shows the K/S vs. ∆L (plots a–c) and ∆C vs. ∆L (plots a′–c′) plots for both sets (Set-I and Set-II) of dyed materials for three separate pairs (B1–B3) of natural dyes.

The two curves (Set-I and Set-II) for B1 (BB + AS) binary pair of dyes plots for K/S vs. ∆L of the dyed cotton samples exhibit a similar pattern but with a significant gap between the curves in the initial stage, which narrows and gets closer until it almost touches each other at the end of the dyeing cycle when dyeing equilibrium is reached. They indicated that for the K/S vs. ∆L plot for the Set-I curve, the colour build-up was initially slow at a lower temperature, while for the Set-II curve, it was moderately fast due to the use of higher temperatures (plot a, **Figure 7**). These observed variations in these two sets of curves could possibly be due to the difference in the molecular weights of the two dyes. However, both Set-I and Set-II curves are quite close to one another towards the end at the dyeing equilibrium indicating that the colour build-up is at par after enough time has passed during the dyeing process. In contrast, the two curves for Sets I and II show a similar pattern and run almost parallel on plots (a') of ∆C vs. ∆L. Plots of the Set-I curve and Set-II curve show a similar rate of colour build-up with minor deviations, with the maximum increase occurring at 40% dye


#### **Table 10.**

*Colour strength and colour related properties of cotton fabric pre-mordanted with gallnut and dyed with selected binary pairs of natural dyes in 50:50 proportion under two sets of dyeing conditions—Set-I under varying conditions of time and 60 temperature, and Set-II under varying dye concentration.*

concentration, time of 60 min, and temperature of 90°C. This is likely due to the different major hues of these two dyes, which results in maximum shade developed by sufficient absorption of both babul bark and annatto seed natural dyes. In the case of binary pair B1 (BB + BX), the K/S vs. ∆L and ∆C vs. ∆L plots show that both curves for Sets I and II overlap with slight deviation, indicating a good degree of compatibility. In the proposed RCR method, this pair of dyes exhibits a Grade 3–4 (moderate) relative compatibility rating (**Table 11**).

Thus, the two curves for Set-I and Set-II in the plots of K/S vs. ∆L for the binary mixture B2 (BB + HR) do not exhibit a similar pattern for the build-up of colour from *Study on the Compatibility of a Binary Mixture of Babul Bark and Other Natural Dyes Used… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114123*

#### **Figure 7.**

*Plots for K/S vs.* ∆*L (a–c) and* ∆*C vs.* ∆*L (a*′*–c*′*) for dyeing of three separate pairs (B1–B3) of natural dyes on pre-mordanted cotton fabric.*


#### **Table 11.**

*Colour difference index (CDI) and relative compatibility rating (RCR) of cotton pre-mordanted fabric dyed selected binary pairs of natural dyes.*

beginning to end. Set-I decreases with an increase in time and temperature and Set-II increases with an increase in dye concentration till 30% owf concentration after which it declines. But for plots (b′) of ∆C vs. ∆L, both the two sets show a similar trend.

Because of the closeness of the hues of these two dyes, it may be assumed that the observed gaps between Set-I and Set-II curves in ∆C vs. ∆L plots and K/S vs. ∆L plots become smaller with increasing time, temperature, and dye concentration. Consequently, regardless of the dyeing time and concentrations, the dulling effect does not diminish throughout the entire dyeing cycle in parallel sets, always maintaining a gap. In the case of the newer RCR method, higher CDI values for the binary mixture of natural dyes B2 (BB + HR) are revealed by the presence of chrysophanol and other anthraquinone derivatives, which differ greatly from the gallotannins of babul bark in terms of molecular weight. Therefore, there is little compatibility.

Thus, in the case of binary pair B2 (BB + HR), the plot of K/S vs. ∆L shows the two curves for Sets I and II to be widely spaced initially which gradually overlap with an increase in K/S values. The corresponding plots for ∆C vs. ∆L, also show the same trend, but the gap between the two curves for Set-I and Set-II is much less. Hence, both the set of plots i.e., K/S vs. ∆L and ∆C vs. ∆L for this pair of dyes (B1 – BB + AS) indicate a fair degree of compatibility as also corroborated by the RCR of 2–3 under the more recent relative compatibility classification system (**Table 11**). Thus, both the compatibility results obtained by the traditional method employing ∆C vs. ∆L and K/S vs. ∆L plots and the newer RCR method are similar.

In plots (c) of K/S vs. ∆L and (c') of ∆C vs. ∆L for a binary mixture of B3 (BB + PR), the two curves for Set-I and Set-II exhibit nearly identical trend that increases with an increase in dye concentration, dyeing time, and temperature. The build-up of K/S (depth of shade) and the corresponding darkness (∆L) is similar (plot c, **Figure 7**) and therefore there is less gap between Set-I and Set-II curves, indicating moderate to fair compatibility between these two dyes in the binary mixture. For the ∆C vs. ∆L plots, the change in chroma (∆C) and darkness (∆L) do not build up systematically and change continuously with the increase in dye concentration as well as with the progress in dyeing time almost up to the end, indicating a moderate to average compatibility between this pair of dyes. These two colours are absorbed at various rates and have quite different molecular weights. Additionally, this may be because of the added dulling action of one colourant (gallotannins) in babul bark, which may occasionally be compatible with the colouring matter in pomegranate rind. According to a comparison of the chemical structures of natural dyes, these results may be interpreted as the result of closer molecular weights of the key colour components involved, even though there are significant variances in the dominant hues among them.

Thus, in the case of binary pair B3 (BB + PR), the plot of K/S vs. ∆L shows the two curves for Sets I and II to be widely spaced initially which gradually overlap with an increase in K/S values. The corresponding plots for ∆C vs. ∆L, also show the same trend, but the gap between the two curves representing Set-I and Set-II conditions of dyeing is much less. Hence, both the set of plots i.e., K/S vs. ∆L and ∆C vs. ∆L for this pair of dyes i.e., B1 (BB + AS) indicate a moderate degree of compatibility as also corroborated by the RCR of 3 (**Table 11**).

#### **6. Conclusions**

The optimised extraction recipe for annatto seeds is found to be pH 11, MLR 1:20, 75 min time at 80°C temp and for pomegranate rind, it is pH—11, MLR 1:20, 45 min time and 80°C temp. Phytochemical screening indicates the presence of tannins, flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids and saponins in the extracts of gallnut, babul bark, annatto seeds, Himalayan rhubarb roots and pomegranate rind. In terms of colour strength and colour related parameters B1 (BB + AS) gave the best results when compared to B2 (BB + HR) and B3 (BB + PR). All samples dyed with binary mixtures of natural dyes in various proportions exhibited good to excellent colour fastness properties.

#### *Study on the Compatibility of a Binary Mixture of Babul Bark and Other Natural Dyes Used… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114123*

Thus, comparing to methods of determination of compatibility of three pairs of binary mixtures of natural dyes, it is concluded that the B1 pair (babul bark with bixa seeds) is moderately compatible as per K/S vs. ∆L and ∆C vs. ∆L plots of colour build-up as observed in conventional method; while the newer relative compatibility rating (RCR) method also shows this B1 pair as moderately compatible. Similarly, B2 pair (babul bark with Himalayan rhubarb roots) is fairly compatible as per K/S vs. ∆L and ∆C vs. ∆L plots of colour build-up as observed in the conventional method; while the newer relative compatibility rating (RCR) method also shows this B2 pair to be fairly compatible. Lastly, and B3 pair (babul bark with pomegranate rind) is moderately compatible as per K/S vs. ∆L and ∆C vs. ∆L plots of colour build-up as observed in the conventional method; while the newer relative compatibility rating (RCR) method also shows this B2 pair to be averagely compatible. So, the newer and easier method of the RCR technique gives nearly matching results as the conventional method.

#### **Author details**

Deepali Singhee1 \*, Yamini Dhanania1 and Ashis Kumar Samanta2

1 Department of Textile and Fashion Technology, J.D. Birla Institute, Kolkata, India

2 Department of Jute and Fibre Technology, Institute of Jute Technology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India

\*Address all correspondence to: deepalisingheejdbi@gmail.com

© 2024 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

[1] Samanta AK, Agarwal P, Datta S. Studies on colour interaction parameters and colour fastness properties for dyeing of cotton fabrics with binary mixtures of jackfruit wood and other natural dyes. Journal of Natural Fibers. 2009;**6**:27-45

[2] Salimian S, Khalili H, Izadan H, Shahamatjoo S. Feasibility of using digital colour imaging devices for the determination of cationic dyes compatibility. Colour Research and Application. 2017;**42**(3):337-345

[3] Abeta S. Compalibility of acid dyes on nylon. Dyes and Pigments. 1992;**18**:57-65

[4] Datye KV, Mishra S. Compatibility of dye mixtures. Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists. 1984;**100**:334-339

[5] Samanta AK, Agarwal P, Datta S. Dyeing of jute fabric with binary mixtures of jackfruit wood and other natural dyes - study on colour performance and dye compatibility. Indian Journal of Fibres and Textiles Research. 2008;**33**:171-180

[6] Shahparvari MR, Mahdi S, Safapour S, Gharanjig K. Compatibility of natural dyes on aluminum pre-mordanted woolen yarns by determination of diffusion coefficient. Fibers and Polymers. 2018;**19**(8):1663-1669

[7] Sultana R, Uddin MZ. Compatibility testing of reactive dyes. Journal of Mechanical Engineering. 2007;**38**(Dec. 2007):61-64

[8] Shukla SR, Dhuri SS. The effect of dye characteristics on their compatibility in mixtures as assessed through colour coordinates. Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists. 1993;**109**:402-405

[9] Shukla SR, Dhuri SS. Improving the compatibility of disperse dye mixtures using leveling agents - Assessment through colour coordinates. Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists. 1992;**108**:395-399

[10] Blackburn D, Gallahher VC. Disperse dyes for polyester: A new approach to compatibility. Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists. 1980;**96**:237-245

[11] Singh M, Bhattacharyya N, Gupte VC. Determination of compatibility of reactive dyes in mixtures by chromaticity diagram. Colourage. 2006;**53**:71-76

[12] Sinnur HD, Verma DK, Samanta AK. Compatibility of binary mixture of natural dyes for developing compound shades for cotton khadi fabric. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 2021;**46**(2):158-167

[13] Dar MS, Ikram M. Studies on Quercus infectoria: Isolation of syringic acid and determination of its central depressive activity. Planta Medica. 1979;**35**(2):156-161

[14] Shahid M, Ahmad A, Yusuf M, Khan MI, Khan SA, Manzoor N, et al. Dyeing, fastness and antimicrobial properties of woolen yarns dyed with gallnut (*Quercus infectoria* Oliv.) extract. Dyes and Pigments. 2012;**95**(1):53-61

[15] Vankar PS. Commercial viability of natural dyes: Heena, Harda, catechu and babool for textile dyeing. Natural Product Radiance. 2002;**1**(4):17

[16] Sinnur HD, Samanta AK, Verma DK. Standardization of dyeing process variables for dyeing of cotton khadi fabric with aqueous extract of babul bark (*Acacia nilotica* L.). Journal of

*Study on the Compatibility of a Binary Mixture of Babul Bark and Other Natural Dyes Used… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114123*

Institution of Engineers India Ser E. 2018;**99**(2):187-207

[17] Rather LJ, Islam S, Shabbir M, Bukhari MN, Shahid M, Khan MA, et al. Ecological dyeing of woolen yarn with Adhatoda vasica natural dye in the presence of bio-mordants as an alternative copartner to metal mordants. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering. 2017;**4**(2):3041-3049

[18] Prabhu KH, Bhute A. Plant based natural dyes and mordants: A review. Journal of Natural Product and Plant Resource. 2012;**2**(6):649-664

[19] Bittencourt C, Felicissimo MP, Pireauz JJ, Houssiau L. ToF-SIMS characterization of thermal modifications of bixin from Bixa orellana fruit. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2005;**53**(1**6**):6195-6200

[20] Islam S, Rather LJ, Shabbir M, Bukhari N, Khan MA, Mohammad F. First application of mix metallic salt mordant combinations to develop newer shades on wool with *Bixa orellana* natural dye using reflectance spectroscopy. Journal of Natural Fibres. 2017;**15**(3):363-372

[21] Shah BN, Seth AK. Drugs containing glycolides. In: Textbook of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. New Delhi: Reed Elsevier India Private Limited; 2010

[22] Gupta DB, Gulrajani ML. Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists. 1996;**112**(8):270

[23] Adeel S, Ali S, Bhatti IA, Zsila F. Dyeing of cotton fabric using pomegranate rind (*Punica granatum*) aqueous extract. Asian Journal of Chemistry. 2009;**21**(5):4671-4680

[24] Satyanarayana DNV, Chandra KR. Dyeing of cotton cloth with natural

dye extracted from pomegranate rind and its fastness. International Journal of Engineering Sciences & Research Technology. 2013;**2**(10):2664-2669

[25] Hao L, Wang R, Fang K, Liu J. Ultrasonic effect on the desizing efficiency of a-amylase on starch-sized cotton fabric. Carbohydrate Polymer. 2013;**96**(2):474-480

[26] Dhanania Y, Singhee D, Samanta AK. Optimization of dyeing process variables for eco-friendly dyeing of cotton fabric with babul bark extract as a natural dye and gallnut extract as a bio-mordant. Journal of Natural Fibres. 2021;**19**(13):5478-5495. DOI: 10.1080/15440478./2021.1875955

[27] Evans, Trease WC. Pharmacology. 14th ed. London: WB Saunders Company Ltd; 2000

[28] Harbone JB. Phytochemical Methods - A Guide to Modern Techniques of Plant Analysis. London: Chapman and Hall; 1998

[29] Shah HS, Gandhi RS. Instrumental Colour Measurements and Computer Aided Colour Matching for Textiles. Ahmedabad, India: Mahajan Book Distributers; 1990. pp. 76-116

[30] Fairman HS. Metameric correction using parameric decomposition. Colour Research Application. 1987;**12**(5):261-265

[31] AATCC. Colour fastness. In: AATCC Technical Manual. Vol. 85. U.S.A: AATCC; 2010

[32] Nathan VK, Rani M, Rathinasamy G, Dhiraviam KN. Antioxidant and antimicrobial potential of natural colouring pigment derived from *Bixa orellana* L. seed aril. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences,

India Section B: Biological Science. 2017;**89**(5):137-143. DOI: 10.1007/ s40011-017-0927-z

[33] Rios A, Borsarelli C, Mercadante AZ. Thermal degradation kinetics of bixin in an aqueous model system. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2005;**53**:2307-2311

[34] Agarwal SK, Singh SS, Verma S, Kumar S. Two new anthraquinone derivatives from *Rheum emodi*. Indian Journal of Chemistry. 1999;**38**(B):749-751

[35] Santos J, Monteiro S, Oliveira S, Magalhães P, Magalhães F, Martins JN, et al. Application of forest by-products in the textile industry: Dyeing with pine and eucalyptus bark extracts. Environmental Sciences Proceedings. 2022;**22**:30-36. DOI: 10.3390/ IECF2022-13053

[36] Arvindekar AU, Laddha KS. An efficient microwave-assisted extraction of anthraquinones from *Rheum emodi*: Optimisation using RSM, UV and HPLC analysis and antioxidant studies. Industrial Crops and Products. 2016;**83**(May 2016):587-595

[37] Nasr CB, Ayed N, Metche M. Quantitative determination of the polyphenolic content of pomegranate rindrind. Zeitschrift für Lebensmittel-Untersuchung und -Forschung. 1996;**203**:374-378

[38] Qureshi WA, Vivekanandan B, Jayaprasath AJ, Ali D, Alarifi S, Deshmukh K. Antimicrobial activity and characterization of pomegranate rind-based carbon dots. Journal of Nanomaterials. 2021;**2021**:Article ID 9096838. DOI: 10.1155/2021/9096838

#### **Chapter 8**

## Colorimetric Characterisation and Process Standardisation for Application of Natural Dyes on Textiles: A Research Review

*Pubalina Samanta, Adwaita Konar and Asis Muhopadhyay*

#### **Abstract**

Colorimetric characterisation and to standardise the dyeing processes for applying natural colourants (dyes) on different textiles materials and related investigations have been highlighted here with a broad coverage. Lack of sufficient colorimetric characterisation data for different natural dyes led to the researchers to take a stock of total work done in this field. Without characterisation of colour components and process standardisation of specific natural dye and natural fibre combination, reproducibility, uniformity, maximum or optimised colour yield and acceptable grade of colour fastness could not be possible to achieve for natural dyeing of different textile materials. Hence, a systematic review of standardisation of extraction conditions of natural dyes and finishes, type of mordant and mordant application conditions and finally standardised dyeing process variables have been elaborated. Worldwide eco concern of consumers have created scope of newer research for revival of natural dyes and natural finish application on textiles with standardised methods/process conditions to obtain reproducible dyeing results with acceptable colour fastness. Functional finishing of textiles for antimicrobial and UV resistant finishes by natural resource materials are the two relatively newer areas, needing further research. In the concluding remarks advances in natural dyeing and natural finishing have also been dealt with futuristic need to explore.

**Keywords:** colorimetric characterisation of natural colourants and dyed textiles, extraction of natural colourants, natural mordants, standardisation of natural dyeing process, identification of natural dyes and pigments and natural finishes

#### **1. Introduction**

Natural colourants (dyes) are extracted from various natural bio-logical resources. The origin may be any parts of vegetable plant or animal. Although, there are exceptions where the source of colouring matters is of mineral origin. 'The Society of Dyers and Colourists' (SDC) in their 3rd edition specified 'Colour Index" as natural colouring/dyeing substances and defined as: "The natural dyes and pigments comprise of all the colours obtained from vegetable and animal matters with no or very little chemical treatments". These natural colourants are mainly anionic type dyes having mordant-able phenolic-hydroxy or carboxylic groups rendering necessary coordinating capacity with metallic and other type of mordants, with few exception having either cationic nature (barberry) or class of insoluble vat dye type (natural indigo), where they can be classified under application based classification of textile colourants such as anionic direct dyes (turmeric), as cationic basic dyes (barberry), as anionic acid dyes (madder/Manjishtha) with or without mordanting ability, also as non-ionic insoluble vat dye type (natural indigo) and few disperse dye/solvent dyes type (Henna/Lawson) besides few are also available as pigment colour like Azurite/Ash/ Limonite [1–6]. Majority of the natural dyes are non-substantive for most of the textile fibres, which means that they have little attraction towards any fibres i.e., they have no colouring power to dye textiles by applying only themselves, and hence require the aid of some anchoring agent called "mordant". These mordants along with other additives used for dyeing of textiles materials with natural colourants require to be environmentally-friendly as well. Some of the natural substances have medicative values too and may incorporate either microbicidal or UV radiation protection or both, which need to be explored for natural finishing of textiles along with natural dyeing.

The production process of synthetic chemicals is associated with series of chemical reactions which consumes high energy. In addition, many unwanted bio-hazardous by-products generate during the chemical reactions [6–9]. These toxic or biohazardous by-products are released into different natural streams of water, lakes or in the biosphere. These negative impacts of the man-made synthetic colourants have encouraged researcher to find alternative environmentally-friendly dyes. Now a days consumers are very aware about the ecology and demanding bio-friendly natural products as well as eco-friendly processes like dyeing of natural fibres with natural dyes, which has thus become indispensable. However, all natural colourants may not be necessarily eco-friendly. Hence, ecological hazards associated with any natural colourants should always be examined/asserted before use. The production of manmade dyes involves series of hazardous chemical reactions and produces lot of effluents and objectionable gases causing water and air pollution and are usually conducted at high temperature and pressure causing lot of energy consumption and is carbon negative process, using so many primary chemicals isolated from petroleum derivatives [10–13], while natural dyes and pigments have manifold advantages over synthetic dyes and pigments, as they are eco-friendly without any toxicity and safe for human. Majority of the natural colourants are evidenced to be ecologically safe without toxicity except few. Hence, although synthetic dyes show better performance, people are more attracted for application of natural colours for textiles due to growing knowledges that most of the natural colours have neither allergic consequences nor toxic effects. In addition, textile products dyed with natural colouring matters are comfortable for the wearer with soothing colouring effect [14–20].

However, the present scenario there are an estimated around 30 million tonnes of consumption of textiles across the global and such mammoth quantity of textile products may not be coloured with only natural colourants [19]. Hence, the use of ecologically green synthetic dye-stuffs cannot be avoided or fully replaced by natural dyes, but a small part of dyed textiles may be handled by bio-friendly natural colourants, ensuring green measure for colouring for a portion. Application of natural colourants will also render new avenue for engaging rural population because plants of natural colourants are normally grown at country side at the barren lands. So, those

#### *Colorimetric Characterisation and Process Standardisation for Application of Natural Dyes… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113219*

waste lands can be used to grow the respective dye producing plants or herbs [19]. However, for reproducibility, acceptable colour fastness and uniform dyeing in either single or compound shade using combination of two or more combination of natural dyes, standardisation of dyeing input variables and analysis of compatibility for use of blend of these natural colours are crucial [21, 22].

Today, when the world is endangered with environmental pollution-oriented destruction from the man-made toxic chemicals (including hazardous synthetic dyes and its intermediates), awareness about sustainability should be the main focus, otherwise, it would be impossible to save our planet earth from annihilation. That is why it is important to revive the ancient art of colouring with "*Natural Colourants and Pigments* " [10, 21, 22]. Some other associated advantages of natural dyes and pigments include expected non-toxicity and anti-allergic properties and some medicinal value [23] as well as anti-microbial property and UV protective character [24]. But, many times natural dyes and pigments lack in uniformity and reproducibility of shade. Limited availability of such natural dyes and pigments is major drawback in addition to availability of handful scientific information on mechanism [25] and standardise dyeing process controlling variables [21, 26] for deciding proper methods of dyeing with natural dyes and pigments and colour fastness [27] achievable for such natural dyed textiles, which are based on chemistry of such natural dyes and pigments and their possible interaction with mordants and textile fibres on which those are applied. For Improving dyeing yield and dyeing performances, for dyeing textiles with natural dyes, many researchers attempted either modification of textile fibres to improve colour yield on modified textile fibres or attempted to adopt newer methods/techniques of dyeing textile fibres with those natural dyes [28–33]. To assure that a textile substrate is dyed purely with natural dye, there is need of developing suitable methods and standards for identification [34] of natural dyes and pigments identifiable from such dyed textiles for consumers' assurance and satisfaction. Use of extract of neem bark/leaf [35] or chitosan [36] derivative and extract of tulsi leaf [37] have been referred to have antimicrobial character and extract of anar-peel [38] has been referred to have UV protective character besides their colouration effect on textiles except chitosan.

#### **2. Principles of application of natural dyes on textiles**

'The Society of Dyers and Colourists' (SDC) in their 3rd edition specified natural colouring substances as '*The natural dyes and pigments comprise of all the colours obtained from vegetable and animal matters inclusive few vat, disperse/solvent dyes, pigment colour and a few direct, basic and acid dyes*' [1, 2, 19].

Majority of natural dyes are mostly non-substantive towards textiles, and hence, it is normally be used along with a mordant or so called mordanting assistant compounds. A mordant usually a metallic salt or other coordinating complex forming agents having an attraction towards both the colouring component and the fibre and thus able to form complexes combining the fibre-mordant-natural dye, forming an insoluble complex as precipitate or lake of complex compounds remain anchored on the specific textile fibres. Application wise, natural dyes include mostly either direct dyes or acid dyes or other classes of mordantable dye type. There are some natural dyes akin to vat dyes, a few are as solvent dyes and also as pigments also. Only one natural basic dye and one or two disperse dye type natural dyes are known, but natural dyes akin to sulphur dyes, azo dyes are still unavailable.

Natural colourants are usually non-substantive, needing metallic or other types of mordants, or other complexing agents as so-called mordanting assistant, requiring for attracting and fixing natural dyes to the fibre substrate. Hence natural dyeing of textiles has the following three important stages for successfully applying it on textile fibres.

#### **2.1 Extraction process of natural dyes from source materials**

Extraction process of natural dyes from source materials by applying aqueous method i.e., extraction with the help of boiling/hot water with or without added any acidic/alkaline/alcohol containing chemicals in extraction bath within fixed ML ratio, time, pH and temperature range followed by distillation, dehydration and vacuum drying etc. or by supercritical carbon dioxide fluid extraction process or solvent extraction using soxhlet apparatus extraction by mixture of alcohol and benzene or by rotatory vacuum pump or extraction under low pressure etc. [1, 2, 39].

#### **2.2 Use of mordant/mordanting assistants for creating substantivity and fixation of natural dyes to the fibres**

The origin of word 'mordant' is from '*modere*' (Latin) meaning '*to bite*'. The mordant attaches with the fibre surface so that a dye can sink in it. It can be tannic acids or tannins, sulphonated oils, metal salts or any natural product containing tannic acid/tannates.

These mordants not only fix the natural dyes on fibre but also govern their colour produced on the fibres and thus provide a variety of colours with a same dye material by using different mordants. Attached mordants play an important role in fastness and intensity of colour properties during the subsequent dyeing operations. Mordants thus fulfil following functions as described below:


The followings chemicals/extracts of natural agents may be used as mordanting assistants:


*Colorimetric Characterisation and Process Standardisation for Application of Natural Dyes… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113219*


#### **2.3 Dyeing methods and principle/mechanism of fixation of natural dyes on textiles**

Natural colourants frequently display non-consistent shades due to varying dyeing parameters or not adopting standard dyeing conditions. So, standardisation/optimisation of colouring/dyeing process for particular dye-fibre-mordant co-relations are necessary. Being mordantable, dyeing of majority of the natural dyes is accomplished by aqueous extracts of dyes in normal/hot dye-bath. Colouring may be executed by pre-mordanting, post-mordanting or concurrent mordanting, followed by standard dyeing process in normal/hot aqueous bath or HTHP technique with controlled pH range (i.e., acidic or alkaline), or using advanced ultrasonic dyeing technique etc. [1, 2, 39], using single or more natural colours extracted appropriately and found compatible scientifically.

Among different metallic salts most common eco-friendly mordant largely used in natural dyeing is alum (potash alum and ferric alum) besides uses of ferrous sulphate, stannous chloride etc. with or without harda/myrobolan as mordanting assistant, two types of natural potash alum are available in the market in two forms—potash alum containing 10.8% of Al2(SO4)3 and ammonia alum containing 11.9% of Al2(SO4)3.

Usually only alum or 'phatkiri' means potassium-alum, which is a hydrated complex of potassium-aluminium-sulphate with formula KAl(SO4)212H2O. In cases of mordant-able natural dyes, aluminium sulphate or other metals chemically combine with some dOH or dCOOH or other specific groups present in the dye and then further bound by co-ordinated/covalent bonds or hydrogen bonds and other interactive forces with the accessible functional groups present in the fibre [2] to form fibremordant-dye complex (for fixation of natural dyes on fibre substrate).

#### **2.4 Advantages and limitation of natural dyes**

In present days, there is an increase in demand of natural colourants. Although synthetic dyes have superior fastness properties, good durability and relatively easy to apply, the natural colours have certain limitations over synthetic dyes. Some of advantages [1, 2, 39] are as follows:


Despite these advantages, natural dyes possess some in-built disadvantages [1, 2, 39], such as:


long dyeing time to compensate low colour yield raise the dyeing cost for natural colouring as compare to man-made dyes but it has a niche market for bio-friendly, sustainable products dyed with natural colours particularly expensive products of silk, jute, wool, cotton and even for nylon etc.


In spite of these limitations associated with application of natural dyes, it has a niche export market for dyed/printed fibres provided complying with the GOTS standards originated from the developed countries combining perniciousness, ecofriendliness and pollutant norms. For revival [40–46] of application of natural dyes these disadvantages are to be partially or fully eliminated/reduced utilising colorimetric analysis of sufficient scientific research data.

#### **2.5 Colour fastness for natural dyed textiles**

Fastness to colour is the resistance of colour component to alter its any colour features or to shift its colourants to neighbouring materials or both. Fading indicates the alteration of depth of colour (lightening or darkening) during laundering or friction during rubbing or during human perspiration or on exposing to light. Some reports in literature [47–50] has described effective ways and means for improving colour fastness to wash and light by using different pre or post treatment with natural or eco-friendly fixing agents including tannin/chitin or quaternary compounds or UV absorbers related natural or substituted eco-friendly materials. There are many known techniques available to improve wash-stability, fastness to rubbing and light for synthetic dyed products, but such techniques for natural colours are still very limited. So, exploring fastness improving techniques for natural colourants are essentially needed as compared to synthetics.

Fading during exposure to UV light is generally boosted up in presence of vapour, thermal energy, oxygen in air and also depend on many other factors, which are shown in **Table 1**. Light fastness property of natural colours depends on its UVsoaking property of respective dyes [49, 50]. For example, UV absorption character of pomegranate rind i.e., anar peel extract (*Punica granatum* L.) has been proven and highlighted by many researchers in past [51–55], which caused improved light fastness and higher Sun protection factor for pomegranate rind extract dyed natural textiles.

Poor fastness to washing for majority of the natural colours is mainly associated with weak dye-mordant-fibre bonds. Breakages of dye-(metallic) mordant-fibre compound during washing by ionisation of the natural colours is responsible for change in hue [12]. Due to ionisation of many phenolic hydroxy groups present in natural dyes under acidic or alkaline condition, fabrics coloured with natural colourants alter its colour characteristics during laundering with alkaline surfactants. In most of the cases weak hydrogen bonds is responsible for poor washing fastness. In such cases, dyeing isotherm shown may be Nernst isotherm type showing high value of partition coefficient, like absorption of disperse dye on polyester fibre. Factors on which light fastness of any natural or synthetic dye depend are summarised in **Table 1**.

Rubbing fastness is measured by change in colour on the surface of rubbed textile or staining to the abrader cloth in both dry and wet conditions (for wet rubbing fastness, bleeding of colour may occur due to migration) after completion of specific


#### **Table 1.**

*Factors on which light fastness of natural dyed or synthetic dyed textiles depends.*

#### *Colorimetric Characterisation and Process Standardisation for Application of Natural Dyes… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113219*

abrasion cycles. Depending on the tensile strength of the fibre, small coloured particles may bleed out showing poor fastness to rubbing. If the dyes are not affixed properly on the fibre surface, that will stain the abrader fabric during rubbing. Numerical rating for rubbing fastness ranges from 1 (very poor) to 5 (best) depend on the following parameters:


#### **3. Colorimetric evaluation and process standardisation of natural colouration for textiles**

There are various difficulties associated with natural colourants due to insufficient knowledge and lack of scientific information to attain uniform and optimum colour yield with acceptable colour fastness characteristics for silk fabrics. No such integrated study is available with pomegranate rind (anar peel) applied on silk, except one recent study on standardisation of dyeing process variables using pomegranate rind on cotton fabric [55].

Unknowingly natural dyes had been in use form primitive age of civilization in different regions of the world. It has been used since pre-historic times in order to beautify various materials like foods, drinks, household articles, fabrics etc. Almost all the dyes were of natural origin till 1800 B.C. As mentioned in literature [56], William Perkin synthesised first man-made dye 'Mauviene' by in 1856. Some studies on the use of synthetic dyes had reported that these dyes are not only nonbiodegradable but also pose a threat to human health in terms of causing irritation, genotoxicity and even carcinogenicity. With the present sustainable concept to use of environmentally friendly and bio-degradable substances, the application of natural dyes on natural textiles have gained the momentum again and awareness of consumers about eco-friendly textile merchandise, use of natural colours is slowly reviving again [40–46]. There are several advantages of natural dyes over synthetic colourant/dyes [1, 2, 12, 39, 57] and such eco-friendly, nontoxic natural dyes are safe even for body contact [58]. Many scientists had already reported about the medicinal value of many natural dyes [51, 59–60]. Yellow natural colourants extracted from rhizome of turmeric was traditionally utilised for medication in case of antiinflammation [61].

The natural colours are extracted from the vegetables/plants/herbs, minerals or insects [62]. Majority of the natural colours show inferior to average light fastness property whereas synthetic dyes exhibit moderate to excellent light fastness property [63]. Dyeing of cellulosic fibre with leaf-extract of *Beilschmiedia fagifolia* had been reported in literature [64], where sonicator assisted dyeing method, that was used to dye cellulosic fibre with *B. fagifolia* extracts. The researchers had observed that cotton pre-treated with 1–2% metallic mordant and dyed with 5% of plant extract developed good fastness by use of sonicator assisted dyeing process. In another study [65] marigold flower dye extract was utilised to dye cotton fabrics.

Natural dyes leaching out from *Jatropha integarrima* flowers was used for colouring of different textiles made of cotton, wool, silk [66]. Silk dyeing with *Onosma echiodes* (Golden drop) had also reported in literature [67]. Areca nut palm extract was used as natural colourant [68] to dye cotton with suitable mordant. Colouring of natural cellulosic material and silk with advance ultrasonic technology by *Nerium oleander* flower petal extract had already been studied [69]. Colour extracted from waste leaves of *Aroto carpus* betero phyllus has been reported to dye various textile materials made of cotton and silk to obtain a consistent golden yellow shades [70]. Successful colouring with natural colourants extracted from turmeric, catechu, henna, madder, tea leaves, Indian rhubarb and pomegranate exocarp on man-made polyamide fibre had been reported in literature with details of procedure and dyeing performances [71]. Some successful researches had also been carried out on application of Lac dyes and its absorption criteria [72] on different fibres. Mulberry silk was successfully dyed with natural dye annatto [73]. Some studies [74–76] on application of natural dye of Indian madder, *Spathodeac ampanulata* and lac dyes on silk had been reported. Cost effectiveness of dyeing silk in different shades with different natural dyes was analysed and reported by Patel et al. [77].

The substantial scientific document on natural colouring matter was initiated by Perkin and Everest [78]. Studies on contemporary processes for applying natural dyes on textiles as practiced in different states of India along with the chemistry of such dyes and traditional dyeing methods has been well documented by Mohanty et al. [13]. This book is probably an important authenticated document on the processes of natural dyeing on textiles of ancient India till today. The present section of literature review thus covers some important research work on application of natural colouring matters on textiles under the following sub-heads:

1.*Characteristic and bio-chemical/chemical anatomy of some important natural dyes.*


*Colorimetric Characterisation and Process Standardisation for Application of Natural Dyes… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113219*

#### **3.1 Characteristic and bio-chemical/chemical anatomy of some important natural dyes**

Studies on analysis of natural colours and their application on textiles are a challenging subject which attracted of scientist and academicians for compiling it in a form of scientific literature and books as early as in 1918 since the publication of book by Perkin and Everest [78]. Since then, among all review and books published on the chemistry of natural colours and pigments and their application on textiles. Some ancient and present literature reports are specially mention worthy as reported by Gulrajani and Gupta [1], Samanta and Konar [2, 10], SERI [12], Mohanty et al. [13], Vankar [39] and others like Perkin and Everest [78], Sahid and Mohammad [79] and Mayer and Cook [80], to utilise as study materials for further reading.

Structures of quinoids based natural colourants is described in Thomson's book [81]. Earlier review work of many authors on natural dyes and pigments also include the review report by both Parris [82] and by Hofenk and Graaff [83], where the latter collected data about fastness to colour and history of their uses. A detailed review work was done by Samanta and Agarwal [4], Samanta and Konar [2, 10], and in a recent book of Vankar [39].

Samanta et al. [84–86], had analysed the thermodynamics of rate of dyeing, half dyeing time, internal energy of system (i.e. enthalpy), dyeing isotherms, free energy etc. as a physico-chemical attributes of colouring for ligno-cellulosic material with natural dyes like red-sandal wood, jackfruit wood and tesu (palash) etc.

Mass spectroscopic analysis of dyeing of cellulose polymeric material with indigo has already studied and finger print region of it was used for identification of natural indigo [87] with the supporting analysis of TLC and UV VIS spectroscopic analysis. However, there are contradictory reports on non-iso-labelling/non-identifying natural indigotin differentiating it from synthetic indigo as reported by De Wong [88], who was unable to identify 6,6-dibromo-indigotin (with the help of direct ingredient index analysis), but later it was resolved after the 6,6-dibromo-indigotin had been separated from natural indigo by subtractive extraction process with sodium hydro-sulphite. Koren [89] had analysed the natural madder and natural indigoid dyes by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to figure out its chemical functional nature.

Thin layer chromatography (TLC) analysis is very useful tool for researchers for identification of natural colourants in textiles and Parris reported TLC [82] different vegetable and insect dyes of yellow, red and blue shade. Guinot and Roge [90] also used TLC as simple chromatographic analysis technique to study extracts of different parts of herbs/plants bearing flavonoids (flavonols, flavones, flavanones, chalcones/ aurones, anthocynanins), hydroxy-cinnamic acids, tannins and anthraquinones, which are the active phyto-colouring substances found in those plants. The colour elements were separated from most of the barks containing bio-flavonoid moieties.

Physico-chemical dyeing attributes of natural colours extracted from red sandal wood and its compatibility behaviour with other colours were also examined and analysed by Samanta et al. [91, 92]. Analysis of UV VIS spectroscopy of extract from the bark of neem tree [93] extracted colourant showed dual maximum absorption bands at 275 and 374 nm respectively; while extract of beet sugar exhibited three absorption bands at 220, 280 and 530 nm. The visible spectrum of extract of ratanjot was studied by Gulrajani et al. [94] under acidic medium and it displayed highest absorption around 520–525 nm, while under alkaline pH absorption band was shifted to 570 nm with an additional peak at 610–615 nm. Extract of Red sandalwood [94] showed a substantial absorption crest at 288 nm but highest absorption was observed at 504 nm and 474 nm at pH 10 in methanol extracted solution. Colourant extracted from *Gomphrena globosa* flower showed single major peak at 533 nm and there were almost no changes observed in visible spectra at pH 4 and 7; however, there was little shift of peak to 554 nm as observed by Shanker and Vankar [95].

Extraction, identification and assessment of dyeing behaviour on wool of natural dyes obtained from barks of *Musops elengi* and *Terminilia arjuna* were studied by Bhuyan et al. [96] and they observed the dye absorption by wool fibres varied for respective dyes extracted from *Mimusops elengi* and *Terminalia arjun* depending on their dye contents. The dye absorbed by wool fibre varied in between 21.94–27.46% and 5.18–10.78% respectively for the said two natural dyes.

Analysis of colorimetric parameters including *K*/*S* values, DE values, L, a, b, DC, DH, DL values etc. was studied for use of binary dye mixture for obtaining compound shades along with analysis of compatibility in between different pairs of natural colour combination applicable for both conventional methods and a newer method for compatibility test of natural dyes based on analysis colour difference index (CDI values), a newly defined and established index of colour differences parameters [97, 98] as a new indicator called 'Colour Difference Index' (CDI), calculated by an empirical formula presented by them. By this newer route, the differences of CDI values for dyeing with binary mixture using combination of any two dyes in different proportions has made it possible to determine dye compatibility rating from the chart given by them, as much simpler and easier.

Identifying the colourants in historical textiles materials by the help of modern spectrophotometric and chromatographic techniques and by sensitive colour responses were studied by Blanc et al. [99], who also studied the retentivity behaviour of natural colour components like carminic acid, indigotin, corcetin, gambogic acid, alizarin flavanoid, anthraquinone and purpurin after dyeing. There is another non-destructive way via study of emission and excitation spectra, which was reported for recognising faded dyes on textiles fabrics. Zin et al. [100] characterised purified extract of natural dye components extracted from bark of mango tree for application in wool fibres.

Walker and Needles [101] studied the method for segregation and identification of natural colours from natural protein fibre like wool by reverse phase HPLC using a C-18 column. Binary and quaternary solvent systems were utilised to find chromatograms of dyes, isomers and minor products present in the dyed sample. A linear gradient elution method was used in HPLC analysis for natural colour extracted from insect, plant/herbs/trees, for red anthroquinonoid mordantable colours, red purple natural colour, molluscan blue and indigoid vat dyes [89]. This technique was very useful for identifying various chemical categories of natural colourants from the same elution programme. In addition, it is much time saver for natural anthroquinonoid dyes over those previously published.

Cristea and Villemar [50] reported successful quantifiable analysis of Weld by HPLC and concluded that 0.448% luteolin, 0.357% luteolin 7-glucoside and 0.233% luteolin-3<sup>0</sup> 7-diglucoside in aqueous methanol solution can be after identified within 15 minutes. Some other authors [102] reported analyses of indigo by HPLC that with increase in dyeing time, it changes structure of indigo compound causing a reduction in colour intensity of polyester fibre-based textiles. Jain and Vashanta [103] analysed antimicrobial nature of bio-friendly natural colourant with arcea nut with natural mordanting add-on like myrobolan, lodhra and pomogrenate rind and observed that pomegranate rind showed optimum anti-bacterial performance and Lodhra renders best washing fastness to among all the tannin based natural mordants/mordanting assistant/additives used.

#### *Colorimetric Characterisation and Process Standardisation for Application of Natural Dyes… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113219*

Mondhe and Rao [104] had attempted to develop azo-alkyd natural colours by reducing nitro-alkyds, followed by diazotization of amino-alkyds and coupling with various phenolic substances present in situ in the seed oil of *Jatropha curcas* and analysed it functional nature by IR spectra.

Majority of the natural colours are non-toxic and eco-organo-friendly. The toxicity analysis [105, 106] for each of natural dyes is therefore necessary and it may also provide positive or negative evidences about the skin friendliness or its adverse effect to human body for any such natural dyed textiles. Few natural dyes and dyed products may also contain toxic component in its composition not skin friendly to human. Primary concerns of toxicity are the human skin toxicity, irritation on skin or eye and sensitization potentiality. In addition, possible long-lasting effects such carcinogenic, reproductive toxicity or mutagenic toxicity had also been identified from many natural products. The LD50 test is popular for its perniciousness. It is said the 'lethal dose for 50% of the test animals' which is the amount of material in kg/kg of body mass, can kills 50% of the animals. Another report describes the toxicity and antimicrobial test data of raw methanolic extracts from different parts of the plant *Artocarpus Hetrophyllus* including stem, roots, leaves, fruit, seeds [107] and their subsequent partitioning with organic solvents like petrol, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate and butanol fractions, rather exhibited a wide spectrum of anti-bacterial performance. The butanol fractions of root/bark and fruit were also witnessed to be good antimicrobial nature but no anti-fungi property.

Tannins was extracted from gall nut and leaf from oak plant (i.e., Oak leaf) by Mishra and Patni [108] from the different plant at Himalayan region. These extracts from gall nut and Oak leaves are rich of gallic acid and tannic acid for better dye fixation for application in colouring of cotton, woollen and silk textiles in presence of various metallic mordants to obtain better colour fastness without any dermatological problems. Jain [109] has shown supremacy of few natural mordants for colouring of cellulosic fabrics with extract of jamun tree and its by-products, inspiring further study on such bio-mordanting and bio-additives on cotton, jute, wool and silk textiles.

Benencia and Courreges [110] studied chemo preventative aspect of red sandalwood oil on papilloma skin of mice and also studied its preventive nature against development of skin tumour for CD-1 mice and anti-viral function against herpes simplex virus-1 and 2. Singh et al. [111] examined anti-microbial activities against pathogens like *Escherichia coli*, *Bacillus subtilis*, *Klebsiella pneumoniae*, *Proteus vulgaris* and Pseudomonas by *Acacia catechu*, *Kerria lacca*, *Quercus infectoria*, *Rubia cordifolia* and *Rumex maritimus*. Minimum repressive/inhibitory density was observed varying from 5 to 40 μg per kg of textile materials. Analysis of natural components of colours for dyed historical textiles was also reported by Ferreria et al. [112] by different methods. Another analytical report from Hauluk et al. [113] render analytical data for ellagic acid content in European oak wood for its use as natural mordanting additives as dye fixative in natural dyeing of different textiles. A realistic evaluation of dyeing of different textiles with vegetable colourants with metallic mordants need to be subjected for determining their toxicity for objectionable metal present in the metallic mordant, which was reported for use of different metallic mordants during natural dyeing process [114].

#### **3.2 Methods of extraction of colourant component from natural dyes**

It is reported in literature by Dayal and Dobhal [115] that natural colourant extracted from eucalyptus leaves, *Cassia tora* seeds and bark of *Grewiaoptiva*,

shorearobusta by using aqueous medium under different conditions leads to variety of attractive light shades on cotton. Later, Vankar and another group of researchers [28] used the supercritical carbon-dioxide fluids to taking out/extraction and purification of natural dyes from bark of eucalyptus. Extraction of natural dyes/colourants from bio-mass products of cutch, ratanjot and madder were described by Khan et al. [107]. Ray Maulik et al. [116] extracted natural dyes/pigments from Hinjal, Himalayan rhubarb and Jujube bark for dyeing of wool. Teli et al. [71] extracted natural colourants from the coffee-seed for dyeing of nylon. Pan et al. [117] applied natural colours on ligno-cellulosic (Jute) fabric with extraction of deodar leaf, eucalyptus leaf and wood of jackfruit by soaking and boiling it for approximately 4 hrs separately in soft water. Verma et al. [118] attempted to develop dye powder from wattle bark by soaking it overnight in deionised water, boiled in pressure vessel followed by passing through filter to get 15–20% (w/w) dye residual powder. Saxena et al. [119] initially extracted antioxidant components of natural colourants from leaves and fruits of confers cultivated in Iran and also from marigold and chrysanthemum flower petals by simply boiling dried petals in acidic aqueous solution. While, Sarkar et al. [120] extracted natural colour from marigold flower and applied on cotton, wool and silk. Later Sarkar et al. [121] again made solvent assisted extraction of yellow vegetable colouring matter including extraction of marigold flower for its application on even hydrophobic textile substrate. Deo and Paul [122] extracted natural colour/dye components from onion skin by adding of 5% solution of sodium chloride in a ratio of 1:2 and applied with natural mordant combination for dyeing ecru denim fabrics. Dixit and Jahan [123] extracted euphorbia continifolia leaves under acidic pH to dye silk fabric and later evaluated its various colour fastness properties.

Sudhakar et al. [124] derived natural colours from nuts of *Areca catechu,* which is profusely grown in India and can be used for colouration of natural protein fibre like silk or wool. It was reported by Radhika and Jacob [125] that natural colour/dye extracted from jatropa seeds under alkaline conditions, which when is applied on cotton fabric, it gives an attractive range of soft, bright and uniform shade on cotton fabric. Extraction of natural colours from this seed waste/food waste can be achieved better with ethanolic or acidified (with 40 M oxalic acid) extraction. Hagerman and Wilson [126] has described a method for quantitative estimation of ellagic acid from tannin containing natural colouring agents for precise estimation of the same, which are believed to be have good property of natural dye fixation on textile substrate for presence of tannate/ellagic acid component along with colour component(s).

Extraction dye from the teak leaves in methanolic solution was successfully carried out by Nanda et al. [127] to develop a brick red shade for silk/wool dyeing with different mordants. Bhattacharya et al. [128] studied the effects of mordants for dyeing polyamide fabrics with some eco-friendly natural colourants and attempted to standardise natural dyes extracted from arjun bark, babul bark and pomegranate rind for reducing the effect of dyeing process variability. Onal [129] attempted to dye wool, cotton and leather with onion skin/peel (*Allium cepa* L.) extract as natural colourant source.

Agarwal et al. [130] studied superior dyeing properties on polyester by organic solvent (solvent:water ratio 1:9) assisted dyeing using the said solvent dyeing medium, where colours of the selected natural dyes was extracted from henna leaves, and directly used in dyeing of polyester in the solvent dye-bath. Houlton et al. [131] studied the dyeing of jute-cotton blends by extracts using grape skin waste.

Teli et al. [132] had dyed cotton with concentrated tea extract after different pretreatment of cotton. It was studied by Padmaja et al. [133] to extract natural colourant from Hibiscus flower to apply it on pre-mordanted silk textiles.

*Colorimetric Characterisation and Process Standardisation for Application of Natural Dyes… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113219*

Thus, the role of solvent/acid/alkali in both extraction and dyeing with selective natural dyes is understood from above few case studies of earlier work. Hence it is felt appropriate to study the extraction of natural dyes or natural finishes under solvent based/acid based or alkali based extraction, for dissolving out or taking out colour components and other active functionality species for extracting colours from specific natural colourants. Extraction of natural finish components and colour components from extract of catechu and gall nut and eucalyptus leaves need to be studied in depth.

#### **3.3 Effects of different methods of mordanting and applying different mordanting assistants for natural dyeing**

Mordanting with selective metal salts can be accomplished by pre, simultaneously and post-mordanting process. Various metallic and non-metallic bio-mordants may be used on different textiles to enhance colour absorption and dye uptake of natural dye. Without mordants, natural colourants have generally no affinity for textile fibres. Extensive work on type of mordants and mordanting conditions including application of few bio-mordants before applying natural colourants/bio-colours on several textiles have been studied in few current literature [134, 135].

Dayal and Dobhal [115] studied the effect of copper sulphate (CuSO4) and potassium di-chromate (K2Cr2O7) on natural protein fibre like silk, wool and also for cellulosic fibres as well. They, analysed their colour yield and related results on colour fastness properties of natural dye extract from Shore Robusta bark. Wool was reported mordanted with metallic ions like Al (III), Cr (VI), Cu (II), Fe (II), Sn (II) and rare earths elements such as La (III), Sm (III) to colour extracted from beet sugar and the dyeing could satisfy colour fastness standards of BIS as reported by Mathur and Bhandari [136]. Agarwal et al. [137] optimised the mordant concentrations or mordant combinations and concluded that most beneficial shades that may be obtained with selective mordant combinations only such as 0.15% alum, 0.08% copper-sulphate and stannous-chloride mixture for optimised dyeing process with natural colour obtained from turmeric (*Curcuma longa*) for wool and also used 0.04% ferrous-sulphate and 0.06% potassium-dichromate for dyeing of mulberry silk fabric. But copper above a certain limit is not eco-friendly, and dichromate is not at all environmentally friendly. Hence, current research are focussed on the search of results of application of suitable bio-mordants or dual mordants applied as mixture or in sequences applying one after another for different natural dyeing. Hence, the study on effect of application of dual mordants preferably with bio-mordants combination in different ratio is needed to be explored for improving colour yield and colour fastnesses.

Irrespective of methods of mordanting, silk treated with potash-alum natural alum salt exhibited enhancement in colour, while silk mordanted with copper sulphate, potassium di-chromate and ferrous-sulphate evidenced very good colour fastness to light [138]. But, application of potassium-dichromate and copper-sulphate as mordant is not recommendable for environmental concern. Silk fabric mordanted with magnesium sulphate [139] produced lower depth of shade but at the same time, when it is mordanted with copper sulphate, it shows highest depth of shade. Copper above a certain limit is not environmentally safe. Das et al. [140] studied chemical alteration of cellulosic fabric in presence of acrylamide and K2S2O8 to increase dyeability for natural dyes and to improve colour fastness to light and rubbing for these pretreatment, although the said chemical modifications do not enhance washing fastness of such natural or synthetic dyed textile materials. Latter Das et al. [141] reported that application of aluminium sulphate and ferrous sulphate as mordants enhancing washing fastness of textile materials dyed with tea extract. Chan et al. [142] also reported that the effect of natural dye effluent on environment for wool dyeing with four varieties of tea and found that the protein fibres turned blackish in presence of mordant like ferrous sulphate. Gulrajani et al. [143, 144] reported the outcome of various mordanting agents on natural yellow colours such as kapila, onion, tesu, and dolu on different textiles.

Some mordants incorporated good wash stability to cotton, when it is dyed with golden rod using tin as a mordant and dyed with marigold by using chrome as a mordant and dyed with onion skins using alum and tin as mordants as reported by Vastrad et al. [145]. Bhattacharya and Lohiya [146] reported dyeing of cotton and polyester with catechu, nova red, turmeric and pomegranate rind as natural dyes with different eco-safe mordant.

Vat dyeing of cellulosic fibre in presence of iron (II) salt and complexing agent such as gluconic acid has been studied earlier by Chavan and Chakraborty [147], where they have reported to use of iron (II) salts complex with tartaric acid and citric acid as ligands at room temperature for its application on cotton using natural indigo. One report by Kumar and Bharti [148] showed that wash fastness and light fastness can be enhanced by using metal salts in presence of tannic acid or natural tannates for application on cotton fabrics. Pre-mordanted cotton yarns with potash-alum, ferroussulphate, potassium-dichromate and copper-sulphate are when treated with Acalypha extract [138] as natural dye, showed excellent colour fastness to light and wash, but potassium-dichromate and copper-sulphate are not eco-safe and ferrous sulphate always gives a darker grey to blackish shade.

A recent report described natural dyeing of cotton using gall nut extract as bio mordant (without any metallic mordants in combination) having natural tannates in extract for dyeing with extracts from babul bark as natural dye [149]. Dual pre mordanting with 15% concentration of harda and aluminium sulphate (in ratio 75:25) was applied in succession on cotton fabric and was subsequently dyed with aqueous extract from bark of babul [150] gave very good result in dye uptake/ colour yield and colour fastness, proving that cotton fabric pre-treated with harda (myrobolan) as mordanting assistant (containing chebulinic acid) showed higher dye up take of respective natural dye for additional complexing of chebulinic acid of harda with metallic mordant like alum to form big giant complex of [Fibre-Harda-Metalic mordant-Natural dye] complex of much bigger size, improving wash fastness too. Double Pre-mordanting route also found to favourable for manjistha and other different natural dyeing of jute fabric as per earlier reports by Konar et al. [151].

Analysis of few tannin-based natural bio-mordants which can fix natural dyes on the fibres by forming a fibre-bio-mordant-natural dye complex/adduct, are already reported by Samanta [134], and also by Yusuf et al. [152]. Bio-mordants have advantages of its natural origin, eco safe and biodegradability criteria, free from toxicity causing no allergic reaction to human skin and sustainability [41]. Different bio-mordants (used with or without metallic mordant) have also been applied for ecofriendly natural dyeing of textiles in presence of their tannins/flavonoid content with mordantable capacity of poly-phenols/carboxylic acids which may assist dye fixation on fibres by forming larger (giant-sized) fibre-bio-mordant-metallic mordant (optional)-natural dye bigger giant complex. Examples of few such bio-mordants are gall-nut [149, 152]; myrobolan/harda [153], tamarind seed coat [154], pomegranate rind [155], aloe vera [156], lemon juice [157], mango bark [158] and banana sap [159], though use of different type of bio mordants and method of bio-mordanting with or

*Colorimetric Characterisation and Process Standardisation for Application of Natural Dyes… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113219*

without metallic mordants in combination having significant effect on rate and extent of colour yield and colour fastness to wash and photo fading behaviour due to presence of tannates.

According to one study, use of copper as metallic mordant with or without bio mordants showed high resistance to washing and photo fading; but stannous-chloride or alum combination with other bio mordants did not show such characteristics. However, light fastness/resistance to photo fading was found to improve after postmordanting with copper ion, whereas, pre-mordanting with stannous-chloride or alum was found superior as reported by Gupta et al. [160].

Binary mordants combination with harda or tartaric acid was observed to be the very good mordant combination followed by tannic acid-harda and tartaric acidtannic acid formulation as reported by Deo and Paul [161]. A synergistic effect of these mordant combination was found for use of any of the said binary combinations of mordants. According to this report, meta-mordanting exhibited superior results for harda-tartaric acid and tartaric acid-tannic acid formulation, while pre-mordanting showed good results for tartaric acid-harda formulation. Bains et al. [162] also studied the results of various combinations of mordants on colour fastness of wool dyed with golden drop is reported to show encouraging results.

Lots of literature are available on effect of different mordants or their combinations prior to natural dyeing on colour yield and fastness performance, particularly use of double or dual mordants with variation in their ratio, development of shade and colour yield and other colour interaction parameters [135, 163, 164], on cellulosic (cotton), ligno-cellulosic (jute), protein (silk and wool) and synthetic (nylon and polyester) fibres. But combination of Natural tannate based bio mordants along with natural metallic mordant i.e. potash alum or fitkari are not explored much, which need further study in this area for natural dyeing of cotton, jute, silk and wool textiles.

#### **3.4 Methods of natural dyeing and effects of variation of dyeing process parameters**

Ghorpade et al. [165] reported dyeing of cotton with sappan wood using ultrasound waves instead of simple aqueous bath dyeing. Tiwari et al. [166] studied natural dyeing of cotton with extract of tulsi leaves using ultrasonic waves. Lokhande et al. [167] reported dyeing of polyamide with three distinct natural dyes with different mordants by two different techniques (open bath and HTHP) and found HTHP dyeing is better than open bath dyeing. Bhattacharya and Lohiya [146] also utilised HTHP technique for dyeing cotton-polyester textiles with pomegranate rind, catechu and turmeric.

Tiwari et al. [166, 168] used the unconventional natural dyeing with alkanet root bark using both microwave and sonicator. Kamel et al. [169] studied colouring of wool fabric by the liquid extract of terminilla arjun fruit and chochineal mixture. Neetu and Jahan [170] reported the dyeing of combination of natural colours derived from onion skin and kilmora root. Samanta et al. [5] studied the use of mixture of turmeric and madder for cotton and observed synergistic effect for enhancing colour strength and improves washing fastness for mixed shades of turmeric and madder than that obtained for application of only turmeric on cotton. Compatibility of binary mixture of dyes for producing compound shades are studied by Samanta et al. [92, 97, 98, 164].

However, there are only sporadic report and very less scientific or technological reports on either statistical optimization/standardisation of dyeing process variables [149–151], studies on dyeing kinetics [85, 86], dye compatibility tests with

conventional and newer colorimetric CDI based methods [92, 97, 98] and effect of bio mordants [149] and bio-finishes [134] for enhancement of colour strength, colour uniformity and colour fastness to wash by use of single and binary mixture of natural dyes on various natural textile fibres. Hence, there are ample scope of research in this area, particularly on standardisation of the dyeing process variables for natural dyeing using bio-mordants and also to study the effects of different bio-finishes for improving antimicrobial and UV-resistant, as wellness properties.

Computer aided colour matching system has become an integral part of textile dye houses as an important tool in textile processing unit for dyeing any textiles with particular class of synthetic dyes. The prediction of colour matching formulation using natural dyes is practically difficult and not that easy. Hence, it is not systemised yet for commercial applications for the following difficulties. And variation of colours for natural dyeing due to:


The above difficulties can be partly or fully eliminated by taking extracted purified natural dye source of known concentration only for calibration dyeing for preparation of correct database eliminating colour variations, using fixed type and concentration of mordants following optimised standard process of mordanting and dyeing, to obtain linear curves for purified natural dye concentrations vs. *K*/*S* values, applying linear least square curve fitting principles, and then one can use that data base for colour match prediction with known and purified natural dyes combination for colour match prediction with natural dyes allowing higher tolerances of colour differences.

#### **3.5 Physico-chemical studies on dyeing process variables and dyeing kinetics**

Different natural colours have different chemical constituents, which are determined by LC-MS or GC-MS analysis [149], while its extraction of colour components and finishing components or both depends on extraction media, temperature, pH, time, solvent and other conditions/factors of natural dye source like which part of the plant is taken, from where or which source the dye was extracted, area/soil of the field of cultivation/growth, atmospheric conditions of the growing areas, time of harvesting, extraction method or technology applied etc. Some researchers have reported discrete and piece-meal experimental inferences of laboratory testing

*Colorimetric Characterisation and Process Standardisation for Application of Natural Dyes… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113219*

regarding techniques and method of extraction including temperature, time, solvent-vegetal ratio, type of solvent used and extraction methods etc. Similarly colour strength produced with those extracted natural dyes depends on methods and types of mordanting, dyeing process variable parameters and nature of textile substrate etc. [171]. Hence, it is essential to study fibre-wise and dye-wise optimization of extraction parameters and standardisation/optimization of process variables of dyeing for different natural fibres to be dyed with different natural dyes using different single and double mordants and single and compatible binary mixture of dyes.

The effects of dye extraction mode with variation in pH, media, time and temperature used during extraction, and similarly for pre-mordanting stage, effect of type of mordant and mordant concentration and method of mordanting and mordanting conditions, and finally for Dyeing, effects of dye concentration and method of dyeing and variation in all dyeing process parameters are most important. For silk dyeing with some specific natural colourant effect of dyeing process parameters/conditions have been studied by Grover et al. [172], Dixit and Jahan [123] and Samanta et al. [149–151]. From the study made by Grover et al. [172], it was inferred that the acidic pH showed highest absorption for jatropa, lantana, hamelia and euphorbia dye, on the other hand kilmora and walnut exhibited better outcome in alkaline pH. The results shown in their various experiments lead to the optimization of a standard recipe for particular dye-mordant-fibre combination. Dumitrescu et al. [173] also studied the dyeing parameters which gave optimised and best result of colour yield and colour fastness on wool. The optimum concentration of colourant from beet sugar for wool dyeing was found to be 0.03 gm/gm of wool at pH 4, 5 at 97.5°C [39]. Deo et al. [174] described dyeing of cellulose and ligno-cellulosic materials with tea extract. Samanta et al. studied optimization of dyeing process variables [149–151] and compatibility [92, 97, 98] of binary mixtures of dyes applied on jute and cotton textiles with single and double mordants for different natural dyes. Das et al. [141] have reported that the colouring constituent of tea showed maximum attraction for both wool and silk at pH 2–4 in presence of ferrous-sulphate and aluminiumsulphate as mordants. Optimisation of dyeing process parameters for wool dyeing with natural dye derived from turmeric has been analysed by Agarwal et al. [175]. Gupta et al. [176] reported the kinetics and thermodynamics of fuglone dyeing and showed that linear isotherm for wool, human hair, silk, nylon and polyester indicated a partitioning dyeing mechanism. The slope of isotherms was raised with the rise of temperature for all cases. Both ΔH and ΔS value were found positive for all the dyeing. The apparent diffusion co-efficient was maximum for wool and minimum for silk. Samanta and Agarwal et al. [85, 86] have studied dyeing kinetics for dyeing jute and cotton with jackfruit-wood and red-sandal-wood natural colour.

A latest report on review of Scientific aspects and revival of incorporation of natural colours on textiles and a brief accounting of latest research done on natural dyes for textiles covering different scientific issues has been compiled and edited by Vankar [39] and also another two chapter contributed by Samanta [163, 164] in an edited book, covering all the aspects of natural dyeing including its extraction, characterisation and application on textiles.

A comprehensive current review on sources and composition of different natural dyes [135] and standardising method of application of natural colourants on different textiles and its characterisation with strategy for its revival are available in current literature [177, 178].

#### **3.6 Colour fastness characteristics of natural dyes**

Colour fastness is defined as the resistance of a material to alter its colour features or, transfer of its colour to adjacent materials in contact, or both, under different atmospheric condition and or any process like laundering, dry cleaning, etc. or exposing to various stimuli like heat, light etc. Fading means alteration/loss in colour depth after exposure to any environment/agency/process either by lightening or darkening of the shades.

Extensive works have been accomplished to increase the light fastness features of textiles dyed with natural colour. Cook [48] has reported a wide-range of review on various attempts taken for enhancing colour fastness of various natural dyes applied on several textile fibres by different techniques and methods. The said review also addressed after-treatments linked with tannin for enhancing the washing stability and colour fastness to light of such mordantable natural dyes suitable for cotton. Few of these chemical treatments might be relevant for specific natural colours and few are commonly applicable. Better alternative is to find out suitable natural resource based after-treatment, if possible, e g., to improve wash fastness of natural colourants by treatment of dyed fabrics with chitosan in acidic media and to improve light fastness, natural resource based after-treatment with antioxidant/UV resistant natural materilas like pomegranate rind extract or ashwagandha extract or Eucalyptus leaf or bark extract etc.

The light fastness is also associated with resisting the effect of UV light exposure initiated oxidation/reduction of natural/synthetic dyestuffs [49]. The ultraviolet light (UV) is a part of the electromagnetic radiation spectra having shorter wavelength (λ) than visible light. UV light may be divided into three groups e.g., UV-A (λ—320– 400 nm), UV-B (λ—280–320 nm) and UV-C (λ—100–280 nm). As per law of physics, shorter wavelength (λ) has higher energy (E) level (as per Einstein's rule: E=hν = [h X c/λ) causing more detrimental effect on dyestuff or human skin. Luckily, high concentration of ozone in the stratosphere (around 15–30 km above the surface) absorbs UV-C radiation totally. UV-B is less than 1% of the radiation of the sun reaching to earth and is not much damaging, while UV-A (λ—320–400 nm) consists of around 5.6–6% of total radiation which reached to the earth surface. So, identified UV absorbing (UV-A component) natural resource based materials are known to have better UV protective action and hence after treatment with UV resistant dyes or finish materials can cause improving light fastness better than other dyes/finishes, not having this UV absorbing character.

Majority of the natural colours showed inferior to moderate wash stability and also inferior to moderate light fastness on UV light exposure (with respect to the comparable best synthetic dyes) and that is why, developed shades are sometimes lighter or different from their original colours. A comparative light fastness for a range of natural colourants was examined by Padfield and Landi [179], who also revaluated the development in qualitative fashion for selective natural dyes. These lightening or otherwise alteration in shade after washing for natural dyed wool textiles were measured quantitatively by Duff et al. [180], who evaluated the colorimetric analysis to note the changes of colour values in the Munsell scale and also with respect to the CIE colourimetric terms. Wool coloured with nine different natural colourants was exposed to Microscal MBTF fading lamp and finally the colour fastness ratings were found in line with proposition of Padfield and Landi [179] on exposure to daylight fading. During evaluation for light fastness (LF) as per blue wool standards, yellow natural colourants (old fustic and Persian berries) showed inferior light fastness with

#### *Colorimetric Characterisation and Process Standardisation for Application of Natural Dyes… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113219*

1–2 rating; reds colours (cochineal with tin metallic mordant, alizarin with alum and metallic stannous mordant, lac with stannous metallic mordant) showed moderate LF with rating 3–4; indigo showed LF with rating 3–4 or 5–6 some times based on the mordant and logwood black used as natural colourants, showing LF of 4–5 with chromium containing mordant or 6–7 with other mordants. Gupta [181] reported that light fastness and all other colour fastness behaviour also depends on chemical constituent/structure of relevant natural dyes like ratanjot.

A mordant is required for majority of the natural colour components to be fixed on the textile substrate. Nature, type and concentrations of mordant has a significant role on wash stability and light fastness. The results of various mordants have a crucial role in fading of 18 different yellow natural dyes as studied by Crews (Crews P. C. 1982) [182]. Turmeric, marigold and fustic dyes have more tendency to fade than other natural dye of yellow shade. However, application of stannous metallic mordant and alum mordant combination showed higher fading than the mordants containing iron, copper or chromium. Hence, an inference may be drawn that the type of mordant is very crucial factor for determining the wash fastness (WF) and light fastness (LF) of textiles dyed with natural-colours. The LF of such natural colourants on wool has been compared with 'imported' dyes of similar shades by Duff et al. [180], again using Micro-scale MBTF fading lamp for simulated UV light exposure.

Oda reported [183, 184] the influences of various additives/add-ons on the photofading behaviour for carthamin natural dyes applied on cellulose acetate film and cotton cellulose yarns for improvement of light fastness. The presence of nickel hydroxy-arylsulphonates can suppress photofading intensity remarkably, while UV-absorbing dyes or finishes or such additives can retard the light fading rate remarkably. Cristea and Vilarem [185], Lee et al. [186] and Micheal et al. [187] have attempted to increase the LF of various natural fibre-based and natural dyed textile fabrics.

Duff et al. [180] studied wash fastness rating of few natural dyed old textiles with respective study of wash stability. Experiments were conducted under 50°C and at 20° C temperature with a washing combination suitable for preservation work for refurbishing of old textiles materials. Some colours showed remarkable alteration in their hue after washing with addition of small amounts of soda-ash or alkali in washing bath formulation, highlighting the importance of the pH for cleaning of any textiles containing natural colourants. In general, natural colourants (on wool) shows moderate wash stability, if evaluated as per ISO-II method.

Hofenk and Graaff [83] examined the nature of fading for natural dyes for both light and wash fastness targeting to retaining/restoration of the original colours of natural dyed-old church or museum textiles or painted flags for conservation. The effects of wash bath surfactant solution for conservator work for natural coloured textiles have been discussed by Hofenk and Graaff [83]. A liquor containing 1gpl of sodium-poly-phosphate was felt to be best as reported by Duff et al. [180] for test of wash stability of old natural dyed textiles remained in the old textiles of church.

Any small increment in cleaning efficiency attributed by the alkali, should be equalised to resist probable changes of shades of natural colours, apart from probable damage of protein fibres in alkaline pH conditions. Duff et al. [180] also examined the wash stability for natural dyes extracted from native Scottish locality/source as compared to imported natural dyes. The fastnesses of the logwood and indigo were found superior against other natural dyes like water-lily root and privet berries respectively when tested as per ISO-II method, but in comparison of imported vs. native natural colourants for yellow, reds, red/purples, greens and browns shades, the difference of wash fastness rating was observed to be minor in between these two groups.

Gulrajani et al. [188] described application of red-sandal wood extract to dye wool and nylon as compared to some other selective natural dyes determining all physicochemical parameters and rate of dyeing and colour fastness properties. The said fabrics were coloured with four distinct natural colours (turmeric, myrobolan, madder, red sandalwood) with pre, post and simultaneous-mordanting techniques with Aluminiumsulphate mordant. Few samples were also coloured with a mixture of turmeric/madder or turmeric/red-sandalwood and myrobolan mixed with madder or red-sandalwood in various ratio to obtain a compound uncommon shade. Selected mordanted and natural coloured samples were post-treated with normal cationic dye fixing agents to improve wash fastness. Being a direct dye, Turmeric exhibited maximum colour strength during concurrent mordanting with single or combination of other colourants. Turmeric exhibited inferior wash stability, which was enhanced a little during application of a cationic dye fixing agent in after-treatment process or when applied in combination some other natural dyes of higher wash fastness with turmeric having lower rating of wash fastness, to obtain a compound shade of good washing fastness. Combined of turmeric with other natural dyes by simultaneous mordanting method exhibited good colour yield for development of darker shade and observed higher colour strength values than the calculated or expected values. Myrobolanin mixed with other dyes showed more prominent shades with higher colour strength value during its application by post-mordanting process. In concurrent mordanting process, myrobolan did not exhibit any synergistic effect with respect to observed and calculated *K*/*S* values, but post-mordanting gave the best results.

Konar et al. [189] studied application of dye extracted from tesu on jute fabric with varying aspects of mordants as well as with varying dyeing process variables to standardise this dyeing process. Application of selective pre-mordant (single and double mordants) on 6% H2O2 (50%) bleached jute fabric was carried out using myrobolan (harda) and eco-safe metallic salts mordants (like potash-alum or fitkari and aluminium-sulphate) and subsequent dyeing with aqueous extract of tesu (palash flower petal) under different dyeing conditions for optimization of the dyeing process variables. It was observed that 1st pre-mordanting with 20% myrobolan followed by 2nd mordanting with aluminium-sulphate (20%), in succession, is the most potential double pre-mordanting system rather than when used separately as single mordant, considering the results of textile related characteristics and colour yield for this dyeing. Effect of important process variables regarding dyeing (e.g., time, temperature, pH, MLR, concentration of mordant, dye and salt) on surface colour strength has been evaluated to determine the optimum dyeing conditions. Along with washing, rubbing and light fastness results. Generally, this dyeing is observed to be very sensitive to pH for selective fibre-mordant-dye combinations and it is observed here that dyeing at pH of 11 renders better colour yield and overall all round better colour fastness properties. Enhancement in washing and light fastness can be achieved with suitable post-treatment with cationic dye fixer and UV stabiliser compounds. Dyeing kinetics for dyeing tesu on jute was also reported by Konar et al. [86].

Samanta et al. [85, 190, 191], studied physico chemical parameters of natural dyeing on jute and cotton including its dyeing kinetics and also compatibility of a series of binary pairs of natural colourants by determining all the colour interacting parameters and colour fastness properties. Bleached jute and cotton fabrics (after consecutive premordanting with myrobalan and aluminium-sulphate) have been coloured with a definite ration and concentration of purified mixture of jackfruit wood (JFW) with other natural dyes, like manjistha (MJ), red sandalwood (RSW), marigold (MG), sappan wood (SW) and babul (BL) bark to get desirable combined

#### *Colorimetric Characterisation and Process Standardisation for Application of Natural Dyes… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113219*

shades with different colour strength (*K*/*S* values) and improved colour fastness. To increase the light fastness and wash-fastness of these binary mixture of natural dyed cotton fabrics, it need additional after-treatment with selected cationic dye-fixing agent along with an UV-absorbing compound, respectively. Post-treatment with 1% CTAB or 1% Sandofix HCF showed one level higher washing fastness for these dyed fabrics and 1% benztriazole treatment showed increment in LF rating approximate by one unit. Singhee and Samanta [192] has studied standardisation of dyeing process variables for application of Tesu as natural colour on silk fabric. Besides natural colouration, UV protective finishing action of anar peel (pomegranate ring) as a biodye cum bio-finishing material, applied on cotton khadi fabric, was reported by Sinnur and Samanta et al. [153] as a newer approach of bio-dyeing and bio-finishing, in which field, there are very few scanty reports on similar work with other bio-dyes and bio-finish combinations, need to explore further.

However, from consumer protection point of view. It was highly needed to standardise test methods for identification of exact natural dyes from such natural dyed textile substrate, to assure customers that the dyed product is natural dyed materials. With long painstaking effort for required R&D work and inter lab test trial report in this endeavour, a group of Indian researchers have developed and established dyewise test methods for identification of specific natural dyes, e g. test method to differentiate between natural indigo and synthetic indigo for identifying natural indigo, which is published by BIS-India as new Indian standards for identification of natural Indigo [193]. A similar Standards on identification of natural madder differentiating it from synthetic alizarin colourant is also published by BIS as another new BIS standard [194] and later in a series, more than eight more natural dye test standards for identification of that specific individual natural dye extracting from that natural dyed textiles are published by BIS for the benefits of consumers by establishing some form of natural dye mark scheme, required both nationally and globally, for assurance of natural materials used.

#### **4. Concluding remarks**

Thus from the above said literature review, it is understood that there are still many lack/gaps in scientific studies on effects of different bio-mordants (such as tannin based natural complexes) and mordanting assistants (gallic acid from gall nut or chebulinic acid from harda-based natural complexes) and standardisation/optimization of dyeing process variables as well as effects of different natural resource/plant based after-treating or finishing compounds as dye fixatives/UV absorbers for improving wash fastness, Sun-light/UV light fastness and rubbing fastness besides attempts to increase antimicrobial and UV protection properties of such natural dyes by applying selected post treatments with different natural agents or eco-friendly synthetic agents. It is also necessary to understand the possible dye-fibre interactions and function of various pre and post treatments/additives for increasing colour yield (with respect to *K*/*S* values, uniformness of colour yield) by CV% of *K*/*S* values as well as antimicrobial grading and UV protection factor for various mordant–fibre-natural colourants application system particularly for cellulosic fibre (cotton) and protein fibres (like silk) when colouring with aqueous or aqua-alcoholic extract of chosen natural colourants. Hence, for revival of application of natural colourants on producing natural bio mordanting-bio dyeing and bio-finishing for producing natural resource based medical textiles and skin friendly high value apparel textiles.

#### *Advances in Colorimetry*

However, one must remember that natural colours are not a replacement of manmade synthetic dyes. Natural dyes have their own customer base and any further enlargement of this customer base for natural-coloured products will not squeeze down the market of any man-made synthetic dyed textiles. So, further studies are required to meet the above-mentioned gaps for applying natural dyes and natural finishes on textile fabrics for improving wellness properties like antimicrobial, mosquito repellent, anti-odour and UV-resistant properties in apparel textiles.

### **Author details**

Pubalina Samanta1,2\*, Adwaita Konar3 and Asis Muhopadhyay<sup>4</sup>

1 Department of Jute and Fibre Technology (DJFT), University of Calcutta, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

2 Department of Fashion and Apparel Design, Rani Birla Girls' College, Kolkata, WB, India

3 Government College of Textile Technology and Engineering, Serampore, West Bengal (Affiliated to MAKAUT, West Bengal), India

4 Department of Jute and Fibre Technology (DJFT), Institute of Jute Technology, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

\*Address all correspondence to: samantapubalina@gmail.com; pubalina@gmail.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Colorimetric Characterisation and Process Standardisation for Application of Natural Dyes… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113219*

#### **References**

[1] Gulrajani ML, Gupta D. Natural Dye and their Application to Textiles. Delhi: Dept of Textile Technology, Indian Institute of Technology; 1992. pp. 25-26, 50-55

[2] Samanta AK, Konar A. Technical Handbook on Natural Dye and Colouration. University of Calcutta: Dept. of Jute and Fibre Technology, IJT; 2012. pp. 97-113 (ch-4)

[3] Kamat SY, Alat DV. Natural dyes, a dyeing craft. Indian Textile Journal. 1990;**100**:66-69

[4] Samanta AK, Agarwal P. Application of natural dyes on textiles. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 2009;**34**: 384-399

[5] Samanta AK, Singhee D, Sethia M. Application of single and mixture of selective natural dyes on cotton fabrics-a scientific approach. Colourage. 2003; **50**(10):29-42

[6] Chavan RB. Revival of natural dyes-A word of caution to environmentalists. Colourage. 1995;**42**(2):27

[7] Vankar PS. Handbook on Natural Dyes for Industrial Applications. Chapter 1. New Delhi, India: National Institute of Industrial Research; 2013. pp. 1-5

[8] Gulrajani ML. Present status of natural dyes. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 2001;**1&2**(special issue):26

[9] Singh OP. Natural dyes: The pros and cons. Indian Textile Journal. 2000; **110**(4):42

[10] Samanta AK, Konar A. In: Kumbassar EPA, editor. Natural Dyes. London, UK: IntechOpen; 2011. pp. 29-56. ISBN-978-953-307-783-3

[11] Teli MD, Paul R. Dyeing of textiles with natural dyes. International Dyers. 2006;**191**(4):29-32

[12] SERI. Colour from Nature - Silk Dyeing Using Natural Dyes. New Delhi: SERI, Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.; 2002

[13] Mohanty BC, Chandranouli KV, Nayak ND. Natural Dyeing Processes of India. Ahmedabad, India: Calico Museum of Textiles; 1984. pp. 298-325

[14] Vankar PS, Shukla D, Wijayapala S, Samanta AK. Innovative silk dyeing using enzyme and *Rubia Cordifolia* extract at room temperature. Pigment and Resin Technology. 2017;**46**(4):96-302

[15] Hossain A, Saiful Islam AKM, Samanta AK. Pollution free dyeing on cotton fabric extracted from swieteniamacrophylla and Musa Acuminata as unpolluted dyes and Citrus limon (L) as unpolluted mordanting agent. Trends in Textile Engineering and Fashion Technology. 2018;**3**(2):1-8. DOI: 10.31031/TTEFT.2018.03.000558

[16] Hossain A, Samanta AK, Bhaumik NS, Vankar PS, Shukla D. Nontoxic coloration of cotton fabric using non-toxic colorant and non-toxic crosslinker. Journal of Textile Science & Engineering. 2018;**8**(5):1-8. DOI: 10.4172/2165-8064.1000374

[17] Hossain A, Samanta AK. Green dyeing on cotton fabric demodulated from *Diospyros malabarica* and *Camellia sinensis* with green mordanting agent. Latest Trends in Textile and Fashion Designing. 2018;**2**(2):1-8. DOI: LTTFD. MS.ID 000132

[18] Hossain A, Samanta AK, Bhaumik NS, Vankar PS, Shukla D. Organic Colouration and antimicrobial finishing of organic cotton fabric by exploiting distillated organic extraction of organic *Tectona grandis* and *Azardiracchta indica* with organic mordanting compare to conventional inorganic mordants. International Journal of Textile Science and Engineering. 2018;**1**(1):1-12. DOI: 10.29011/IJTSE-113/100013

[19] Patra SK, Nanda B, Nayak A, Tiwari NB. Application of natural dyes (review article). Colourage. 2000;**47**(8): 17-22

[20] Grierson S, Duff DG, Sinclair RS. Natural dyes of the Scottish highlands. Textile History. 1985;**16**(1):23-43

[21] Samanta AK, Konar A, Chakrabarti (Mukherjee) S, Datta S. Effect of different mordants, extraction conditions and dyeing process variables on colour interaction parameters and colour fastness properties in dyeing of jute fabric with manjistha, a natural dye. Journal of the Institution of Engineers (India)-Textile & Chemical Engineering. Series-E. 2010;**91**:7-15

[22] Samanta AK, Datta M, Datta S. Dyeing of jute fabric with binary mixtures of catechu and other natural dyes: Study on colour performance and dye compatibility. Journal of Materials Sciences and Applications, AASCIT-USA. 2015;**1**(5):221-238

[23] Dedhia EM. Natural dyes. Colourage. 1998;**16**(3):45-53

[24] Gupta D, Jain A, Panwar S. Anti-UV and antimicrobial properties of some natural dyes on cotton. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 2005;**30**(6): 190-195

[25] Gupta G. Mechanism of dyeing synthetic fibres with natural dyes. In: Gupta D, Gulrajani ML, editors. Proceedings of 1st Convention on Natural Dyes; 9th to 11th December, 1999, Dept. of Text Tech., IIT Delhi. Delhi, India: Replica Press Pvt Ltd; 1999. pp. 121-124

[26] Samanta AK, Konar A, Datta M, Datta S. Natural dyeing of jute fabric with catechu. International Journal of Applied Engineering Research. 2014; **9**(4):451-467

[27] Dixit S, Jahan S. Colourfastness properties of euphorbia (*Euphorbia continifolia*) leaves dye on silk fabric. Man-Made Textiles in India. 2005;**48**(7): 252-258

[28] Vankar PS, Tiwari V, Ghorpade B. Supercritical fluid extraction of natural dye from eucalyptus bark used for cotton dyeing in microwave and sonicator. In: Gupta D, Gulrajani ML, editors. Proceedings of 2nd Convention on Natural Dyes; 17th-18th December, 2001, Dept. of Textiles Tech., IIT Delhi. Delhi, India: Replica Press Pvt Ltd; 2001. pp. 53-55

[29] Deo HT, Paul R. Ultrasonic dyeing of cationized cotton fabric with natural dye using potassium alum in combination with Harda and tartaric acid. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 2000;**25**(3):17-23

[30] Ghorpade B, Darrekar M, Vankar PS. Eco-friendly cotton dyeing with sappan-wood dye using ultrasound energy. Colourage. 2000;**47**(1):27-32

[31] Vankar PS, Shanker R. Ecofriendly ultrasonic natural dyeing of cotton fabric with enzyme pretreatment. Desalination. 2008;**230**(1/3):62-69

[32] Tiwari V, Vankar PS. Unconventional natural dyeing using microwave and sonicator with alkanet *Colorimetric Characterisation and Process Standardisation for Application of Natural Dyes… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113219*

root bark. Asian Textile Journal. 2001;**10** (5/6):54-60

[33] Lokhande HT, Dorugade VA. Dyeing nylon with natural dyes. American Dyestuff Reporter. 1999;**88**(2):29-33

[34] Bhattacharya N. Natural dye – Its authenticity and identification. In: Gupta D, Gulrajani ML, editors. Proceedings of 1st Convention on Natural Dyes; 9th to 11th December, 1999, Dept. of Text Tech., IIT Delhi. Delhi, India: Replica Press Pvt Ltd; 1999. p. 134

[35] Mathur PJ, Mehta A, Karnawar R, Bhandari CS. Use of neem bark as wool colourant – Optimum conditions of wool dyeing. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 2003;**28**(1):94

[36] Dev VG, Venugopal J, Sudha S, Deepika G, Ramkrishna S. Dyeing and antimicrobial characteristics of chitosan treated wool fabrics with henna dyes. Carbohydrate Polymers. 2009;**75**(4): 646-650

[37] Patel KJ, Patel BH, Naik JA, Bhavsar AM. Eco-friendly dyeing with tulsi leaf extract. Man-Made Text India. 2002;**45**(11):420-424

[38] Yusuf M, Shabbir M, Mohammad F, Khan MA. Eco-dyeing of wool with *Rubia cordifolia* root extract: Assessment of the effect of acacia as biomordant on colour and fastness properties. Textiles and Clothing Sustainability. 2016;**2** (10):1-9

[39] Vankar PS. Natural Dyes for Textiles, The Textile Institute Book Series. UK: Elsevier; 2017. pp. 17-26, 89-103, 141-166

[40] Vankar PS, Shanker R. Ecofriendly pretreatment of silk fabric for dyeing

with delonixregia extract. Coloration Technology. 2009;**125**(3):155-160

[41] Vankar PS, Shanker R, Mahanta D, Tiwari SC. Ecofriendly Sonicator dyeing of cotton with rubia cordiafolia Linn using biomordants. Dyes and Pigments. 2008;**76**(1):207-212

[42] Pant S, Mangal R. Modifying the dyeability of nylon for natural dye lac. Manmade Text India. 2011;**39**(2):57-62

[43] Sankar R-M, Bhowmik L. Studies on application of some vegetable dyes on cellulosic and ligno-cellulosic fibre. Manmade Text India. 2006;**49**(4): 142-146

[44] Singh S, Jahan S, Gupta KC. Optimisation for procedure for dyeing silk with natural dye - madder roots. Colourage. 1993;**40**(8):33-36

[45] Zhang RP, Cai ZS, Zhu H, Yu BL, Chen HJ. Influences of enzyme on the dyeing performance of wool with natural pigment sappanwood. Wool Textile Journal. 2011;**12**:2-7

[46] Gahlot M, Kaur S. Rebirth of natural dyes. Indian Textile Journal. 1996; **106**(5):46-48

[47] Vastard J, Shailaja D, Mamatha A. Dye's colour fastness. Indian Textile Journal. 1999;**109**(7):68-73

[48] Cook CC. Aftertreatments for improving the fastness of dyes on textile fibre. Review of Progress in Coloration. 1982;**12**(1):78-89

[49] Yadav R, Battacharya N. Effect of acacia catechu on UV protection of cotton, polyester and P/C blend fabrics. Colourage. 2005;**52**(6):49-54

[50] Cristea D, Vilarem G. Improving light fastness of natural dyes on cotton yarn. Dyes & Pigments. 2006;**70**: 238-244

[51] Miguel MG, Neves MA, Antunes MD. Pomegranate (*Punica granatum* L.): A medicinal plant with myriad biological properties—A short review. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research. 2010;**4**(25):2836-2847

[52] Adeel S, Ali S, Bhatti IA, Zsila F. Dyeing of cotton fabric using pomegranate (*Punica granatum*) aqueous extract. Asian Journal of Chemistry. 2009;**21**(5):3493-3499

[53] Weerakkody P, Jobling J, Infnte MMV, Rogers G. The effect of maturity, sunburn and the application of sunscreens on the internal and external qualities of pomegranate fruit grown in Australia. Scientia Horticulturae. 2010; **124**(1):57-61

[54] Tayel AA, El-Tras WF. Anticandidal activity of pomegranate peel extract aerosol as an applicable sanitizing method. Mycoses. 2009;**53**:117-122

[55] Sentthil Kumar CS, Dhinakaran M. Extraction and application of natural dyes from orange peel and lemon peel on cotton fabrics. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology. 2017;**4**(5):237-238

[56] Garifield S, Mauve WW. Natural Dyes for Textiles. New York: Norton and Company; 2001. pp. 55-65

[57] Sinnur HD, Samanta AK, Verma DK, Kaware R. Standardization of mordant and dyeing process variables for dyeing of cotton khadi fabric with Indian madder as natural dyes. Indian Journal of Natural Fibres. 2017;**4**(1):21-38

[58] Brian GJ. Dyeing what comes naturally to the dye house. Society of Dyers and Colourists. 1998; **114**(4):240

[59] Badri BM, Burkinshaw SM. Dyeing of wool and nylon 6.6 with henna and lawsone. Dye & Pigments. 1993; **22**(1):15

[60] Alam MM, Rahman ML, Haque MZ. Extraction of henna leaf dye and its dyeing effects on textile. Bangladesh Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research. 2007;**42**(2):217

[61] Shah NC. Traditional use of turmeric (*Curcuma longa*) in India. Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences. 1997;**19**:948

[62] Indi YM, Chinta SK. Application and properties of natural dye on cotton phyllanthusreticulatus. Colourage. 2008; **55**(6):52

[63] Yoshizumi K, Crews PC. Characteristics of fading of wool cloth dyed with selected natural dyestuffs on the basis of solar radiant energy. Dyes and Pigments. 2003;**58**:197

[64] Vankar PS, Shanker R, Dixit S, Mahanta D, Tiwari SC. Characterisation of the colorants from leaves of *Bischofia javanica*. International Dyer. 2008; **192**(3):11

[65] Saha P, Datta S. Dyeing of textile fibre using Marigold flower as floral dye. Colourage. 2008;**55**(5):58

[66] Gahlot M, Fatima N, Papna N. Jatropha flowers; a natural colourant for dyeing of cotton, wool and silk. Colourage. 2008;**52**(2):96-200

[67] Sidhu SP, Grewal JK. Silk dyed with goldendrop (Onosmaechiodes) dye. Colourage. 2008;**55**(3):51

[68] Mahale G, Sakashi, Sunanda RK. Arecanut - A natural colourant for silk. Colourage. 2008;**46**(4):54

*Colorimetric Characterisation and Process Standardisation for Application of Natural Dyes… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113219*

[69] Vankar PS, R. Shanker 'ultrasonic dyeing of cotton and silk with *Nerium oleander* flower'. Colourage. 2008; **55**(4):51

[70] Purohit A, Das R, Nayak A, Nanda B, Das NB. Natural dyes from the waste leaves of artocarpusheterophyllus. Colourage. 2009;**56**(5):89

[71] Teli MD, Shah R, Sabale AG. Dyeing of nylon with natural colourants. Colourage. 2010;**57**(3):96

[72] Chairat M, Rattanaphani V, Bremner JB, Rattanaphani S, Parkins DF. An absorption investigation of the interaction of lac dye with metal ions. Dyes and Pigments. 2004;**63**(2):15

[73] Javali UC, Sreenivasa, Radhalakshmi YC. Application of natural dye-annatto on mulberry silk. Colourage. 2009;**50**(2):32

[74] Sakata K, Katayama A. Dyeing of silk fabrics with the pigments separated from a powdered dry Indian madder. Journal of Sericultural Science of Japan. 1996; **63**(3):170

[75] Sudhakar R, Gowda KNN. Dyeing of silk with flower extract of *Spathodea campanulata*. Man-Made Textiles in India. 2005;**48**(7):255

[76] Rattanaphani SS, Chairat M, Rattanaphani JB. An adsorption and kinetic study of lac dyeing on silk. Dyes and Pigments. 2007;**72**(1):88

[77] Patel BH, Bhatia KB, Parekh UD. Environmental-friendly & cost-effective method to create various shades on silk. Indian Silk. 2005;**44**(6):24

[78] Perkin AG, Everest AE. The Natural Organic Colouring Matter. London: Longmans Green; 1918. pp. 35-64

[79] Sahid M, Mohammad F. Recent advancements in natural dye

applications: A review. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2013;**53**:310-331

[80] Mayer F, Cook AH. Chemistry of Natural Colouring Matters'. 3rd ed. Reinhold; 1943. pp. 45-65

[81] Thomson RH. Naturally-occurring Quinones. 2nd ed. Academic Press Inc., Springer; 1987. pp. 15-22

[82] Farris RE. Natural dyes. In: Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 3rd ed. Vol. 8. New York: John Wiley and Sons; 1991. pp. 351-373

[83] Hofenk de Graaff JH. Conservationrestoration of church textiles and painted flags. In: Ágnes T-B, editor. Proceedings of 4th Int Restorer Seminar, 2-10 July 1983, Veszprém, Hungary. Vol. 1 and 2. Budapest: National Centre of Museums; 1983-1984. pp. 219-228

[84] Samanta AK, Agarwal P, Konar A, Datta S. Characterisation and application of purified selective natural dyes on jute, International Dyer. 2008;**192**(4): 25-32

[85] Samanta AK, Agarwal P, Datta S. Physico-chemical studies on dyeing of jute and cotton fabrics using jackfruit wood extract as natural dyes: Part-II: Kinetic and thermodynamic studies. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 2008;**33**:66-72

[86] Konar A, Samanta AK, Datta S. Dyeing of jute fabric with tesu extract: Part-II: Thermodynamic parameters and kinetics of dyeing. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 2012;**37**: 172-177

[87] McGovern PE, Lazar J, Michel RH. The analysis of indigoid dyes by mass spectrometry. Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists. 1990;**106**(1):22

[88] Wong ON. The identification of natural dyes in pre-Columbian Andean textiles by mass spectrometry [MA thesis]. Cambridge, MA, USA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology; 1977. p. 20

[89] Korenzvi C. HPLC analysis of the natural scale insect, madder and indigoid dyes. Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists. 1994;**110**(9):273

[90] Guinot P, Roge A. Dyeing plants screening approach to combine past heritage and present development. Colouration Technology. 2006;**122**(2): 93-101

[91] Samanta AK, Agarwal P, Datta S. Physico-chemical studies on dyeing of jute textiles with natural dyes extracted from red sandal wood. Journal of Institution of Engineers (India)—Textile Engineering. 2006;**87**:16-26

[92] Samanta AK, Agarwal P. Application of mixture of red sandal wood and other natural dyes for dyeing of jute fabricstudies on dye compatibility. International Dyer. 2008;**192**(3):37-41

[93] Mathur JP, Metha A, Kanawar R, Bhandari CS. Use of neem bark as wool colourant – Optimum conditions of wool dyeing. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 2003;**28**(1):94

[94] Gulrajani ML, Gupta D, Roy-Maulik S. Studies on dyeing with natural dyes – Part III – Dyeing of ratanjot dye on nylon and polyester. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 1999;**24**(4): 294

[95] Shankar R, Vankar PS. Dyeing wool with gomphrenaglobosa flowers. Colourage. 2005;**52**(4):35

[96] Bhuyan R, Saikai CN, Das KK. Extraction and identification of colour components from barks of *Musops elengi* and *Terminilia arjuna* and evaluation of their dyeing characteristics on wool. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 2004;**29**(12):470

[97] Samanta AK, Agarwal P, Datta S. Dyeing of jute with binary mixtures of jackfruit wood and other natural dyes: Study on colour performance and dye compatibility. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 2008;**33**:171-180

[98] Samanta AK, Priti Agarwal, Deepali Singhee Siddartha Datta, Application of single and mixtures of red sandal wood and other natural dyes for dyeing of jute fabric: Studies on colour parameters/ colour fastness and compatibility. Journal of the Textile Institute. 2009;**100**:565-587

[99] Blanc R, Espejo T, Montes AL, Toress D, Crovetto G, Navalon A, et al. Sampling and identification of natural dyes in historical maps and drawings by liquid chromatography with diode-array detection. Journal of Chromatography. 2006;**1122**(1–2):105

[100] Zin N W M S Moe, Purification of natural dyestaff extracted from mango bark for application in protein fibres - Proceedings of World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, 36, 2008, p. 540-544,

[101] Walker C, Needles HL. Historic Teles and paper materials. Advances in Chemical Series, Engineering. 1986;**175**:212

[102] Son YA, Hong JP, Kim TK. An approach to the dyeing of polyester fibre using indigo and its extended wash fastness. Dyes and Pigments. 2004; **61**(3):263-272

[103] Hemlatha J, Vashantha M. Ecofriendly dyeing with natural dye - Arcea nut; enhancing colour fastness

*Colorimetric Characterisation and Process Standardisation for Application of Natural Dyes… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113219*

with natural mordants( Myrobolan, Lodhra and Pomogrenate) and increasing the antibacterial activity. Archieves of Appliaed Science Research. 2016;**8**(8):1-7

[104] Mondhe PS, Rao JT. Studies on jatrophacurcas seed oil incorporated alkyl dyes part I. Colourage. 1993;**43**(5):43

[105] Zippel E. Analysis of dye colourants and coloured textiles. Review of Progress in Coloration. 2004;**34**(1):1-11

[106] Joshi M, Purwar R. Developments in new processes for colour removal from effluent. Review of Progress in Coloration. 2004;**34**(2):58

[107] Khan MA, Khan M, Srivastav PK, Mohammad F. Extraction of natural dyes from cutch, ratanjot and madder. Colourage. 2006;**56**(1):61

[108] Mishra, Patni V. Extraction and application of dye extracted from eriphyid leaf galls of QuercuLeucotrichophora \_A Himalayan Blue jack oak. African Journal of Biochemistry Research. 2011;**5**(3): 90-94

[109] Jain H. Dyeing of cotton fabrics with extract of jamun tree and its bye products using natural mordants. Colourage. 2013;**20**:40-43

[110] Benencia F, Courreges MC. Antiviral activity of sandalwood oil against viruses 1 and 2. Phytomed. 1999;**6**(2):119

[111] Singh M, Bhattacharya N, Gupte VC. Determination of compatibility of reactive dyes in mixtures by chromatic diagram. Colourage. 2006;**62**(11):71

[112] Ferreria ESB, Hulme AN, Macnab H, Ouve A. The constituents of historical textile dyes. Chemical Society Review. 2004;**33**:329-336

[113] Haulak JP, Churrier B, Nargues M. HPLC analysis of elagic acid in European oak wood (*Quercus robur* L). HolzForschum. 1992;**46**:87-89

[114] Shenai VA. Vegetable dyeing research in India. Colourage. 2002; **49**(10):29

[115] Dayal R, Dobhal PC. Natural dye from Shorea robusta Bark. In: Gupta D, Gulrajani ML, editors. Proceedings of 2nd Convention on Natural Dyes; 17th-18th December, 2001, Dept. of Textiles Tech., IIT Delhi. Delhi, India: Replica Press Pvt Ltd; 2001. p. 47

[116] Ray MS, Pradhan SC. Dyeing of wool with Hinjal bark, jujube bark and Himalayan rhubarb. Man-Made Textiles in India. 2005;**48**(10):396

[117] Pan NC, Chattopadhyay SN, Day A. Dyeing of jute with natural dyes. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 2003;**28**(3):339-342

[118] Verma N, Gupta NP. Wattle bark – A source of dyes for woollens. Colourage. 1995;**42**(7):27

[119] Saxena S, Iyer V, Shaikh AI, Shenai VA. Antioxidant activity of leaves and fruits of cultivated conifers in Iran. Colourage. 1997;**11**(3):23

[120] Sarkar D, Mazumdar K, Datta S, Sinha DK. Application of natural dyes from marigold flowers on cotton, wool and silk. Journal of the Textile Association. 2005;**66**(2):67

[121] Sarkar D, Mazumdar K, Datta S. Solvent extraction of yellow colouring matter from natural source; flower and its application on hydrophobic substances. Man-Made Textiles in India. 2006;**49**(1):19

[122] Deo HT, Paul R. Dyeing of ecru denim with onion extract using natural mordant combination. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 2000;**25**(6):152

[123] Dixit S, Jahan S. Colour fastness properties of Euphorbia (*Euphorbia continifolia*). Man-Made Textiles in India. 2005;**48**(7):252

[124] Sudhakar R, Ninge KN, Padaki NV. Natural dyeing of silk with nut extract of areca catechu. Colourage. 2006; **53**(7):61

[125] Radhika D, Jacob M. Dye from jatropa seed. Indian Textile Journal. 1999;**109**(7):30

[126] Hagerman AE, Wilson TC. Quantitative determination of ellagic acid. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 1990;**38**:1678-1683

[127] Nanda B, Nayak A, Das NB, Patra SK. Utilization of natural dyes from plant waste. In: Gupta D, Gulrajani ML, editors. Proceedings of 2nd Convention on Natural Dyes; 17th-18th December, 2001, Dept. of Textiles Tech., IIT Delhi. Delhi, India: Replica Press Pvt Ltd; 2001. p. 85

[128] Bhattacharya SK, Chatterjee SM, Dutta C. Effects of mordants on polymide fabrics dyeing with some ecofriendly natural colourants. Man-Made Textiles in India. 2004;**45**(8):85

[129] Onal A. Extraction of dyestaff from onion (*Allium cepa* L) and its dyeing properties in the dyeing of wool, feathered leather and cotton. Turkey Journal of Chemistry. 1996;**20**:194-204

[130] Agarwal A, Paul S, Gupta KC. Effect of mordant on natural dyes. Indian Textile Journal. 1993;**103**(4):110 [131] Houlton N, Raja, Kala J. Dyeing of jute cotton blends with grape skin waste. Journal of Textile Association. 2005; **66**(3):117

[132] Teli D, Adivarekar RV, Pardeshi PD. Dyeing of pretreated cotton substrate with tea extract. Colportage. 2002;**49**(10):23-26

[133] Padmaja A, Jacob M. Application of hibiscus flower dye extract on silk. The Textile Industry and Trade Journal. 1998; **36**(7):94-98

[134] Samanta AK. Bio-dyes, bio mordants and bio-finishes: Scientific analysis for its application on textiles. In: Samanta AK, Awwad N, Algarni HM, editors. Chemistry and Technology of Natural and Synthetic Dyes and Pigments. London, UK, Croatia & London UK: IntechOpen; 2020. pp. 3-37

[135] Samanta AK, Deepali S. Sources, application and analysis of natural colorants: An Indian perspective. In: Bechtod T, Manian AP, Pham T, editors. Handbook of Natural Colorants. 2nd ed. UK: Wiley; 2023. pp. 103-143. (ch 8)

[136] Mathur JP, Bhandari CS. Use of beet sugar as wool colourant. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 2001;**26**(1):313

[137] Agarwal A, Goel A, Gupta KC. Optimisation of dyeing process for wool with natural dye obtained from turmeric (*Curcuma longa*). Text Dyers Print. 1992; **25**(10):28

[138] Mahale G, Sakshi G, Sunanda RK. Silk dyed with Acalypha (*Acalypha wilkesiana*) and its fastness. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 2003;**28**(3):86

[139] Ray Maulik S, Pal P. Effect of mordants on colour uptake and fastness *Colorimetric Characterisation and Process Standardisation for Application of Natural Dyes… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113219*

properties of selected natural dyes on silk. Man-Made Textiles in India. 2005; **48**(1):19

[140] Das D, Bhattacharya SC, Sankar RM. Modification of cotton fabric with acrylamide in presence of K2S2O8 for improving dyeability of natural dyes. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 2006;**31**(12):559

[141] Das D, Bhattacharya SC, Sankar RM. Dyeing of wool silk with tea. International Journal of Tea Science. 2005;**4**(3&4):17

[142] Chan PM, Yuen CWM, Yeung KW. The effect of natural dye effluent on environment. Textile Asia. 2000;**31**(2):28

[143] Gulrajani ML, Gupta D, Agarwal V, Jain M. Some studies on natural yellow dyes—Part 2. Indian Textile Journal. 1992;**102**(5):78

[144] Gulrajani ML, Gupta D, Agarwal V, Jain M. Some studies on natural yellow dyes—Part 3. Indian Textile Journal. 1992;**102**(6):76

[145] Vastard J, Shailaja D, Mamatha A. Dye's colour fastness. Indian Textile Journal. 1999;**109**(7):68

[146] Bhattacharya N, Lohiya N. Dyeing of cotton and polyester fiber with pomegranate rind, catechu, nova red and turmeric. Asian Textile Journal. 2002; **11**(1):70

[147] Chavan RB, Chakraborty JN. Dyeing of cotton with indigo using iron (II) salt complexes. Colouration Technology. 2001;**117**(2):88

[148] Kumar V, Bharti BV. Eucalyptus yields dye. Indian Text Journal. 1998; **109**(5):18

[149] Dhanania Y, Singhee D, Samnata AK. Optimization of dyeing process variables for eco-friendly dyeing of cotton fabric with babul bark extract as a natural dye and gallnut extract as a bio-mordant. Journal of Natural Fibres. 2022;**19**(13):5478-5495

[150] Sinnur HD, Samanta AK, Verma DK. Standardization of dyeing process variables for dyeing of cotton khadi fabric with aqueous extract of babul bark (*Acacia nilotica* L.). Journal of Institution of Engineers (India)–Series-E (Chemical and Textile Engineering). 2018;**99**(2):187-207

[151] Samanta AK, Konar A, Chakrabarti (Mukherjee) S, Datta S. Effect of different mordants, extraction conditions and dyeing process variables on colour interaction parameters and colour fastness properties in dyeing of jute fabric with Manjistha, a natural dye. Journal of Institution of Engineers (India)-Textile Engineering. 2010;**91**:7-15

[152] Yusuf M, Shabbir M, Mohammad F, Khan MA. Eco-dyeing of wool with rubia cordifolia root extract: Assessment of the effect of acacia as biomordant on colour and fastness properties. Textiles and Clothing Sustainability. 2016;**2**(10):1-9

[153] Sinnur HD, Samanta AK, Verma DK, Runali K. Studies on colouration and UV protective action of anar peel (pomegranate ring) as an effective natural colourant for cotton khadi fabric. Journal of The Institution of Engineers (India): Series E. 2017, 2017; **99**(1):9-26

[154] Prabhu KH, Teli MD. Eco-dyeing using *Tamarindus indica* L. seed coat tannin as a natural mordant for textiles with antibacterial activity. Journal of Saudi Chemical Society. 2014;**18**(6): 864-872

[155] Ismal OE, Yildirim L, Ozdogan E. Use of almond shell extracts plus

biomordants as effective textile. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2014;**70**(9):61-67

[156] Zubairu A, Mshelia YM. Effects of selected mordants on the application of natural dye from onion skin (*Allium cepa*). Science & Technology. 2015;**5**(2): 26-32

[157] Janani L, Winifred D. Suitability of dyes from mulberry and coffee leaves on silk fabrics using eco-friendly mordants. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications. 2013;**3**(11):1-4

[158] Wangatia LM, Tadesse K, Moyo S. Mango bark mordant for dyeing cotton with natural dye: Fully eco-friendly natural dyeing. International Journal of Textile Science. 2015;**4**(2):36-41

[159] Barhampurkar S, Bhat P, Kumar A, Purwar R. Studies of banana Sap used as mordant for natural dyes. International Journal on Textile Engineering and Processes. 2015;**1**(4):55-59. ISSN 2395 3578

[160] Gupta D, Gulrajani ML, Kumari S. Light fastness of naturally occurring anthraquinone dyes on nylon. Colouration Technology. 2004;**120**:205

[161] Deo HT, Paul R. Dyeing of ecru denim with onion extract using natural mordant combination. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 2000;**25**(6):152

[162] Bains S, Kaur K, Kang S. Colour fastness properties of dyeing wool with Goldendrop (Onosmaechioides) dye using combination of mordants. Colourage. 2005;**52**(5):51

[163] Samanta AK. Application of natural dyes to cotton and jute textiles: Science and technology and environmental issues. In: Yusuf M, editor. Handbook of Renewable Materials for Coloration and Finishing. Chapter 11. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons Inc; 2018. pp. 213-278

[164] Samanta AK, Konar A. Dyeing of textiles with natural dyes. In: Perrin E, Kumbassar A, editors. Natural Dyes. London, UK, London & Croatia, UK: InTech International Publisher; 2011. pp. 29-56. ISBN-978-953-307-783-3

[165] Ghorpade B, Tiwari V, Vankar PS. Eco-friendly cotton dyeing with sappanwood dye using ultrasound energy. Asian Textile Journal. 2000;**9**(3):68

[166] Tiwari V, Ghorpade B, Mishra A, Vankar PS. Ultrasonic dyeing of cotton fabric with aqueous extract of ecliptaalba. New Cloth Market. 2000; **14**(1):23

[167] Lokhande HT, Dorugade VA, Naik SR. Colour strength and colour fastness of flax fabrics dyed with natural colourants. American Dyestuff Reporter. 1998;**87**(6):40

[168] Tiwari V, Ghorpade B, Vankar PS. Ultrasonic dyeing with impatientsbalsamina using ecofriendly mordants on cotton. Colourage. 2000; **47**(3):21

[169] Kamel MM, El Zawahry MM, El-Ghafar FA. Dyeing wool fabrics with a mixture of natural dyes. Journal of Textile Association. 2001;**62**(4):167

[170] Neetu S, Jahan S. Dyeing wool by a combination of natural dyes obtained from onion skin and kilmora roots. Colourage. 2003;**50**(1):43-44

[171] Pant S, Mangal R. Modifying the dyeability of nylon for natural dye lac. Man-Made Text India. 2011;**39**(2):57

[172] Grover E, Sharma A, Rawat B. Dyeing of silk with natural dyes. International dyers. 2005;**190**(10):9

[173] Dumitrescu I, Mocioiu AI, Mocioiu AM. Natural compounds for *Colorimetric Characterisation and Process Standardisation for Application of Natural Dyes… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113219*

heathy clothes from vegetable wastes. World Textile Abstract. 2005;**56**(4):9

[174] Deo HT, Desai BK. Dyeing of cotton and jute with tea as natural dye. Colourage. 2006;**48**:33-38

[175] Agarwal A, Garg A, Gupta K. Development of suitable dyeing process for dyeing of wool with natural dye henna (lawsoniainerma). Colourage. 1992;**39**(10):43

[176] Gupta D, Gulrajani ML, Kumari S. Light fastness of naturally occurring anthraquinone dyes on nylon. Colouration Technology. 2004;**120**(3):205

[177] Pubalina S. A review on characterization and standardization for application of natural dyes on natural textiles: Part1. Indian Journal of Natural Fibres (IJNF). 2019;**5**(2):53-63

[178] Pubalina S. A review on application of natural dyes on textile fabrics and its revival strategy. In: Samanta AK, Awwad NS, Algarni HM, editors. Book on Chemistry and Technology of Natural and Synthetic Dyes and Pigments. London, UK, Croatia and London UK: IntechOpen; 2020. pp. 75-98. (Ch-3)

[179] Padfield P, Landi S. The light fastness of the natural dyes. Studies in Conservation. 1966;**11**:161-196

[180] Duff DG, Sinclair RS, Stiriling D. The fastness to washing of some natural dyestuffs on wool. Studies in Conservation. 1977;**22**:161-116

[181] Gupta D. Dyeing of Ratanjot dye on nylon & polyester. Colourage. 1999; **46**(7):35

[182] Crews PC. The influence of mordant on the lightfastness of yellow natural dyes. Journal of the American.

Institute for Conservation. 1982;**21**: 43-58

[183] Oda H. Improvement of light fastness of natural dyes. Colouration Technology. 2001;**117**(4):204

[184] Oda H. Improving light fastness of natural dyes on cotton yarn. Colouration Technology. 2001;**117**(5):254

[185] Cristea D, Vilarem G. Improving light fastness of natural dyes on cotton yarn. Dyes & Pigments. 2006;**70**:238

[186] Lee JJ, Lee HH, Eom SI, Kim JP. UV absorber aftertreatment to improve light fastness of natural dyes on protein fibers. Colouration Technology. 2001;**117**(3):134

[187] Micheal MN, El Zaher NA. Investigation into effect of UV/ozone treatments on the dyeing properties of natural dyes on natural fabrics. Colourage. 2005;**52**(Special Issue):83

[188] Gulrajani ML, Bhaumik S, Oppermann W, Hardtmann G. Dyeing of red sandalwood on wool and nylon. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 2003;**28**(6):221

[189] Konar A, Samanta AK, Chakrabarti (Mukherjee) S, Datta S. Dyeing of jute fabric with tesu extract: Part-1: Effects of different mordants and dyeing process variables on colour yield and colour fastness properties. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 2011;**36**:63-73

[190] Samanta AK, Agarwal P, Datta S. Studies on colour strength related parameters and compatibility for dyeing of cotton fabrics with binary mixtures of jackfruit wood and other natural dyes. Journal of Natural Fibres. 2009;**6**:27-45

[191] Samanta AK, Agarwal P, Datta S. Studies on colour interaction parameters and colour fastness properties for dyeing of cotton fabrics with mixture of jackfruit wood and other natural dyes. Journal of Natural Fibres. 2009;**6**:171-190

[192] Singhee D, Samanta P. Studies on dyeing process variables for application of Tesu (*Butea monosperma*) as natural dye on silk fabric. Journal of Natural Fibres. 2019;**16**(8):1098-1112. DOI: 10.1080/15440478.2018.1453430

[193] IS 17084:2019. Textile Dyestuffs-Natural Indigo-Identification. New Delhi, India: BIS; 2019. pp. 1-18

[194] IS 17085-2019. Textile Dyestuffs-Rubia (Maddar)-Identification. New Delhi, India: BIS; 2019. pp. 1-14

#### **Chapter 9**

## Colorimetric Analysis to Study the Dyeing Behaviour of Jute Textiles Using Selective Synthetic and Natural Dyes

*Ritwik Chakraborty and Ayan Pal*

#### **Abstract**

Jute, being a lignocellulosic bast fibre, is dyed with different classes of dyes such as direct, reactive, vat and sulphur which are also used to dye other cellulosic materials such as cotton and viscose. In addition to these, it is possible to dye jute with acid, basic and pre-metallized dyes due to the presence of lignin and gluconoric groups of hemicellulose. Here, a review of the dyeing of jute is done to analyse the dyeing properties of jute fabrics dyed with three classes of synthetic dyes – direct, reactive and acid dyes along with some selected anionic natural dyes. The dyeing process variables, colour strength values and colour fastness properties were analysed and elaborated. The studies have focused on some comparative assessment of the dyeing properties using different synthetic dyes and natural dyes too. The dyeing properties and colour fastness properties of synthetic-dyed and natural-dyed jute materials are also discussed and analysed in detail showing colourimetric analysis and their results.

**Keywords:** jute, direct dye, reactive dye, acid dye, natural dye, lignocellulosic, dyeing properties

#### **1. Introduction**

The global consciousness for sustainable ecology has gained serious momentum. Consumers want to use greener, ecologically safe products. The textile products made of natural fibres are more eco-friendly than the ones made of synthetic fibres. So, the natural fibre-based textile materials need to be produced more; similarly, they need to be discussed more. Jute among the natural fibres is different in properties and area of application. It is mostly used in packaging. No other natural fibre has more usage in packaging than jute. But, nowadays, the product range of jute is being diversified in home furnishing textiles, upholstery, automotive textiles, carpet, shopping bags, etc. These diversified products need colouration for value addition.

Jute is an important natural fibre grown in South Asia (mainly in the eastern part of India and Bangladesh) for numerous industrial applications [1]. It is the second highest plant-based fibre next to cotton grown in the world. Jute is a multicellular

natural fibre, chemically lignocellulosic in nature, having about 60–64% cellulose, 20–24% hemicellulose and 12–14% lignin [2]. Numerous numbers of hydroxyl groups of cellulose and hemicelluloses, besides the glucoronic acid group of hemicelluloses having both –COOH and –CHO groups in it and several phenolic hydroxyl groups and –C=C unsaturation present in lignin, have made jute fibre highly absorptive for different classes of dyes including natural dyes with or without suitable mordants. Direct, reactive, basic and natural dyes are applied on jute. Here, the dyeing properties of various classes of synthetic and natural dyes applied on jute are discussed.

#### **2. Dyeing of jute with direct dyes**

Jute fibre, having cellulose and hemicellulose as major constituents, contains an ample amount of hydroxyl and carboxyl groups, thus making the fibre anionic while immersed in water. The anionic nature of the immersed jute fibres can be neutralised by the application of electrolyte, thus rendering the fibres conducive for dyeing with anionic direct dyes.

A few discreet studies are reported on the dyeing of jute with direct dyes [3–11]. Direct dyes are cheap but do not produce fast colour on jute fibres. Jute fibre having a negative charge in water can be dyed with direct dyes in the presence of an electrolyte which neutralises or reduces the negative potential of jute so that anionic dye molecules are absorbed on the fibre surface. So, application of an electrolyte and pH of the dyebath plays crucial roles in dye uptake of direct dyes by jute fibres. Mondal et al. studied the phenomenon and found that pH 8 is the best condition for direct dyeing of jute [4]. **Table 1** shows their results indicating the increase of dye uptake with an increase of pH till pH 8. Also, bleached jute fibres absorb more dye than raw fibres because of the presence of more free carboxyl content in bleached jute fibres.

Jute being a complex heterogeneous structure comprising hemicellulose and lignin intertwined with cellulose matrix shows its multifaceted dyeing characteristics. Ganguly et al., in an interesting study, showed the dyeing behaviour of jute with direct dyes while gradually removing hemicellulose and lignin from it [6]. The equilibrium exhaustion of direct dye and rate of exhaustion of direct dye into jute fibres rise with the gradual reduction of hemicellulose content. The authors derived three reasons for this phenomenon – (a) increase of α-cellulose concentration and primary -OH groups which are responsible for the attachment of direct dye molecules; (b) lowering of copper number, i.e., aldehyde functionality and (c) increase of fibre fineness. However, the study found out that the removal of lignin would bring about the opposite effect of direct dyeing. Dye exhaustion reduces with the reduced


**Table 1.**

*Dye uptake of jute fibre dyed with direct dyes under different pH of dye baths.*

*Colorimetric Analysis to Study the Dyeing Behaviour of Jute Textiles Using Selective Synthetic… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114235*

concentration of lignin in jute fibres because of an increase in the copper number and carboxyl content in jute fibres.

The curing of dyed textile materials after dyeing has an impact of fixation of dyes into fibres. It was found that curing at 150°C gives the optimum fixation (88%) of direct dyes applied on jute-cotton union fabrics [7]. Panday et al. established a combined method of bleaching and direct dyeing of jute, thus reducing the cost and time of processing [8].

Though there are a few studies on the dyeing behaviour of direct dyes on jute, these studies were all focused on dyeing by a single dye. The behaviour of dyeing done by a mixture of direct dyes on jute was not discussed in those studies. But that is a practical aspect as industrial dyeing is generally mixing two or more dyes altogether. Such a study on dyeing of jute by direct dyes was done by Samanta et al., where six binary mixtures of six direct dyes were applied on jute and their dyeing behaviour and compatibility were studied [9]. The compatibility of dyes was analysed in the conventional method and a new method based on the colour difference index (CDI). It was found that the binary mixture of Direct Green YG (CI Direct Green 513) and Direct Turquoise Blue 2R (CI Direct Blue 199) has the highest compatibility among the pairs for dyeing of jute.

#### **3. Dyeing of jute with acid dyes**

Acid dyes generally possess sulphonic acid groups and become negative in water. This dye has relatively low molecular mass. This dye has some structural similarities with direct dye as being DSO3Na where anionic DSO3- generates the colour. However, they have dissimilarities – acid dyeing being nonplanar and smaller in molecular size, while direct dyes being planar and large in molecular size. This dye has been classified into three groups based on the application process:


This dye is substantive to silk, wool, and polyamide and has no substantivity to cellulose. But acid dyes have moderate to good substantivity to jute. This substantivity is attributed to the presence of nonplanar and amorphous lignin structure. However, as reported above, the study by Ganguly et al. found that the gradual removal of lignin affects the acid dye uptake adversely [6]. This is due to the increase of carboxyl content which affects the absorption of acid dyes on jute. But for hemicellulose, it is not so simple. The exhaustion of acid dye is lower than that of dewaxed jute fibre at low doses of removal of hemicelluloses, but it increases at higher removal of hemicellulose. It may be attributed to the high carboxyl content upon low removal of hemicellulose.

Though many studies on acid dyeing of jute are not available, an important study by Bhaumik et al. discussed the role of cationization of jute by the application of soya seed extract on the dyeing of acid, direct and reactive dyes [12]. As these are anionic, the dyebath needs to have an electrolyte to neutralise the negative charge generated on the jute fibre immersed in water. Cationization fulfilled the purposes and neutralised the negative charge, thus enabling salt-free dyeing of jute by anionic dyes.

Most of the acid dyes show poor wash fastness on jute, even by mild rinsing in cold water, though some acid dyes are moderately fast. But metal complex dyes have excellent wash and light fastness and therefore are most suitable for jute. Some metal complex dyes retard photofading of jute under sunlight, by UV quenching action.

#### **4. Dyeing of jute with basic dyes**

Basic dyes are cationic in nature. This class of dye is of low cost and provides brilliant shades, but it has poor to medium colour fastness to light. Many basic dyes are destroyed by chlorine, so chlorine-free water must be used in dyeing with basic dyes. This dye needs a suitable retarder for uniform dyeing for having high substantivity to acrylic or wool fibres. The retarder is not essential but is optional for dyeing jute with basic dyes. However, the metal ions present in jute fibres might change the shade of jute material dyed basic dyes, so a chelating agent like EDTA can be used to remove the metal ions present in water or in the jute itself.

A study on the optimum dyeing conditions for dyeing jute with basic dyes has been reported in the literature by Farouqui and Hossain [13].

#### **5. Dyeing of jute with reactive dyes**

Reactive dyes though being anionic in nature dye textile fibres in a way different than direct dyes. Reactive dyes react with fibres by forming covalent bonds, thus making the bond strength between the fibre and the dye stronger than the one formed in the dyeing of jute with direct dyes. So, the colour strength and colour fastness properties of the reactive-dyed jute textiles are better than jute textiles dyed with direct, acid and basic dyes.

Several studies have been conducted on reactive dyeing of jute fibres [14–20]. The effects of electrolytes on the dyeing behaviour have been examined [21]. Aluminium sulphate, alum, sodium sulphate, sodium chloride, etc. have been used for reactive dyeing of jute. Among them, aluminium sulphate is found to have yielded the highest absorption of reactive dyes by jute fibres. Alum, sodium sulphate and sodium chloride followed in succession. Similarly, aluminium sulphate achieves the highest colour fastness to light and wash for the jute material dyed by reactive dyes.

Jute can be dyed with all types of reactive dyes such as hot brand, cold brand, vinyl sulphone and high exhaustion reactive dyes. The choice of type of reactive dye depends on the shade and colour fastness needed. A study by Chattopadhyay et al. analysed the reusability of reactive dyes on jute. It was found that jute fabric can be dyed with good exhaustion if it is dyed in a separate original bath [22]. The exhaustion of dyes at the reused bath is very low for hot brand and high exhaustion reactive dyes.

When the effect of concentration of an electrolyte on the properties of the dyed jute was studied, it was found that Glauber's salt (hydrated sodium sulphate) at 25 g/L concentration achieved the best dyeing results [23].

The comparative performance of the dyeing behaviour of jute with basic dyes and reactive dyes was studied. It was found that the colour strength of the dyed jute dyed

*Colorimetric Analysis to Study the Dyeing Behaviour of Jute Textiles Using Selective Synthetic… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114235*

with basic dyes was higher than the one dyed with reactive dyes with the same concentrations of dyes. The reasons for this may be attributed to the higher exhaustion of basic dyes than reactive dyes. However, the colour fastness of jute dyed with basic dyes is lower than the fastness of reactive-dyed jute due to the higher bond strength of fibres and dye.

Several studies have focused on the improvement of dyeability of reactive dyeing of jute [15–18]. The application of some specific chemicals on jute before reactive dyeing has been found to be productive, enabling the fibres absorb more amount of dyes and achieve higher exhaustion with higher colour strength supported by colourimetric analysis of K/S values and ΔE values. The effect of pretreatment of reactive dyeing of jute was studied by Chattopadyay et al. [19], while the comparative assessment of different reactive dyes on jute and cotton was studied by Sinha and Roy Maulik [20].

Compatibility of soya-based natural aminio acid-modified cationic jute in between a pair of a binary mixture of reactive dyes is also reported in the literature for improving reactive dye exhaustion without salt and colour fastness to washing by Samanta et al. [16].

#### **6. Dyeing of jute with natural dyes**

Dyeing of textiles with natural dyes can be carried out in an alkaline bath, acidic bath or neutral bath. There are various reports available on different methods of mordanting and dyeing for the application of natural dyes on different fibres such as cellulosic, protein and synthetic fibres. These studies have been widely available and studied as presented in different literature. Jute is a ligno-cellulosic fibre having different functionalities, but with a high degree of crystallinity and high degree of orientation. These multiple functionalities make jute to be somewhat susceptible to dyeing with natural dyes. Still, application of mordants and modification of jute fibres are essential for better dyeing of jute fibres with most of the anionic natural dyes.

Few reports are available on chemical modifications of cotton textiles for improvement of its dyeability using synthetic and natural dyes [24–38]. However, such studies, particularly for the application of natural dyes on jute or chemically modified jute, are rare and sporadic.

There is a study [25] describing the chemical modification of the jute substrate with acrylamide monomer and post-dyeing treatment with cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) for investigating their effects on dyeing properties with natural dyes such as turmeric (haldi) and madder (manjistha) substantiated with appropriate colourimetric analysis. A few studies were conducted to analyse the compatibility of dyeing of jute with various natural dyes in binary mixtures. It was found that the decreasing order of the change in chroma values of the pairs is (annatto + pomegranate) > (annatto + marigold) > (annatto + onion) and the decreasing order of the change in hue values of the pairs is (A + O) > (A + M) > (A + P). The wash fastness values for the (A + P) pair for 50:50 and 75:25 proportions are the best results [29]. The after-treatment with chitosan and CTAB improved the wash fastness by 1 grade. The application of 1% benzotriazole improved the light fastness by 1 grade for all three binary pairs. The results of the nonconventional compatibility tests were in good agreement with the results of the conventional method of plot comparisons. As per the RCR system, the compatibility grades of (A + O), (A + P) and (A + M) pairs are poor, fair and fair, respectively.

Another study [33] found that 10% harda (myrobolan) + 10% potash alum dual pre-mordanting of bleached jute fabric has the best results for colour yield (K/S

values), dye uniformity (CV% of K/S values) and lower CDI (less variation or minimum dispersion of surface colour values) than that obtained by all other mordant combinations used in this study. After treatments with selective eco-safe chemical cationic dye fixing agents such as CTAB, cetrimide and also Sandofix-HCF (commercially available cationic dye fixer for comparison), it renders ½ to 1 degree of wash fastness rating due to forming salt linkages between natural dye anion in alkaline medium and cationic dye fixing agents, where CTAB is a quaternary ammonium type cation compound, while cetrimide is an amide as a potential cationiser, both of them perform equally good in improving wash fastness for all types of natural dyes applied on dual pre-mordanted jute. However, in some cases, the performance of CTAB is better than CTAB, due to differences in Pka values and cationization potential; both criteria are higher for CTAB than cetrimide. Treatment with 1% benzotriazole as an UV-absorber was reported earlier for both bleached and dyed jute cloth dyed with synthetic dyes (direct and reactive dyes) and is known to improve the light fastness by nearly one unit.

A very recent study on the statistical optimization of dyeing jute fabric with marigold petals has been reported by Chakraborty et al. [2], for obtaining more uniform dyeing on jute using alum and also by suitable double pre-mordanting system, suggesting the reaction mechanism too.

#### **7. Improvement of colour fastness to wash and light by the application of cationic dye-fixing agents and UV-absorbers**

Jute materials dyed with natural dyes tend to show poor to moderate colour fastness to wash and light, and this drawback can be corrected to some extent. Materials can be treated with several chemical auxiliaries to obtain high colour fastness to wash and light after dyeing with natural dyes. Several researchers have carried out important studies in this field.

Jute is generally treated with cetrimide, CTAB (cetyl-trimethyl ammonium bromide), for achieving increased colour fastness to wash. These chemicals make a bridge between dye molecules, thus rendering them difficult to leach out during washing. A new study showed the effect of CTAB and chitosan on jute fabrics dyed with annatto seeds. The application of 1% (owf) chitosan improved the colour fastness to washing by ½ grade and 2% CTAB improved the fastness by 1 grade. The application of 1% (owf) benzotriazole (a UV-absorber) improves the colour fastness to light of jute-dyed fabric dyed with different natural dyes by 1 grade [38].

Some chemical treatments before and after dyeing of jute with direct, acid, basic and reactive dyes are reported. Improvement of colour fastness to light of jute fabric dyed with direct dyes through after-treatment with copper sulfate and potassium dichromate is reported by Panday et al. [9], while Sarwaz et al. [11] reported the improvement in colour fastness to washing jute fabric dyed with direct dyes by treating them with various cationic dye-fixing agents. It shows that application of cationic agents after dyeing produces better fastness than the application done before dyeing.

#### **8. Conclusions**

Jute as an agro-renewable hard fibre has multiple application areas in technical textiles. Though it is still used mainly in packaging, its properties need to be studied *Colorimetric Analysis to Study the Dyeing Behaviour of Jute Textiles Using Selective Synthetic… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114235*

more to bring about more diversified usages of this fibre with the help of proper scientific intervention to produce new products of woven, nonwoven, composites of jute. The fibre is abundantly cultivated in India, Bangladesh, and other South Asian countries.

The present article has shed significant light on the dyeing behaviour of jute and its bottlenecks. Colouration of jute textiles is an important area of research and development for the manufacture of potential end-products in global markets. Dyeing of jute with direct dyes and basic dyes is economic and possesses a wide range of shades, but this suffers from having low colour fastness to wash and light. Some works have been narrated here to overcome the obstacles of these dyes. Reactive dyes being colour-fast and possessing good shades are costlier than direct, acid and basic dyes.

As jute is an eco-friendly fibre, this special aspect of the fibre can only be enhanced if it is dyed with eco-friendly natural dyes. Here, dyeing of jute with natural dyes has been discussed, and suitable after-treatment processes to overcome the low colour fastness associated with natural dyeing have been mentioned.

#### **Author details**

Ritwik Chakraborty\* and Ayan Pal Department of Jute and Fibre Technology, University of Calcutta, Ballygunge Campus, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

\*Address all correspondence to: ritwik.chak@gmail.com

© 2024 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

[1] Samanta AK, Mukhopadhyay A, Ghosh SK. Processing of jute fibres and its applications. In: Kowzłowski R, Mackiewicz-Talarczyk M, editors. Handbook of Natural Fibres: Processing and Applications. Vol. 2. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Woodhead Publishing; 2020

[2] Chakraborty R, Samanta AK, Vankar PS. Statistical optimization of process variables for the dyeing of jute with marigold petals using a dual mordant system. American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists Journal of Research. 2024;**11**(1):20-36

[3] Samanta AK, Das D. Studies on quantitative colour measurement of direct dyed jute fabric in relation to computerized colour matching. Journal of Institution of Engineers (India): Series E. 1992;**73**:53-57

[4] Mondal MIH, Islam MK. Effect of pH on the dye absorption of jute fibre dyed with direct dyes. Oriental Journal of Chemistry. 2014;**30**(4):1571-1575

[5] Farouqui FI, Hossain I. Dyeing of jute fabric with direct dyes and their fastness characteristics. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 1990;**15**:65-72

[6] Ganguly PK, Chanda S. Dyeing of jute: Effect of progressive removal of hemicellulose and lignin. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 1994;**19**(1):38-41

[7] Chowdhury N, Iqbal SMF, Saifullah K, Chowdhury TA, Khatun M. Study on continuous dyeing of jute-cotton union fabric with direct dye. Saudi Journal of Engineering & Technology. 2021;**6**(6):139-142

[8] Panday SN, Chattopadhyay SN, Day A, Pan NC. Single bath bleachingdyeing of jute fabric with hydrogen peroxide-direct dye combination. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 1994;**19**(1):34-37

[9] Panday SN, Day A, Chattopadhyay SN, Pan NC, Mathew MD. Effects of after treatments on direct dyed jute fabrics. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 1993;**18**(3):87-90

[10] Samanta AK, Bhaumik N, Konar A, Roy AN. Studies on compatibility of selective direct dyes for dyeing of jute fabric. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 2019;**44**(1):98-106

[11] Sarwar Z, Azeem A, Munir U, Abid S. Direct dyeing of jute: Effect of cationic treatments on color fastness. Journal of Textile Science & Engineering. 2017;**7**(2):1-4

[12] Bhaumik N, Konar A, Roy AN, Samanta AK. Comparative studies on dyeability with direct, acid and reactive dyes after chemical modification of jute with mixed amino acids obtained from extract of waste soya bean seeds. Journal of Institution of Engineers (India): Series E. 2017;**98**(2):121-133

[13] Hossain I, Farouqui FI. Study on the optimum dyeing conditions in dyeing jute with basic dyes and their fastness under various influences. Textile Dyer & Printer. 1990;**23**:28-32

[14] Samanta AK, Chakarbarti Mukherjee S, Guharoy TK. Dyeing of jute fibre with reactive dyes: Optimization of process variables and assessment of colour fastness characteristics. Journal of

*Colorimetric Analysis to Study the Dyeing Behaviour of Jute Textiles Using Selective Synthetic… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.114235*

Institution of Engineers (India): Series E. 2012;**93**(1):15-24

[15] Samanta AK, Konar A, Kar TR, Chakraborty S. Effects of amino-acid modification of jute fabric on its textile related properties and dyeability with selective reactive dyes. International Review of Applied Engineering Research. 2014;**4**(1):51-67

[16] Samanta AK, Bhaumik NS, Konar A, Shome D, Roy AN. Studies on reactive dyeing of natural amino acid modified cationized jute fabric: Colour interaction parameters and colour fastness properties. Journal of Materials, ASSCIT, USA. 2015;**1**(4):89-97

[17] Samanta AK, Kar TR, Mukhopadhyay A, Konar A, Shome D. Studies on dyeing process variables for salt free reactive dyeing of glycine (amino acid) modified cationized cotton muslin fabric. Journal of Institution of Engineers (India)-Series-E. 2015;**96**(1):31-44

[18] Samanta AK, Konar A, Mukherjee S. Salt-free reactive dyeing of amino-acid modified jute. Indian Journal of Natural Fibre (TINFS). 2014;**1**(1):15-28

[19] Chattapadhyay SN, Pan NC, Day A. Ambient temperature bleaching and reactive dyeing of jute: The effects of pretreatment, bleaching and dyeing methods. Journal Textile Institute. 2002;**93**:306-315

[20] Sinha DK, Roy Maulik S. Comparative studies on dyeing of jute and cotton with different classes of reactive dyestuffs. Textile Trend. 2002;**45**(7):25

[21] Salam MA, Sheik RK, Farouqui FI. Effect of salts on dyeing into jute with reactive, direct, basic and mordant

dyes. Journal of Textile and Apparel Technology & Management. 2009;**6**(2):1-6

[22] Chattopadhyay SN, Pan NC, Day A. Reuse of reactive dyes for dyeing of jute fabric. Bioresource Technology. 2006;**97**:77-83

[23] Rahman MM, Biswas J. Effects of salt in dyeing of jute fabric with reactive and basic dye. International Journal of Latest Trends in Engineering and Technology. 2019;**13**(3):39-43

[24] Samanta AK, Singhee D, Sengupta A, Rahim SK. Application of selective natural dyes on jute and cotton by different techniques. Journal of Institution of Engineers (India): Series E. 2003;**83**:22-33

[25] Samanta AK, Agarwal P, Datta S. Physico-chemical studies on dyeing of jute textiles with natural dye extracted from red sandal wood. Journal of Institution of Engineers (India): Series-E. 2006;**87**:16-26

[26] Samanta AK, Agarwal P, Datta S. Dyeing of jute and cotton fabrics using jackfruit wood extract: Part 1: Effects of mordanting and dyeing process variables on colour yield and colour fastness properties. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 2007;**32**:466-476

[27] Samanta AK, Agarwal P, Datta S. Physico-chemical studies on dyeing of jute and cotton fabrics using jackfruit wood extract as natural dye: Part II: Dyeing kinetics and thermodynamic studies. Indian Journal of Fibre & Textile Research. 2008;**32**:66-72

[28] Samanta AK, Agarwal P. Application of Mixtures of Red Sandal Wood and Other Natural Dyes for Dyeing Jute Fabric - Studies on Dye Compatibility. International Dyers; 2008. pp. 37-42

[29] Chakraborty R, Samanta AK, Vankar PS. Studies of compatibility of dyeing of jute with binary mixture of natural dyes. International Journal of Innovative Research in Science Engineering & Technology. 2022;**11**(11):13424-13429

[30] Chakraborty R, Samanta AK, Vankar PS, Samanta P. Review on extraction, Mordanting and application of natural dyes on jute. Current Trends in Fashion Technology & Textile Engineering. 2022;**7**(4):1-10

[31] Samanta AK, Agarwal P, Datta S. Dyeing of jute with binary mixture of jackfruit wood and other natural dyes - Studies on colour performance and dye compatibility. Indian Journal Fibre & Textile Research. 2008;**33**:171-180

[32] Samanta AK, Agarwal P. Review on application of natural dyes on textile materials. Indian Journal Fibre & Textile Research. 2009;**34**(4):384-399

[33] Samanta AK, Singhee D, Agarwal P, Datta S. Application of single and mixture of red sandal wood and other natural dyes for dyeing of jute fabric: Studies on colour parameters/colour fastness and compatibility. Journal Textile Institute. 2009;**100**:565-587

[34] Samanta AK, Agarwal P, Datta S. Studies on colour strength related parameters and compatibility for dyeing of cotton fabrics with binary mixtures of jackfruit wood and other natural dyes. Journal of Natural Fibres. 2009;**6**:27-45

[35] Samanta AK, Agarwal P, Datta S. Studies on colour interaction parameters and colour fastness properties for dyeing of cotton fabrics with mixture of jackfruit wood and other natural dyes. Journal of Natural Fibres. 2009;**6**:171-190

[36] Samanta AK, Agarwal P, Konar A, Datta S. Characterisation and application of purified selective natural dyes on jute. International Dyer. 2008;**193**(3):25-33

[37] Chakraborty R, Samanta AK, Vankar PS. Dyeing of jute with annatto seeds and other natural dyes – Studies of compatibility and other parameters. Indian Journal of Fibre and Textiles Research. 2023

[38] Chakraborty R, Samanta AK, Vankar PS. Functionalization of jute to improve colour yield and fastness for dyeing with annatto seeds. In: Proceedings of Third International Conference on Functional Textiles and Clothing 2023. USA: Springer Publisher; 2023

### *Edited by Ashis Kumar Samanta*

*Advances in Colorimetry* covers the fundamentals of the science of the measurement of color. It is organized into six sections: "Advanced Methods and Tools for Color Measuring and Matching," "Fundamentals and Applications of Colorimetric Analysis," "Applications of Colorimetric Analysis for Forensic and Defence Industry," "Applications of Colorimetric Analysis for Food Industry," "Applications of Colorimetric Analysis for Agriculture, Environmental, Medical and Pharmaceutical Industries," and "Applications of Colorimetric Analysis for Textiles and Apparel Industry." Chapters in these sections address colorimetric-related topics such as advances in colorimetric evaluation techniques for color measuring and matching, spectrophotometric color analysis, forensic analysis of bloodstain color, colorimetric characterization of natural dyes, and much more.

Published in London, UK © 2024 IntechOpen © vsijan / nightcafe.studio

Advances in Colorimetry

Advances in Colorimetry

*Edited by Ashis Kumar Samanta*