**2. Characteristics of PDCA metacognitive learning strategy**

PDCA metacognitive learning strategy is developed by combining metacognition theory with the concept of *quality assurance* based on relevant learning theories as described in the theoretical rational section. According to [35], a model/strategy can be used/applied to achieve goals if it meets four special characteristics, namely: (1) the design is prepared with logical theoretical rationales, (2) there is a rationale about the learning objectives to be achieved, (3) teacher and students activities are illustrated in learning so that the strategy can be implemented effectively, and (4) the learning environment needed so that the learning objectives can be achieved.

### **2.1 Rational**

According to cognitive learning theory (Peaget), the learning process occurs in four stages: assimilation, accommodation, organization, and association (new balance). At the assimilation stage, students receive new information that is being

### *Perspective Chapter: Metacognitive Learning Strategy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113919*

studied, which leads to an imbalance of existing cognitive structures (schematics). In the accommodation phase, students match the new information with existing cognitive structures. At the organizational stage, there is an adjustment of new cognitive structures due to the interaction between schematics and new information received, while in the final stage, new cognitive structures are formed as a result of learning.

The accommodation process can occur if the new information received by students is not something new at all, but there is information related to information that has been mastered/learned before, which is called initial knowledge or prior *knowledge*. Prior knowledge is all the knowledge that students have when entering a learning environment that is potentially relevant to acquiring new knowledge [11]. Prior knowledge can also be expressed as all the knowledge that students have, both knowledge about content (content), strategies, and personal knowledge when the person concerned will learn new material.

Prior knowledge is an important factor influencing learning [12]. Prior knowledge is an important variable because it is the foundation for learning achievement in optimal learning. Optimal learning occurs when the material learned is compatible with the prior knowledge. In other words, students can learn well if the prior knowledge/prerequisites have been mastered. Differences in prior knowledge are an important source of individual differences in the classroom. Students who have a prior knowledge of procedural and declarative knowledge (part of metacognitive knowledge) are stronger in a topic, then the student is able to learn new information better in that topic [36].

The results showed a correlation between the quantity and quality of prior knowledge with the acquisition of knowledge and high-level problem-solving abilities. Prior knowledge can explain 81% of the variance in final test scores [37]. If the student's prior knowledge is not suitable and does not match, it will be able to hinder the learning process.

Prior knowledge affects learning achievement in three ways [38]. First, prior knowledge has a direct effect by facilitating the learning process thus leading to better learning outcomes. Second, prior knowledge affects indirectly by optimizing the clarity of teaching material. Third, prior knowledge indirectly affects learning outcomes by optimizing study and learning time.

Prior knowledge is also a very important variable in the view of educational psychology. The knowledge a person has is largely determined by what has been learned and remembered [39]. Understanding is the best manifestation as a result of the interaction between the content learned and prior knowledge. Prior knowledge directly facilitates the learning process and leads to better learning outcomes. Prior knowledge indirectly optimizes the clarity of teaching materials and the use of study time. Prior knowledge and access to relevant cognitive structures enhance learning acquisition. Prior knowledge is a better predictor of learning outcomes compared to intelligence [40, 41].

If students associate appropriate knowledge, they already have with the material being studied, their understanding will increase. Good learners always try to associate what is being learned with what is already known. If the teacher can facilitate these activities before, during, and after the lesson then the teacher has taught critical understanding strategies. Good learners use these abilities unconsciously (happen automatically). The use of such strategies explicitly results in deep understanding and results in independent learners. If students learn by relating their experiences to the material being studied, they have a foundation and help, from which they can place new facts, ideas, and concepts that are being learned.

If the student activates and associates prior knowledge with the material studied, then the student performs activities using an organizer graph, such as concept map or flow chart to map his thoughts. Often students associate with journals, where students record thoughts, feelings, insights, and questions about the material being studied. Students can discuss and write the connections they make in small or large groups.

Prior knowledge encourages meaningful learning. According to Ausubel and Piaget [12], meaningful learning occurs when what students learn is not something new at all. This means that within the cognitive structure of the student, there has been an understanding of the concepts related to what is learned (prior knowledge). In order for students to obtain meaningful learning, students must know the purpose of learning a material and know what prior knowledge is needed/mastered beforehand. A very important role of the teacher is to create a learning situation to make students aware of the relationship so that the learning experienced by students becomes meaningful learning.

Prior knowledge is an important component for happening of meaningful learning. Meaningful learning occurs if three main components are fulfilled, namely: (1) students must have prior knowledge to master new knowledge, (2) new knowledge must be meaningfully relevant to the knowledge they already have, and (3) students "must be aware" and deliberately connect new knowledge with knowledge that has been previously possessed [42, 43]. Learning is meaningfully opposite to rote learning, where new concepts learned are not related to each other, but only memorized so that there is no transfer process.

Learning in the classroom not only presents the material being studied but also prepares suitable physical conditions during the learning process so that the transfer process occurs, namely applying the knowledge that has been obtained into new relevant situations. Failure of the transfer process will lead to failure of thinking [44]. Metacognition is a cognitive approach to facilitate transfer. Transfer learning includes cognition, teaching, and reasoning, which is a creative activity with unlimited potential to influence the way learning is perceived.

The results of research in the field of metacognition recognize a new approach to transfer, namely a strategy where students ask questions of themselves known as selfreflection about the learning process. Lemons et al. [45] developed a design called a learning community that aims, among others, to improve learning outcomes and their application. Students are involved in studying modules in groups and various group discussions designed to increase students' active involvement and participation in the learning process.

According to the constructivist view, knowledge construction and learning occur when students engage in activities that produce products or works. Students will be more interested in engaging in learning if what is learned (the product produced) is personally relevant and meaningful in their daily lives [46].

One important aspect in educational psychology is that teachers must facilitate students to construct their own knowledge [31] so that the most suitable learning is active learning. Metacognitive strategy is one of the applications of active learning that facilitates students to reflect on their learning process to achieve learning goals [47].

One of the principles of student-centered learning psychology says that successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulated, and responsible for their learning [48]. These activities are depicted in metacognitive strategies. According to Vygotsky, knowledge is constructed when students engage socially in discussion, experimentation, and experience [48], interacting with media that culturally help shape their understanding [44].

*Perspective Chapter: Metacognitive Learning Strategy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113919*

In the learning process, teachers must present a learning environment that allows students to construct their own knowledge [49]. The learning environment largely determines whether students can be mentally actively engaged or not. A good learning environment encourages transfer between content domains and also between learning situations and daily life [50]. The teacher's activity in learning largely determines whether students can learn well and determines the quality of learning. Teachers are not only required to have pedagogical knowledge of teaching methods and content knowledge about the topics taught but also must master pedagogical content knowledge (*PCK = pedagogical content knowledge*), that is. awareness of how students build knowledge in a particular content domain [51].

The strategy of delivering and reviewing material little by little, which is carried out periodically allows material to be transferred to long-term memory and reduces the burden of piling up before the exam [13]. At this stage, students check/monitor/ review whether the planned learning strategy has taken place as expected. Whether the chosen strategy is effective enough to be used to solve the task. This activity is a self-reflection on learning activities associated with plans that have been prepared at an early stage (*preparing*). Monitoring activities during the learning process, testing, revising, and evaluating the effectiveness of the strategies used is one of the efforts to direct learning [52]. Students relate and associate concepts that exist to subordinate elements in their cognitive structure. At this stage, there is an organization of new information that is adjusted to the information already owned in the cognitive structure so that new understanding is formed.

Monitoring comprehension and evaluating progress toward task completion are metacognitive activities [53]. Monitoring includes assessment of learning, understanding, and strategies used [54]. A good learner is a reflective learner, who is able to think deeply and critically about his own learning [55].

Assessment of learning outcomes has a role, among others, to help students find out learning outcomes. Based on the assessment of learning outcomes, teachers and students can obtain information about learning weaknesses and strengths. By knowing their weaknesses and strengths, teachers and students have a clear direction on what needs to be improved and can reflect on what they are doing in learning. In addition, for students, it is possible to transfer their learning methods to overcome their weaknesses*.* Assessment of learning outcomes by teachers has a function to monitor learning progress, monitor learning outcomes, and detect the need for continuous improvement of student learning outcomes.

Assessment is one part of the metacognitive setting [56]. Assessing outcomes according to efficiency and effectiveness criteria is one way of directing learning [57]. Successful learners are learners who focus on learning objectives. Monitoring goal achievement is part of the *self-regulated learning* model [34].

In the context of *standard-based education,* competency-based curriculum*, and* mastery learning *approach* assessment of learning processes and outcomes are parameters for the minimum level of competency achievement. For this reason, various approaches, strategies, methods, techniques, and learning models need to be developed to facilitate students to easily learn and achieve optimal learning success.

Follow-up activities (*following-up*) are carried out to strengthen students' understanding of the material that has been learned. This activity can be in the form of making summaries, concept maps, or other assignments that match the characteristics of the material. Included in this stage is to use the understanding that has been gained to plan activities in the next learning so that the learning packages carried out by students are learning cycles (four stages of learning).

### **2.2 Social system**

The social system built in PDCA metacognitive learning is a social system that allows multidirectional communication (teacher-student, student-student, studentmedia, student-learning resource) that the teacher seeks so that students are actively involved in learning to find and interpret as many facts as possible so that there can be construction of understanding by students. In order for the social system to be formed, learning is designed from the beginning (*by design).* For example, relevant teaching materials are prepared, appropriate media are used, and in group learning a cooperative group is formed. Teachers facilitate the learning atmosphere in groups and in the classroom so that mutual honing and nurturing learning occurs, and there is a healthy climate of competition between groups, so that students' reasoning skills can develop.

The social system built into learning is based on cooperative learning, meaning that each student engages and cooperates in learning to achieve a common goal. Each student learns from each other and depends on each other to master the concepts learned. Teachers/lecturers play a role in encouraging the creation of these conditions. The involvement of teachers/lecturers in learning is as a facilitator so that active learning occurs.

### **2.3 Response principle**

The response given at each step of learning is to assist students in constructing and expressing their conceptions. If there are questions asked by students, the teacher/ lecturer does not answer the question directly but students are guided by guiding questions to explore understanding and help students construct concepts. Teachers/ lecturers also need to encourage students to question their understanding to themselves (*self-questions*) in an effort to monitor and evaluate their learning.

### **2.4 Support system**

Every component of learning that supports metacognitive learning must be pursued and facilitated by teachers/lecturers. The system/conditions created by teachers/ lecturers should encourage students to be ready to learn, set learning goals, choose appropriate learning methods, set study times, be actively involved in learning, and monitor and evaluate learning. Teachers/lecturers need to have an understanding related to the processes and strategies that support meaningful learning. For this reason, it is necessary to master the theory of meaningful learning [12], constructivism theory, active student learning models *(active* learning), and self-regulated learning theory (*self-regulated learning*).

### **2.5 Goals**

The development of PDCA metacognitive learning strategy aims to provide meaningful learning experiences for students in order to construct their understanding in learning new material so that their learning outcomes are better.

### **2.6 Activities of teachers/lecturers and students in learning**

PDCA metacognitive learning strategy was developed based on a constructivist approach, which is a student-centered learning strategy. This learning strategy consists of 4 (four) stages, namely *preparing (P),* doing *(D),* checking *(C), and* 

*assessing & following-up* (A) abbreviated as *PDCA.* Learning steps are arranged based on metacognitive theory and steps in the *quality assurance* process so that the flow of learning activities experienced by students is a planned, organized, and monitored learning experience to provide opportunities for students to control their learning and construct their understanding deeply.

The learning steps that have been prepared are used as a reference for compiling learning tools. Based on the results of the development that has been carried out, the stages of the strategy as shown in **Figure 1** are obtained. An explanation of each step in PDCA metacognitive learning strategy is described as follows.

### *2.6.1 Preparing*

This stage aims to prepare students to participate in classroom learning. Before learning in class, teachers/lecturers provide teaching materials/hand-outs to students, and students are asked to preview the material to be learned by reading the material while marking important parts, underlining, summarizing, reading, and interpreting pictures/tables/graphs that are useful for students when participating in classroom learning. Through previews, students can recognize patterns and increase interest and courage to ask questions.

According to the model [58], at this stage, students check their learning environment to understand the profile of the assignment given. The profile intrinsically blends perceptions of purpose and attitudes about the task [59] and other motivational information, such as decisions about self-efficacy. The result of this stage is an idiosyncratic description of the task according to the student (learner). After framing the task, the learner sets goals and a work plan to complete the task. Next, students choose strategies and ways to complete the task. The *preparation* stage aims to mentally prepare students to receive the new material learned. At this stage, it is also agreed what activities will be carried out in learning.

### *2.6.2 Doing (study)*

At this stage, students are involved in learning activities that have been designed and used in the previous stage. Teachers/lecturers facilitate students to be actively involved in learning through discussions, questions and answers, completing assignments, presentations, and or making concept maps/*mind-maps*. Through these activities, students construct their understanding with the guidance of teachers/ lecturers. According to learning, the introduction of concepts is easier for students to understand if elaborated and developed from general concepts (global) to smaller/ simpler concepts.

In order for directed learning teachers/lecturers provide discussion sheets or provide problems for students to discuss/solve in groups. According to Vygotsky's theory, students learn through interaction with others or peers who are more capable [31]. Through group learning, it is hoped that mutual learning can occur between friends in groups or between groups. Teachers/lecturers monitor student learning activities, and direct learning and help students if they experience difficulties.

### *2.6.3 Checking (monitoring)*

In this step, students are facilitated to check/review their learning. Reviews are conducted immediately after learning or even during learning to help students

identify overlapping materials between those obtained in class and those read in books, correct any misconceptions discussed in class, and determine whether appropriate assistance and planning are needed. In this step, students also check whether the chosen method or way of learning is appropriate. This step can overlap with the previous step, meaning it can be done together with the previous step.

### *2.6.4 Assessing and following-up*

At this stage, an assessment of performance/learning outcomes of learning tasks is carried out. In addition, the arrangement of emotional responses related to learning outcomes and experiences is also carried out. Teachers/lecturers need to anticipate cognitive conflicts by arranging the relationship of concepts through a conceptual hierarchy.

Assessment helps students find out their learning outcomes (*outcomes*), which are expressed in the form of learning objectives that have been formulated at the beginning of learning. The results of the assessment can be used by teachers/lecturers and students to obtain information about the strengths and weaknesses of learning that has been done so that a clear direction is known about what must be improved and can reflect on what is done in learning.

The end of this step is the follow-up carried out by teachers/lecturers with students, for example, whether additional tasks are needed, whether remedial learning is needed, or can be continued for the next material. If the final conclusion is chosen, the learning plan starts from the first step as before so that the four steps repeat as a cycle.

The four steps in PDCA metacognitive learning strategy facilitate students to organize their learning well starting from planning/*preparing, doing*, *monitoring,* and *evaluating*. If the four stages can be done well, student learning becomes a complete learning activity by activating all the components of metacognition it has. These three components of metacognition skills allow students to facilitate learning and their abilities [28]. Empirical studies show that students who learn *metacognitively* show better results than those who do not. The more students are aware of the effectiveness of their learning strategies, the higher their learning outcomes [60]. Individuals who have a high level of metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive skills are able to recognize parts of learning as soon as possible and change their tools or strategies to achieve goals [61].

### **2.7 The learning environment necessary to achieve goals**

The important thing that teachers/lecturers must do in implementing PDCA metacognitive learning strategies is to create conditions or learning environments that allow the four steps in learning to be carried out properly. Before learning activities (pre-learning) teachers/lecturers need to convey about the role of students in metacognitive learning. In this activity, students are oriented to determine learning objectives, review learning materials, identify the necessary prior knowledge, choose a suitable way of learning, identify important concepts, and make a list of questions.

During classroom learning activities, students must be actively involved in learning. Concept construction by students occurs through active learning activities (discussions, questions and answers, lab activities, presentations) that are well-planned, so as to create meaningful learning. The role of teachers/lecturers

*Perspective Chapter: Metacognitive Learning Strategy DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.113919*

is to facilitate learning activities so that active learning activities can take place in a directed manner. Learning tasks given by teachers/lecturers must stimulate students to be active in activities. The role of teachers/lecturers is to encourage and direct students to play an active role in learning and strive to achieve the goals that have been set. Facilitating learning activities, such as this requires a structured learning environment so that students can construct their understanding based on the prior knowledge they have and with the meaningful learning experience experienced.

An important aspect that must be considered by teachers/lecturers is to facilitate students to evaluate their learning. Through this activity, students evaluate whether the learning goals that have been set have been achieved, whether the learning method chosen is in accordance with the characteristics of the material and learning style, and make decisions about what will be done in the next learning activity.

## **2.8 Theoretical and empirical argumentation stages of PDCA metacognitive learning strategy**

Theoretical and empirical argumentation stages of PDCA metacognitive learning strategies.

is presented in **Table 1**.



### **Table 1.**

*Theoretical and empirical argumentation stages of PDCA metacognitive learning strategy.*
